MODULE-4

JOINING PROCESS

By,
Prof. Dushyanthkumar G L
Dept. Of M.E
VVCE, Mysore
SYLLABUS
Module-4 Engineering Materials & Joining Processes

Introduction to engineering materials, composite

materials, classification of composites, matrix and
reinforcements, PMC, MMC, CMC, shape memory alloys.
Joining Processes: Introduction, classification of welding
process, arc welding, gas welding, types of gas flames,
soldering and brazing.
Self-Study Components: Applications of composites and shape memory
alloys.
WELDING
 JOINING PROCESS

 Joining of two parts of metal pieces is accomplished

either by temporary joining or permanent joining.
 Temporary joining is carried out by the help of bolts,
nuts, studs, screws, rivets, etc.
 Metal fabrication involves joining of two metals together.

 Joining of two pieces depends upon the type of material,

thickness of material and degree of permanency.
 The important methods of joining are by welding,
soldering and brazing. (Permanent joining processes)
INTRODUCTION

 Welding is a fabrication process in which two or more

workpieces, usually metals are joined permanently to
form a single component.
 This is carried out with or without the use of filler metal
and with or without the application of pressure.
 Applications – Ship building, automobiles, aircraft, power
plants, building and bridge constructions, storage tanks,
pressure vessels, refrigerators, machine tools etc.,
WELDING CLASSIFICATION
CLASSIFICATIONS OF WELDING PROCESSES
There are TWO methods
 Plastic welding
 Example – Forge welding, Friction welding, Resistance
welding etc.
 Fusion welding
 Example – Arc welding, Gas welding, Laser welding etc.

Edge Preparation In Welding

Edge preparation involves TWO operations

 Preparation of joint
 Cleaning of joint
PREPARATION OF JOINT
CLEANING OF JOINT

 Workpiece surfaces having contaminants like oil, grease, dirt,

oxides etc.
 Cleaning is done either Chemically or Mechanically.

 Chemically – by using Acetone or carbon tetrachloride solution.

 Mechanically – by using wire brush, hand files or grinding

process.
 What is electrode?

 It is a piece of wire or rod, with or without filler material

that carries current for welding.

 Electrode diameter ranges from 1.25 to 1.5mm

 Selection of electrode

 Chemical composition of the base metal

 Thickness of the workpiece

 Nature of electrode coating and behaviour

 Type of joint.
ELECTRODES USED IN ARC WELDING
They are classified into TWO types
 Consumable electrodes
 Coated
 Bare (Plain)
 Tubular

 Non-Consumable electrodes
FUNCTIONS OF FLUX COATING
 For slag forming

 Deoxidizing elements

 Improve penetration and surface finish

 Improve metal deposition rate

 Eliminates weld metal porosity

ELECTRIC ARC WELDING PROCESS
PRINCIPLE OF ARC WELDING
When two conductors of an electric circuit are touched
momentarily and then instantaneously separated slightly,
Assuming there is sufficient voltage in the circuit to maintain a
flow of current, an electric arc is formed.
Concentrated heat is produced throughout the length of the arc
at temp of 50000 C to 60000 C
Parts to be welded are wired as one pole of the circuit and
electrode held by the operator forms the other pole.
When the arc is formed, the heat from the arc melts the work
piece which is directly under the arc forming small molten pool.
PRINCIPLE OF ARC WELDING

 At the mean time electrode also melts and is thoroughly mixed

with the base metal.

 A solid joint is formed when the molten metal is cooled and

solidified.

 The flux coating over the electrode produces an inert gaseous

shield surrounding the arc and prevents the molten metal from
oxidizing by coming in contact with the atmosphere
PRINCIPLE OF ARC WELDING

 Both AC and DC are used for arc welding.

 For AC arc welding a step down transformer

is used. It receives AC supply between 200
to 440V and transforms it to required low
voltage of 80 to 100V.

