Module - 2

Traditional Knowledge in
Humanities and Sciences:
Linguistics, Number and
measurements-Mathematics,
Chemistry, Physics, Art, Astronomy,
Astrology, Crafts and Trade in India
and Engineering and Technology.
 Unit 2 of the Indian Knowledge
System
Unit 2 of the Indian Knowledge System (IKS), titled
"Traditional Knowledge in Humanities and Sciences," focuses
on the diverse and rich contributions of Indian traditions to
various fields of study such as humanities, sciences, arts, and
social practices. This unit aims to highlight how Indian scholars
and thinkers have shaped and developed various knowledge
systems that have been passed down through generations. It
emphasizes the value of integrating traditional knowledge
with modern perspectives to enrich understanding in both
academic and practical domains.
Traditional Knowledge in Humanities and
Sciences:
“Traditional knowledge" in the context of humanities
and sciences refers to the collective body of
knowledge, practices, and beliefs passed down
through generations within a community, often
deeply rooted in their cultural identity, encompassing
areas like agriculture, medicine, environmental
management, astronomy, and craft skills, which are
typically transmitted orally and are highly adapted to
the local environment and ecological conditions; this
knowledge can be studied and integrated into
academic disciplines across humanities and sciences,
providing valuable insights into past practices and
potential solutions to contemporary problems.
 Key points about traditional knowledge:

Transmission:
Primarily passed down through oral traditions, stories,
songs, rituals, and community practices.
Contextual relevance:
Deeply connected to the specific environment and
cultural practices of a community.
Disciplinary applications:
Can be studied and integrated into fields like
anthropology, ethnobiology, ecology, history, medicine,
and even engineering.
 Traditional Knowledge in Humanities:

• Philosophy and Spirituality: Indian philosophy, particularly through systems like

Vedanta, Nyaya, and Buddhism, provides insights into human nature, ethics, and the
universe.
• Literature: Ancient texts like the Vedas, Upanishads, Ramayana, Mahabharata, and
various works in classical Sanskrit, Tamil, and other regional languages form a foundation
for the humanities.
• Art and Aesthetics: The traditional arts in India—such as music, dance, theater, and
painting—have deep philosophical and cultural meanings. Classical dance forms like
Bharatanatyam and Kathak have both artistic and spiritual dimensions. Traditional designs
and building techniques adapted to the environment.
• Language and Linguistics: Local dialects and linguistic practices that reveal cultural
understanding. Ancient languages like Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Tamil have rich grammars and
linguistic traditions, influencing modern linguistics and literature studies.
• Folklore and mythology: Stories and legends that hold cultural knowledge about the
natural world, ancestors, and social norms.
 Traditional Knowledge in Sciences:

• Mathematics: India contributed significantly to mathematics, including the development of

zero, the decimal system, and early advancements in algebra and geometry. Ancient Indian
mathematicians like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara are key figures.
• Astronomy: Indian astronomy has a long history, with ancient texts like the Surya Siddhanta
providing insights into celestial movements. Contributions like the calculation of pi and the
understanding of eclipses were early advancements.
• Medicine (Ayurveda): The traditional Indian system of medicine, Ayurveda, focuses on the
balance of body, mind, and spirit. It has a profound understanding of herbal remedies,
nutrition, and treatments that have influenced modern wellness practices.
• Botany and Agriculture: Traditional knowledge in agriculture, such as crop rotation,
sustainable farming, and medicinal plants, has been passed down through generations.
Indian traditional knowledge is also reflected in the ancient text Sushruta Samhita on surgery
and anatomy.
• Agriculture: Indigenous farming practices like crop rotation, water
management systems, and selection of resilient plant varieties.
• Ecology: Knowledge about plant and animal interactions, weather
patterns, and ecosystem management.
• Astronomy: Traditional star charts and knowledge of celestial cycles used
for navigation and timekeeping
 Challenges and considerations when studying traditional knowledge:

Cultural sensitivity:
Respecting the intellectual property rights of communities and ensuring appropriate
protocols when accessing and documenting traditional knowledge.
Validation and verification:
Integrating scientific methods to assess the efficacy and accuracy of traditional practices.
Power dynamics:

Recognizing potential imbalances in knowledge exchange between researchers and

communities.

Loss of Traditional Knowledge: Modernization, globalization, and colonialism led to the gradual erosion of many
traditional practices and knowledge systems. There is a growing need to document, preserve, and revitalize these
practices.

