STRESSES ON SOILS
MODULE 2
◆ STRESSES AND STRAINS
◆ TOTAL AND EFFECTIVE STRESSES
STRESSES AND
STRAINS
NORMAL STRESSES AND
STRAINS
◆ Consider a cube of dimensions x = y = z that is subjected
to forces Px, Py, Pz normal to three adjacent sides, as
shown in Figure 7.2. The normal stresses are:
NORMAL STRESSES AND
STRAINS
SHEAR STRESSES AND SHEAR
STRAINS
◆ Let us consider, for simplicity, the XZ plane and apply a
force F that causes the square to distort into a
parallelogram, as shown in the figure. The force F is a
shearing force, and the shear stress is:
SHEAR STRESSES AND SHEAR
STRAINS
◆ Simple shear strain is a measure of the angular distortion
of a body by shearing forces. If the horizontal
displacement is Δx, the shear strain or simple shear strain,
γzx, is:
SHEAR STRESSES AND SHEAR
STRAINS
SHEAR STRESSES AND SHEAR
STRAINS
◆ For small strains, tan γzx = γzx and therefore:
◆ If the shear stress on a plane is zero, the normal stress on
that plane is called a principal stress. In geotechnical
engineering, compressive stresses in soils are assumed to
be positive. Soils cannot sustain any appreciable tensile
stresses, and we normally assume that the tensile
strength of soils is negligible.
ESSENTIAL POINTS
◆ The essential points are:
◇ A normal stress is the laod per unit area on a plane
normal to the direction of the load.
◇ A shear stress is the load per unit area on a plane
parallel to the direction of the shear force.
◇ Normal stresses compress or elongate a material;
shear stresses distort a material
◇ A normal strain is the change in length divided by
the original length in the direction of the original
length.
ESSENTIAL POINTS
◆ The essential points are:
◇ A normal stress is the laod per unit area on a plane
normal to the direction of the load.
◇ A shear stress is the load per unit area on a plane
parallel to the direction of the shear force.
◇ Normal stresses compress or elongate a material;
shear stresses distort a material
◇ A normal strain is the change in length divided by
the original length in the direction of the original
length.
ESSENTIAL POINTS
◇ Principal stresses are normal stresses on planes of
zero shear stress.
◇ Soils can only sustain compressive stresses.
TOTAL AND
EFFECTIVE
STRESSES
TOTAL AND EFFECTIVE
STRESSES
◆ The deformations of soils are similar to the deformations
of structural framework such a truss. The truss deforms
from changes in loads carried by each member. If the truss
is loaded in air or submerged in water, the deformations-
under a given load will remain unchanged.
◆ Deformations of the truss are independent of hydrostatic
pressure. The same is true for soils.
TOTAL AND EFFECTIVE
STRESSES
◆ Considering an element of a saturated soil subjected to a
normal stress, σ, applied on the boundary as shown in
the figure.
◆ The stress s is called the total stress, and for equilibrium
(Newton’s third law) the stresses in the soil must be equal
and opposite to σ.
◆ The resistance or reaction to σ is provided by a
combination of the stresses from the solids, called
effective stress (σ’), and from water in the pores, called
porewater pressure (u).
TOTAL AND EFFECTIVE
STRESSES
◆ The equilibrium
equation is:
TOTAL AND EFFECTIVE
STRESSES
◆ For unsaturated soils, the effective stress (Bishop, 1960)
is:
where ua is the pore air pressure, u is the porewater
pressure, and x is a factor depending on the degree of
saturation.
For dry soil, x = 0, for saturated soil, x = 1.
EFFECTIVE STRESSES DUE TO
GEOSTATIC STRESS FIELDS
◆ The effective stress in a soil mass not subjected to
external loads is found from the unit weight of the soil and
the depth of groundwater.
◆ Consider a soil element at a depth z below the ground
surface, with the groundwater level (GWL) at ground
surface. The total vertical stress is:
◆ The porewater pressure is:
EFFECTIVE STRESSES DUE TO
GEOSTATIC STRESS FIELDS
EFFECTIVE STRESSES DUE TO
GEOSTATIC STRESS FIELDS
◆ The effective stress is:
◆ If the GWL is at a depth zw below ground level, then:
EFFECTIVE STRESSES DUE TO
GEOSTATIC STRESS FIELDS
◆ Then, the effective stress is:
01EFFECTIVE STRESS
02 CONCEPTS
03
Ground surface Water is above ground water
is at the top of the ground table is at
the ground water table ground surface
water table
Total Stress, σ, can be divided into 2 parts.
σ = Hw + (HA - H)sat ◆ A portion is carried by water in the
continuous void spaces. This portion
acts with equal intensity in all
Where: directions.
◆ The rest of the total stress is carried
H = height of water by the soil grains at their points of
contact. The sum of the vertical
table from the top of the components of the forces developed
at the points of contact of the solid
soil column particles per unit cross-sectional area
of the soil mass is called the
HA = depth of point A effective stress.