 A high current of 100 to 400A is suitable

for arc welding.
ADVANTAGES OF WELDING
 Good strength of joint.
 It is leak proof joint.
 It can be portable.
 It prevents corrosion.
 Similar or dissimilar materials of any thickness can be easily
welded.
 Parts can be fabricated at reasonable costs.

Disadvantages of welding

 It is permanent joint, disassembly is not possible.

 Skilled operator is require to produce a good joint.
 Equipment cost is high.
 Unbalanced heat input leads to form residual stresses.
 Metallurgical properties changes which disturbs base metal.
WELDING DEFECTS

1. Cracking

2. Incorrect edge preparations

3. Craters

4. Under cutting

5. Porous weld

6. Over welding
GAS WELDING

 It is a fusion welding, in which a strong gas flame is

used to raise the temperature of the work piece to
melt them.
 The gases that can be used for heating are

(i) oxygen and acetylene

(ii) oxygen and hydrogen
 Oxy-acetylene gas mixture is most commonly used in
gas welding
OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING

 Right proportions of oxygen and acetylene

are mixed in the welding torch and then
ignited.
 The flame produced is called as the oxy-
acetylene flame
 The temperature attained in this welding is
around 32000 C hence has an ability to
melt all commercial metals
GAS WELDING/ OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING
WORKING:
 The typical oxy-acetylene welding process is shown in fig.
 After the initial equipment preparation, the to-be welded component setup and
safety checks are completed, the pressure regulators fitted to the oxygen and
oxyacetylene cylinders are adjusted to draw the oxygen and acetylene gas in the
required proportions from the cylinders respectively.
 The pressure regulator in each of the cylinders is fitted with two gauges.
 One gauge indicates the gas pressure inside the cylinder and the other gauge
indicates the reduced pressure at which the gas goes out.
 The respective gases from the cylinders are carried from the pressure regulator to
the welding torch using the rubber hose pipe.
 Upon reaching the welding torch, these gases are allowed to mix in a mixing
chamber and then are led out of the torch through the orifice of the blow pipe.
 The resultant flame at 3200oC is used to melt the work pieces. To fill up the gap
between work pieces and to add strength to the joint, filler rods are added to the
molten metal pool.
 The molten metal pool that contains molten metal of the filler rod and the work
pieces solidifies to form a welded joint.
  The types of flames depends on the gas
ratio i.e ratio of the parts of oxygen to
the parts of the acetylene
 Depending on the gas ratio following
flames are obtained

(i) Neutral flame

TYPES OF
(ii) Oxidizing flame
OXY-
ACETYLENE (iii) Reducing flame (carburizing flame)

FLAMES
NEUTRAL FLAME

• A neutral flame is obtained

by supplying equal volume
of oxygen and acetylene

• It consists of a small whitish

inner cone surrounded by
sharply defined blue flame

• Most of the gas welding is

done using the neutral
flame
CARBURIZING OR REDUCING FLAME

• This is obtained by supplying

excess of acetylene in the gas
ratio

• It has 3 cones, an inner white

cone ,surrounded by an
intermediate whitish cone known
as

“intermediate flame feather”

and a bluish envelope flame

• This flame is used for welding

alloy steels, cast iron, aluminum.
OXIDIZING FLAME

• This is obtained when

there is excess of oxygen.

• It appears to be similar to
that of neutral flame but
the inner white cone
flame is shorter than that
of neutral flame