Relevance Today: The challenge today is to incorporate traditional knowledge into contemporary systems of
education, research, and practice, balancing modern scientific advancements with traditional wisdom.

Revival and Documentation: There is increasing interest in reviving and documenting ancient manuscripts, oral
traditions, and systems of knowledge, making them accessible for future generations.
 Interdisciplinary Approach:

• Integration of Knowledge: Indian traditional

knowledge systems often integrated multiple
disciplines, such as science, art, and philosophy,
providing holistic approaches to understanding life
and the universe.
• Role of Gurus and Texts: Much of the traditional
knowledge was transmitted orally, with scholars and
teachers (gurus) passing knowledge to students in
gurukulas. Sacred texts, manuscripts, and later printed
books became central to preserving this knowledge.
Traditional Knowledge Systems and their Influence:

• Cultural Preservation: Traditional knowledge systems helped

maintain social order and cultural identity, ensuring that
various knowledge streams were passed on and evolved
through generations.
• Sustainability: Many traditional Indian practices, like water
management (step wells, tanks), forest conservation (sacred
groves), and organic farming, are examples of sustainability
and environmental awareness that were embedded in culture.
• Global Impact: Indian traditional knowledge has not only
shaped the local but also had a significant influence globally,
especially in areas like medicine (Ayurveda), yoga, and
spiritual practices.
 Linguistics (भाषा fवज्ञान)
•Linguistics is a branch of language research that provides a
scientific study of a language.
•Language has been the most effective tool for our
communication since time immemorial.
•The advancement of knowledge and collaborative working
require a common method of communication.
•Language plays this role in a civilized society.
 Components of a
•Language
Language
is a tool used by everyone in a
community andit isvery difficult to maintain it unchanged.
•Communication is a key to trade, science and technology and
societal progress.
•The respective part of a language deals with the
ability ofan individual to receive language inputs from
multiple sources.
•The productive part of a language is to transmit
back to others for their consumption.
•Receptive Skills
i. Listening (sound)
ii. Reading (script)
•Productive Skills
i. Speaking (sound)
ii. Writing (script)
Panini’s Work on Sanskrit
Grammar
•Panini composed 3983 rules to accommodate all the
patterns and variations in Sanskrit language.
•The basic approach of Panini andits distinguishing
features make Sanskrit a powerful language and
eternal in its appeal.
•One of the Vedangas known as Vyakarana focuses on linguistics
and phonetics (भाषाfवज्ञान और धि् ◌न्यात्मकता) aspects of Sanskrit
language.
•Astadhyayi is considered a fine creation of human intelligence and
the best available descriptive model of a language.
Basic approach of Panini and its
features
•The entire vocabulary of the Sanskrit language could be created
using the 3983 rules.
•Language processing and word generation are strictly rule-based and
derivative in nature.
•The entire scheme for word generation follows a
highly modular approach.
•The derivation of words using the rules could be done using step
by step process.
•The vocabulary is not fixed or static.
 Phonetics (सि् ◌र-fवज्ञान) in
Sanskrit
•Phonetics is the study of sounds in a language, particularly the
production of sound in a language and how it communicates the
language corresponding to the scripts of the language.
•It also addresses the issue of how the sound is perceived in the
language.
•Phonetics in the Sanskrit language has been addressed in some
details since this is vital because the ancient Indian knowledge
tradition is oral.
Phonetics (सि् ◌र-fवज्ञान) in
Sanskrit
 Phonetics (सि् ◌र-fवज्ञान) in
Sanskrit
•The entire transmission of the Vedas from time immemorial
has been possible on account of a well-developed science of
phonetics.
•Vowels have a temporal factor in the production of the sound.
•Three variations (short: hrasva, long: dirgha and prolate:
pulta) have been specified for the pitch of the vowel sound.
Phonetics (सि् ◌र-fवज्ञान) in
Sanskrit
 Patterns in Sanskrit
Vocabulary
•The ultimate building block of any language is the word.
•The words are the combined in several ways
to communicate ideas and transact knowledge.
•The word in Sanskrit can be divied into two categories: Noun
forms (Known as subanta) and verb forms (known as Tinanta).
Word= Base+ Suffix
•After adding a suffix to the base, relevant
grammatical rules are invoked to generate the final word.
Patterns in Sanskrit
Vocabulary
 Computational concepts in
Astadhyayi

