MOTIVATION AT

WORK

By

Prof. Arvind
Jayant
 Definition of Motivation

Motivation - the process of arousing

and sustaining goal-directed
behavior
 3 Groups of
Motivational Theories
• Internal
• Suggest that variables within the individual give
rise to motivation and behavior
• Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
• Process
• Emphasize the nature of the interaction between
the individual and the environment
• Example: Expectancy theory
• External
• Focus on environmental elements to explain
behavior
• Example: Two-factor theory
 Early Philosophers of
Motivational Theories
• Max Weber—work contributes to salvation;
Protestant work ethic
• Sigmund Freud—delve into the unconscious mind
to better understand a person’s motives and needs
• Adam Smith—“enlightened” self-interest; that
which is in the best interest and benefit to the
individual and to other people
• Frederick Taylor—founder of scientific
management; emphasized cooperation between
management and labor to enlarge company profits
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs

SA
er
rd
Esteem
to
es
gh
hi

Love (Social)
o
tts
we
Lo

Safety & Security

Physiological
 Motivational Theories X &
Y
SA Theory Y - a set of
assumptions of how to
Esteem manage individuals
motivated by higher order
Love (Social) needs
Theory X - a set of
Safety & Security assumptions of how to
manage individuals
Physiological motivated by lower order
needs
 McGregor’s Assumptions
About People Based on Theory X

• Naturally indolent
• Lack ambition, dislike responsibility,
and prefer to be led
• Inherently self-centered and
indifferent to organizational needs
• Naturally resistant to change
• Gullible, not bright, ready dupes

Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957
American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved.
http://www.amanet.org.
 McGregor’s Assumptions
About People Based on Theory Y
• Experiences in organizations result in passive
and resistant behaviors; they are not inherent
• Motivation, development potential, capacity for
assuming responsibility, readiness to direct
behavior toward organizational goals are present
in people
• Management’s task—arrange conditions and
operational methods so people can achieve their
own goals by directing efforts to organizational
goals

Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957.
Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York,
NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org.
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
SA Growth
Esteem

Love (Social)
Relatedness
Safety & Security
Existence
Physiological
 McClelland’s Need Theory:
Need for Achievement

Need for Achievement - a

manifest (easily perceived)
need that concerns
individuals’ issues of
excellence, competition,
challenging goals,
persistence, and
overcoming difficulties
 McClelland’s Need Theory:
Need for Power

Need for Power - a

manifest (easily perceived)
need that concerns an
individual’s need to make an
impact on others, influence
others, change people or
events, and make a
difference in life
 McClelland’s Need Theory:
Need for Affiliation

Need for Affiliation - a

manifest (easily perceived)
need that concerns an
individual’s need to
establish and maintain
warm, close, intimate
relationships with other
people
 3 Motivational Need
Theories
Maslow Alderfer McClelland
Self-actualization Growth Need for
Higher Esteem Achievement
Order self Need for
Needs interpersonal Power
Belongingness
(social & love) Relatedness Need for
Affiliation

Lower Safety & Security

Order
interpersonal
Needs physical Existence
Physiological
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory
Hygiene Factor - work condition related to
dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain
• maintenance factor
• contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied
• contributes to absence of complaints
Motivation Factor - work condition related to
the satisfaction of the need for psychological
growth
• job enrichment
• leads to superior performance & effort
 Motivation–Hygiene
Theory of Motivation
• Company policy & Motivation factors
administration increase job satisfaction
• Supervision
• Interpersonal relations
• Working conditions • Achievement
• Salary • Achievement recognition
• Status • Work itself
• Security • Responsibility
• Advancement
• Growth
Hygiene factors avoid
job dissatisfaction • Salary?
SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.
 Motivation-Hygiene
Combinations

High M Low M
high motivation low motivation
High H
few complaints few complaints
high motivation low motivation
Low H
many complaints many complaints
(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)
 Individual—Organizational
Exchange Relationship
Organization Individual
 Organizational goals  Physiological needs
Contributions Demands

 Departmental objectives  Security needs

 Job tasks  Physical needs
 Developmental
 Company status potential
 Benefits  Employee knowledge
 Income  Employee skills and
abilities
SOURCE: Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill, Inc.
 Adams’s Theory of
Inequity
Inequity - the situation in
which a person perceives he or
she is receiving less than he or
she is giving, or is giving less
than he or she is receiving
 Motivational Theory
of Social Exchange
Person Comparison
other
Equity Outcomes = Outcomes
Inputs Inputs
Negative Outcomes < Outcomes
Inequity Inputs Inputs
Positive Outcomes > Outcomes
Inequity Inputs Inputs
 Strategies for
Resolution of Inequity

• Alter the person’s outcomes

• Alter the person’s inputs
• Alter the comparison other’s outputs
• Alter the comparison other’s inputs
• Change who is used as a comparison other
• Rationalize the inequity
• Leave the organizational situation
 New Perspectives
on Equity Theory

Equity Sensitive
I prefer an equity
ratio equal to that of
my comparison other
 New Perspectives
on Equity Theory

Benevolent I am comfortable
with an equity ratio
less than that of my
comparison other
 New Perspectives
on Equity Theory

Entitled
I am comfortable
with an equity ratio
greater than that of
my comparison other
 Expectancy Theory of
Motivation: Key Constructs

Valence - value or importance placed on a

particular reward

Expectancy - belief that effort leads to

performance

Instrumentality - belief that performance is

related to rewards
 Expectancy Model of
Motivation
Effort
Effort Performance Reward

Perceived effort– Perceived Perceived

performance performance– value of reward
probability reward probability
“If I work hard, “What rewards “What rewards
will I get the job will I get when do I value?”
done?” the job is well
done?”
 3 Causes of
Motivational Problems
• Belief that effort will not result in
performance
• Belief that performance will not result in
rewards
• The value a person places on, or the
preference a person has for, certain
rewards
 Moral Maturity

Moral Maturity - the measure of a

person’s cognitive moral development

Morally mature Morally immature

people behave and act people behave and act
based on universal based on egocentric
ethical principles. motivations.