• This flame is generally

used in metal cutting
rather than welding since
weld metal gets oxidized
Advantages of oxy-acetylene welding
1. Most versatile process of welding with wide use in various manufacturing
process.
2. Low cost of the equipment and low cost of maintenance of the equipment.
3. Because of separate heat source and filler metal the control can be exercised
on the rate at which the filler metal deposits.
4. The rate of heating and cooling is slow. This help in retaining the structural
homogeneity.
5. The equipment is portable and multi-functional because, apart from gas
welding, it can also be used in torch brazing, braze welding, preheating and
post heating.
Disadvantages of oxy-acetylene welding
1. Difficult to attain low cost target while joining heavy section.
2. Handling and storage of gases not an easy job.
3. It takes long time for the flame to heat up the metal piece than compared to
the arc welding.
4. Possible hazards due to explosion of gases.
 Soldering
 Joining of similar or dissimilar metals by means of a filler
metal whose melting temperature is below 450o C.
 Filler metal is called solder usually it is an alloy of tin and lead
in various proportions.
 Solder is allowed to flow into the gap (capillary action)
between two workpieces. Solder solidifies upon cooling and
forms a joint.
 The joint which is produced although is not as strong as the
base metal
Surface preparation in soldering
 Remove contaminants like oil, rust, scale, paint and
other impurities either mechanically or chemically.

 Next is applying flux (liquid or semi-liquid)

• Prevents oxidation of base metal
• Acts as wetting agent
• Cleans the surface
Advantage Disadvantage
Low power requirement Flux residues should be removed
Low temperature process Thick parts cannot be efficiently
Dissimilar parts can be soldered joined
Thin parts can be joined easily Soldering joints cannot be used
in high temperature application
Strength of joint is low
Applications
Assembling electronic components to PCB’s
Connection between copper pipes
Sheet metal like food can, metal container etc.
Semi-permanent patch for leak in a container or cooking
vessel
Types of solder
An alloy which melts at low temperature

Soft solder
• Lead = 37% Tin = 63%
• Low melting point (150 C-190 C)
o o

• Joints not subjected to high load and temperature

Hard solder
• Lead = 97.5% silver = 2.5% or
• Silver = 50% copper = 34% zinc = 16%
• Melting point (300 C-600 C)
o o

• Joints can resist high load and temperature

 BRAZING

 Brazing is the method of joining two

similar or dissimilar metals using a special
fusible alloy.
 Joints formed by brazing are stronger than
that of soldering.
 The materials used for brazing are copper
base alloys or silver base alloys and it is
called as “spelter”
 BRAZING PROCEDURE

 Cleaning the surface of the parts

 Application of flux at the place of joint
 Common borax and mixture of borax and
boric acid is used as flux.
 The joint and the filler material is heated by
gas welding torch above the melting
temperature of the filler material.
 It flows into the joint space and a solid joint
is formed after cooling
 BRAZING
 During brazing, the base metal of the
two pieces to be joined is not melted.
 The filler metal must have ability to wet
the surfaces of the base metal to which it
is applied.
 Some diffusion or alloying of the filler
metal with base metal takes place even
though the base metal does not reach its
melting temperature
Advantages of Brazing
1. It is easy to learn.
2. It is possible to join virtually any dissimilar metals.
3. The bond line is very neat aesthetically.
4. Joint strength is strong enough for most non-heavy-duty type of
application.
Disadvantages of Brazing
1. Brazed joints can be damaged under high temp.
2. Brazed joint require a high degree of cleanliness.
3. The joint colour is often different from that of the base metal.
 BRAZING SOLDERING WELDING

1. In brazing filler metal is having the Soldering using the filler metal Welding using the filler metal
melting point greater than 4500 C having the melting point less than having the melting point nearly
4500 C equal to the base metal
2. Joints takes place due to capillary Capillary action is also present in No capillary action is present. Joint
action between the base metal and soldering between the base metal takes place due to fusion.
the filler metal and filler metal.
3. Base metal does not melt Base metal does not melt. Base metal melts in welding.
4. Filler metal is having the melting Filler metal is having the melting Filler metal is having the melting
point less than the base metal. point less than the base metal. point same as base metal.