•Sanskrit grammar has a robust mechanism generate

to an infinite number of words.
•The following are some of the important common aspects
seen in a computer language and Panini’s rules:
i. Vocabulary exclusively meant for his work
ii. Abbreviated forms (mnemonics) for brevity and better retention of ideas
iii. Exclusive syntax for Astadhyayi
iv. An algorithmic approach to word generation
v. Recursive logic
Computational concepts in
Astadhyayi
 Mahesvara Sutra
•The entire Sanskrit grammar of Panini rests on a fundamental set of
sutras known as Mahesvara Sutras.
•These sutras, 14 in number, present letters of Sanskrit uniquely.
•The first four sutras covers the alphabets in the normal order.
•Sutras 5 to14 present the consonants in a somewhat obscure order than
what are they normally used for.
•Each sutra end with a termination which is a consonant.
 Use of Mnemonics
•In the previous discussion, we saw how the letters
were jointly represented using mnemonics obtained
out of combining set of letters specified through the
Mahesvara sutra.
•Two set of suffixex for generating noun forms and
verb forms; these two are concisely represented
by two mnemonics sup and tin respectively.
 Rule-based Grammatical
Operations

•Panini’s system applying grammatical conditions to

of
derive words exactly like a rule-based engine.
•Sutras from locations of Astadhyayi under
different
various heading come to operate where their conditions
are satisfied.
•The final form remaining after all the operations are carried out is the
word and it becomes eligible for use.
Rule-based Grammatical
Operations
 Logic for Sentence
Construction
•Words are to be grammatically correct in terms of construction.
•Karaka is a concept that helps to link the words in a sentence to the
Kriya (action).
•Kriya and Karaka are the essential elements of any sentence.
•All other elements thatare found in a sentence are
woven around these two.
•Therefore, for a sentence to be complete there
must be a verb, implicit or explicit, denoting an action.
 Logic for Sentence
Construction
•On the other hand, a verb alone cannot make a
meaningful sentence.
•The Sanskrit language uses a concept called
karaka to provide in-built mechanisms for
constructing unambiguous and grammatically
correct sentence.
•A participant involved in the action in some
manner is called Karaka.
Logic for Sentence
Construction
 Logic for Sentence
Construction
•In order to under this, let us consider a sentence,
•“The technician removes the machine form the office in the
morning with a truck.”
•This sentence can be written in Sanskrit as “yantrakarakah
pratah kale yantram vahanena karyalayat apakaroti.”
•The kriya in this sentence is ‘removing’; therefore, every
karaka will create a direct link to the kriya.
 Logic for Sentence Construction
The six Karaka are related to vibhakits (cases) in Sanskrit.
The six karaka (and the corresponding cases) are as follows:
i. Karta- doer: one in whom the cause of action is resident. (first case)
ii. Karma- the focus of the result of an action (second case)
iii. Karana- instrument: That which aids in the attainment of the action.
(third case)
iv. Sampradaya- receiver: That with which the karma desires to get
associated. (fourth case)
v. Apadana- reference point in separation: That which has ability to
create division. (fifth case)
vi. Adhikarana- the locus of the action: That which provides the
substratum, context or references to performed through kartr or
karma. (sixth case)
Logic for Sentence Construction
 Importance of Verbs

•Language is required when we are in action. If no one is

engaged in action, there is no need for language.
•The importance of verbs in further amplified by the fact that
several of the noun roots are also derived from the verb
roots only.
•Since most words (both verb forms and noun forms)
originate from the verb roots (dhatus).
•In Sanskrit, we often find several synonyms for a word;
each synonym for a word derived from dhatu.
 Prefixes for Verb Forms