◆ Effective stress was first developed
below the water table by Terzaghi
1. Ground surface is at the top of the
ground water table
Saturated Unit
Weight, Effective Unit
Weight or Buoyant
Unit Weight:
1. Ground surface is at the top of the
ground water table
Submerged Unit
Weight:
sat – w
sat – w
1. Ground surface is at the top of the
ground water table
σA = (γdry)(h1) +
Total Stress at A:
(γsat)(h2)
1. Ground surface is at the top of the
ground water table
Pore water pressure
u = γw h2
or neutral stress
1. Ground surface is at the top of the
ground water table
Effective stress at A:
Effective stress = Total
Stress – pore water
pressure
Eff. Stress = (γdry)(h1) + (γsat)(h2) -
(γw h2)
Eff. Stress = (γdry)(h1) + (γsat- γw )(h2)
Eff. Stress = (γdry)(h1) + (γ’)(h2)
2. Water is above the ground water table
σA = (γw)(h1) +
Total stress at A:
(γsat)(h2)
2. Water is above the ground water table
Pore water pressure
u = γw (h1 + h2)
or neutral stress
2. Water is above the ground water table
Effective stress at A:
Effective stress = Total
Stress – pore water
pressure
Eff. Stress = (γw)(h1) + (γsat)(h2) - (γw(h1 + h2))
Eff. Stress = (γsat)(h2) - (γw)(h2)
Eff. Stress = (γsat - γw)(h2)
Eff. Stress = (γ’)(h2)
3. Ground water table is at ground surface
σA = (γsat)(h1 + h2)
Total stress at A:
3. Ground water table is at ground surface
Pore water pressure
u = γw (h1 + h2)
or neutral stress
3. Ground water table is at ground surface
Effective stress at A:
Effective stress = Total
Stress – pore water
pressure
Eff. Stress = (γsat)(h1 + h2) - (γw)(h1 + h2)
Eff. Stress = (γsat - γw)(h1 +
h2)
Eff. Stress = (γ’)(h1 + h2)
Sample Problem
Plot the variation of
total and effective
vertical stresses, and
pore water pressure
with depth for the soil
profile shown:
Summary
Effective Stresses in the Zone Capillary
Rise
◆ The height above the water ◆ Pore pressure at a point in a
table to which the soil is layer of soil partially saturated
saturated is called the
u = - γw (h)
caused by capillary action:
CAPILLARY RISE, and this
depends on the grain size and
type (and thus the size of pores) u – pore pressure of partially
◆ Range of Capillary Rise
saturated soil caused by capillary
action in kPa
Coarse Sand – 0.1 – 0.2m
γw – unit weight of water in kN/m 3
S – degree of Saturation in percent
Fine Sand – 0.3 – 1.2m
h = capillary rise in meters
Silt – 1.3 – 7.5m
Clay – 7.5 – 23m
Sample Problem for Capillary Rise
◆ Calculate the
Effective Stress
above A
◆ Effective Stress
below A
◆ Effective Stress at B
◆ Effective Stress at C
Sample Problem for Capillary Rise
◆ Effective Stress
σ’ = γdry (h)
right above A:
σ’ = 16 (4)
σ’ = 64 kPa
Sample Problem for Capillary Rise
◆ Effective Stress
σ’ = γdry (h) - γw (h)
right below A:
σ’ = 16 (4) -
σ’ = 71.06 kPa
Sample Problem for Capillary Rise
◆ Effective Stress at
σ’ = γdry (h) + γ (h)
B:
σ’ = 16 (4) + 1.2(17)
σ’ = 84.4 kPa
Sample Problem for Capillary Rise
◆ Effective Stress at
C:
σ’ = γdry (h) + γ (h) + (γsat – γw)
(h)
σ’ = 16 (4) + 1.2(17) + (18 – 9.81)
(6)
σ’ = 133.54 kPa
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
◆ Calculate the effective stress for a soil element at depth 5
m in a uniform deposit of soil as shown in the figure.
Assume that the pore air pressure is zero. Gs = 2.7
Answer: Effective Stress =
53.2 kPa
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
◆ Refer to figure below, calculate σ, u, and σ’ at point C only
based on the given details of each soil layer.
Layer I: Layer II: Layer III:
H1 = 4 m H2 = 3 m H3 = 1.5 m
e = 0.6 e = 0.52 w = 40%
Gs = 2.65 Gs = 2.68 e = 1.1
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
◆ Answers:
At point C:
σ = 126.95 kN/m2
u = 29.43 kN/m2
σ’ = 97.52 kN/m2
EFFECTS OF
SEEPAGE
EFFECTS OF SEEPAGE
◆ As water flows through soil it exerts a frictional drag on
the soil particles, resulting in head losses. The frictional
drag is called seepage force in soil mechanics.
◆ It is often convenient to define seepage as the seepage
force per unit volume (it has units similar to unit weight),
which denoted by js. If the head loss over a flow distance,
L, is Δh, the seepage force is:
EFFECTS OF SEEPAGE
◆ If the seepage occurs downward, then the seepage
stresses are in the same direction as the gravitational
effective stresses.
◆ From static equilibrium, the resultant vertical effective
stress is:
◆ If the seepage occurs upward, then the seepage stresses
are in the opposite direction to the gravitational effective
stresses:
SAMPLE PROBLEM
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
◆ Water is seeping downward through a soil layer as shown
in the figure. Two piezometers (A and B) located 2 m apart
(vertically) showed a head loss of 0.2 m. Calculate the
resultant vertical effective stress for a soil element at a
depth of 6m.
Answer: Effective
Stress = 58.1 kPa