Filler metal melts and gets mixed

with the base metal
5. Filler metal is uniformly distributed Filler metal is uniformly distributed
because of capillary action. because of capillary action
Joints are stronger as compared to
6. Joints are stronger than soldering Joints are weaker than brazing brazing, soldering.
but weaker than welding
It uses the filler metal mostly
It uses the filler metal which having the same composition as
7. It was uses filler metal which contains lead and tin. that of base metal.
contains copper and zinc etc.
SYLLABUS
Module-4 Engineering Materials & Joining Processes

Introduction to engineering materials, composite

materials, classification of composites, matrix and
reinforcements, PMC, MMC, CMC, shape memory alloys.
Joining Processes: Introduction, classification of welding
process, arc welding, gas welding, types of gas flames,
soldering and brazing.
Self-Study Components: Applications of composites and shape memory
alloys.
 ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

NON –
METALS METALLIC
MATERIALS

NON –
FERROUS NATURAL SYNTHETIC
FERROUS
METALS MATERIALS MATERIALS
METALS

Aluminium,
Pig Iron, Cast Copper, Wood, Rubber, Plastic,
Iron, Wrought Nickel, Lead, Diamond, Emery, Ceramics,
Iron and Steel Tin, Zinc, Gold, Oils, Silicon, etc. Composites
Silver, etc.
Classification of Ferrous Metals
Classification of Non - Ferrous
Metals
 Classification of
Non – Metallic Materials
Composite Materials

A Composite is defined as a
combination of two or more
dissimilar materials which have
different interfaces between them
resulting in enhanced properties
compared to the individual
constituent materials.

Examples:
 Cemented carbides
 Plastic molding compounds containing
fillers
 Rubber mixed with carbon black
 Wood (a natural composite as
distinguished from a synthesized
composite)
Composite Materials

A Composite is defined as a
combination of two or more
dissimilar materials which have
different interfaces between them
resulting enhanced properties
Plastic consumption uses by field
compared to the individual
constituent materials.

Examples:
 Cemented carbides
 Plastic molding compounds containing
fillers
 Rubber mixed with carbon black
 Wood (a natural composite as
distinguished from a synthesized
composite) Natural Wood
 Constituents of
Composite

Reinforcements (Fiber) – is in
the form of rods, strands, Matrix – in the form of liquid or gel
fibers or particles which; which
 contribute desired Holds fibers together
properties Protects abrasion & from
 load carrying capacity environment
Distributes fibers & loads uniformly
 Transferring Strength to
matrix Enhance properties like transverse
strength & provides good surface
finish
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES

COMPOSITES

Based on
Based on Type of Reinforcing
Matrix Material Material
Structure

Fiber
Metal Ceramic Polymer Particulat
Reinforce Laminate
Matrix Matrix Matrix e
d Composit
Composit Composit Composit Composit
Composit es [LC]
es [MMC] es [CMC] es [PMC] es [PC]
es [FRC]
 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES [MMC]
Composition
Metal + Metal or Ceramic or an Organic Compound + Metal
Matrix MMC
Example:
Ceramic (Oxides, carbides) or Metallic (lead, tungsten,
molybdenum)
+
Matrix (Aluminium, Magnesium, Iron, Cobalt, Copper)
=
MMC
Properties: High specific strength, stiffness, high operating
temperature, wear resistance, low coefficient of thermal
expansion

Applications: Pistons, robots, high speed vehicles, shafts,

automotive parts, spacecraft, missile structure, fighter aircrafts
METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES [MMC]
 CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES [CMC]

Composition
Ceramic fiber + Ceramic Matrix = CMC
Example:
Ceramic fiber (Carbon fiber)
+
Ceramic Matrix (Carbon, Silicon carbide, Alumina, Mullite, zirconia)
=
CMC
Properties: Corrosion resistance, High compressive strength, high
thermal shock resistance, high mechanical strength but low crack
resistance.
Applications: Automotive parts, space applications, Gas turbine, Pump
application- liners, vanes, blades, flaps, Bearings of pumps, cutting tools.
 POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES [PMC]
Composition
short or continuous fiber + organic polymer Matrix =
PMC
Example:
Fiber (Carbon, glass, steel fiber)
+
Polymer Matrix (Polyester, Epoxy, polycarbonate, polyvinylchloride,
nylon, polysterene)
=
PMC
Properties: High strength & stiffness, corrosion resistance, fatigue
resistance

