Earthquake Focal Mechanisms
U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey
Focal Mechanism Solutions
Also called beachball diagrams fault plane solutions Tell us the geometry and mechanism of the fault in a simple diagram Generally reconstructed from waveform data derived from the moment tensor (which is more general), but originally calculated using first motions done here to illustrate the concepts
Examples
USGS
Two steps to understanding
1) The stereographic projection 2) The geometry of first motions and how this is used to define fault motion.
http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/projects/geoweb/participants/dutch/STRUCTGE/sphproj.htm
Stereographic projection
A method of projecting half a sphere onto a circle. e.g. planes cutting vertically through the sphere plot as straight lines
Images from http://www.learninggeoscience.net/free/00071/index.html
Stereonets
A template called a stereonet is used to plot data.
Example plotting planes (e.g. faults)
USGS
Stereonets
Example plotting lines (e.g. ray paths)
USGS
Stereonets
Example pitch (or rake) of a line on a plane (e.g. the slip direction on a fault)
USGS
Refresher on terminology
Slip angle is measured from horizontal (positive for thrusts)
USGS
Energy and Polarity of First Motions
Cox and Hart. Plate Tectonics How it works.
Earthquake on a vertical plane
Edited from Cox and Hart. Plate Tectonics How it works.
Determination of nodal planes
Cox and Hart. Plate Tectonics How it works.
Spreading of the seismic wave
Cox and Hart. Plate Tectonics How it works.
Data on the surface, interpreted in 3D
Cox and Hart. Plate Tectonics How it works.
Take-off angle
The angle (from vertical) that the ray leaves the earthquake = take-off angle
Stein and Wysession, An Introduction to seismology, earthquakes and Earth structure
Azimuth (f) and take-off angle
USGS
Stein and Wysession, An Introduction to seismology, earthquakes and Earth structure
With a lot of recordings we can reconstruct faults with any orientations
Cox and Hart. Plate Tectonics How it works.
Fault types and Beach Ball plots
USGS
Example Focal mechanism diagrams on midocean ridges
Stein and Wysession, An Introduction to seismology, earthquakes and Earth structure
Same N-S fault, different slip direction
Stein and Wysession, An Introduction to seismology, earthquakes and Earth structure
Great review on the web at:
http://www.learninggeoscience.net/free/00071/
Waveform modeling
By constructing synthetic seismograms and comparing them to the recorded data we use more of the information in the seismogram, not just the arrival time and first motion data
Stein and Wysession, An Introduction to seismology, earthquakes and Earth structure
Waveform modeling
Construction of the synthetic seismogram
Stein and Wysession, An Introduction to seismology, earthquakes and Earth structure
u(t) = x(t) * e(t) * q(t) * i(t) U()= X() E() Q() I()
source time function seismogram attenuation instrument response reflections & conversions at interfaces
Source-time function
At one point on the fault slip takes a finite time (called rise time):
Slip rate Time Slip
TD
TD
Time
Map view = rupture Fault
Slip rate
The slip travels along the fault at rupture velocity vr, so there is also a finite rupture time
TR
Time
Source time function
The source time function is the combination of the rise time and the rupture time:
Slip rate Slip rate
TD
Time
=
TR Time
Slip rate TR
TD
Directionality affects the rupture time
TR TR TD TD
Rupture direction
TR TR TD TD
phase reflections
e(t) represents reflections due to the Earth structure If modeling only the P arrival, its only needed for shallow events
Stein and Wysession, An Introduction to seismology, earthquakes and Earth structure
Attenuation
The loss of energy with time
A(t) = A0e -0t/2Q
Q controls the amount of loss
Sipkin and Jordan 1979, copywrite Seismological Society of America
Instrument response function
Stein and Wysession, An Introduction to seismology, earthquakes and Earth structure
The response of the seismometer is different for different frequencies so it also filters the data.
Moment Tensor Inversion
The Moment tensor describes the fault as set of equivalent forces Calculated from the amplitude of surface Love Rayleigh waves
USGS
Stein and Wysession, An Introduction to seismology, earthquakes and Earth structure