Applications: Aerospace, Marine, automotive applications, constructions

– bridge decks, column wraps, storage tanks, pressure vessels, pipes,
ducts, bike frames, golf clubs, sanitary wares, sinks, furniture, etc.
 PARTICULATE COMPOSITES
[PC]
Composition
Particles + Matrix = PC
Example:
Flakes, powders, platelets, chopped fibers, hollow sphere, carbon
nanotubes
+
Matrix material
=
PC
Properties: High tensile strength & toughness, corrosion resistance,
oxidation resistance, less dense, high strength to weight ratio

Applications: Automotive applications, turbine wheels, valves,

seals, cell phone casings, helmets, piston & cylinder, tyres.
 FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES
[FRC]
Composition
Axial particles in fiber form + Matrix = FRC
Example:
Metals, ceramics, glasses, polymers, graphite
+
Matrix material
=
FRC
Properties: High strength, high elastic modulus, less dense,
high strength to weight ratio

Applications: Sports equipment, bicycle, body parts of racing

cars, wings, fuselage, aircraft tail assembly
Classification of Fiber Reinforced Composites [FRC]
a) Continuous Fiber Reinforced Composites
b) Discontinuous Fiber Reinforced Composites
i. Discontinuous and aligned fibers
ii. Discontinuous and randomly oriented fibers
 LAMINATE COMPOSITES [LC]
Composition

Laminate + Matrix = LC (sandwich panels)

Example:
Glass, graphite, silicon carbide, boron
+
Matrix material (epoxy, alumina, polyimides, titanium)
=
LC (Formica, plywood)
Properties: High stiffness, coefficient of expansion

Applications: Aircraft skin materials, furniture, interiors, etc.

 ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

 Non corrosive & chemical resistant

 Wear resistance
 Light weight amounts to significant savings in
material cost
 Outstanding strength – weight ratio
 Good resilience
 Good thermal properties, good insulator
 High strength protects against blast & ballistic threats
 Good fire resistant hence used for electrical parts
 Innovative designs can be achieved
 High surface finish not necessary
 Any color any shade composite can be obtained
 DISADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

 Cost of fabrication is high

 More brittle than wrought metals, hence easily damaged
 Composites cannot be repaired easily
 Repair requires right pressure & tool
 Cracks & flaws may go undetected
 Hot curing is required
 Time consuming
 Cost of raw materials used for manufacture is high
 Non – isotropic
 Environmental degradation
 Mechanical characterization is complex
 APPLICATIONS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

 Aircraft / Aerospace Industry

 Automobile Industry

 Sports Equipment

 Construction Industry

 Biomedical Industry

 Wind Energy Applications

 Marine Applications

 Military Applications
Aircraft Applications
Automobile Applications
Sports Applications
Wind Energy Applications
 SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS (SMART
MATERIALS)

 Smart materials also termed as “Intelligent materials” are

the ones which display repeatable change in properties

with respect to the change in external conditions.

 They perform both sensing and actuating functions in

response to an outside stimulus or signal.

 Shape Memory Alloy is a Type 2 Smart Material (SMA,

Electrostrictives, Magnetostrictives, Photovoltaics, LED’s

etc.)
 SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS (SMART
MATERIALS)
 SMA exhibit shape memory effect.

 These alloys when plastically deformed at one temperature and completely

regain to their original shape when raised to a certain higher temperature.

 The materials have the ability to generate a force or motion.

 NiTi-base (Nital), Cu-based alloy (Cu-Zn-Al or Cu-Zn-Ni) and Fe-based alloys

are the three alloy systems.

 Austenite and Martensite are the best examples. (Ice & Water)

 It is an important element in NEMS and MEMS.

 Some of the applications are Thermal triggers, Morphing structures, piping

systems for power plants, ships and petroleum industry, aerospace industry,
dental materials, etc.
SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS (SMART MATERIALS)