•Prefixes, known as upa-sargas, are appended to the

verb formsin order to create additional words.
•There are 22 prefixes and one or more of these could be prefixed to
a verb form.
•By adding the prefixes, it is possible to express the meaning in
many ways.
Prefixes for Verb Forms
Role of Sanskrit in
Natural Language
Processing
•Natural Language Processing (NLP) is a branch of linguistics mainly
concerned with processing of natural language data using computers
and programming techniques.
•The principles of karaka and vibhkti will enable us to distill the
components and the encoded information in a sentence.
•Indian linguists have described fourteen determiners to fix the
meaning of a word in case of multiple of a word in case of multiple
meaning.
 Sanskrit inNatural Language
Role of Processing
 Number and measurements
Number System in India- Historical Evidence
• Several archaeological excavations provide evidence about maturity and supremacy
of Indian mathematical foundations.
• The contribution of ancient Indians to the development of mathematical concepts
is well known and acknowledged.
• An inscription on a temple wall in Gwalior dating back to the ninth century CE is
considered the oldest recorded example of a zero.
• Still, surviving Sanskrit texts reveal a rich tradition of Indian mathematical
discoveries lasting more than 2,500 years.
• In the Early Vedic period (1200–600 bc), a decimal system of numbers was already
established in India, together with rules for arithmetical operations (ganita) and
geometry (rekha-ganita).
 Salient Features of the
Indian Numeral System
• The indian numeral system has a long history; the origin and the
evolution of the numbers could be traced from the time of the Vedic period.
• Being an oral tradition, unique and unambiguous names were to be
attributed to the numbers.
• The Sanskrit language has unique names for numbers strating from one and
going upto very large numbers; the first nine digits have unique names
(ekam, dve, trini, catvari, panca, sat, sapta, asta, nava).
Salient Features of the Indian
Numeral System
 The Concept of Zero
and Its Importance
• The concept of zero was established during the period
500-300 BCE.
• Ancient Indians used a decimal System that allowed them
to develop a method for handling large numbers.
• Brahmagupta developed a symbol for zero in 628 CE.
• With this invention zero could be used as an
independent numeral for computational purposes.
 Large Numbers
and their
representation
• Ancient Indians developed a systematic approach
to the number- names that they used to describe
large numbers.Three categories of naming
conventions were emi. ployed to develop the
All numbers
number in theindigits
names from 0 to 9 had unique names
Sanskrit:
(sunya, ekam, dve, trini, catvari, panca, sat, sapta, asta,
nava).
All numbers in the range of 11 to 99 had an additive principle
for naming.
All numbers of higher powers of 10 starting form 102 were
named using multiplicative principle using the unit digits as a
factor for multiplication.
 Unique
approaches to
Represent
Numbers
• Ancient Indian mathematics seamlessly integrated
mathematics with literature and poetry.
• We find well developed systems to address this requirement
and
discuss two of them here:
Bhuta-Samkhya system is a system of expressing
i. numbers by means of words representing certain
entities.
ii
. Katapayadi system employs a technique to convert the
numerals to alphabets using certain rules.
 Bhūtasaṃkhyā (भूतस या) system
• Bhūtasaṃkhyā (भूतसं या) system is a method of
recording numbers in Sanskrit using common
nouns having connotations of numerical values.
• The method was introduced already in astronomical
texts in antiquity, but it was expanded and
developed during the medieval period.
• A kind of rebus system, bhūtasaṃkhyā has also been
called the “concrete number notation”.
Bhūtasaṃkhyā (भूतस या) system
 Katapayadi System
• Another System to convert the numerals to words is to
associate a number to one or more alphabets.
• Using the alphabets in place of numbers, one can construct words,
which by deciphering one alphabet at a time will reveal the
number expressed in the word.
• The advantage of such a system lies in representing large
numbers using a word, which can be easily remembered.
• This provided a very efficient method of presenting results of
complex calculations using number symbols.
Katapayadi System
 Measurement For Time,
Distance and Weight
• In the ancient Indian literature three fundamental
physical measures for quantifying length, time and
weight are found.
• There are several sources in the literatue specifying
units of measurement for these three physical
quantities.
• Three generic measures pertaining to length, weight
and time could be used to measure physical entites.
 Notion of Paramanu
• At the smallest level, there is a fundamental measure called paramanu.
• The measure of Paramanu are as follows:
• Paramanu (length): 2.88 x 10-7 mm
• Paramanu (weight): 5.79 x 10-5 g
• Paramanu (time): 1.31 x 10-5 seconds
Measures for Length
 Mathematics
Mathematics Vedic Hindus evinced special interest in two particular branches of
mathematics, viz. geometry and astronomy. Sacrifice was their prime religious
avocation. Each sacrifice had to be performed on an altar of prescribed size and
shape. They were very strict regarding this and thought that even a slight
irregularity in the form and size of the altar would nullify the object of the whole
ritual and might even lead to an adverse effect. So the greatest care was taken to
have the right shape and size of the sacrificial altar. Thus originated problems of
geometry and consequently the science of geometry. The Chandogya Upanisad
mentions among other sciences the science of numbers. In the Mundaka
Upanisad knowledge is classified as superior and inferior. The term ganita,
meaning the science of calculation, also occurs copiously in Vedic literature.
 Post-Vedic Mathematics
In India, a substantial part of mathematics developed as a sequel to astronomical
advancement; and it is no accident that the bulk of post-Vedic mathematics has been
found only in association with the Siddhantas, a class of astronomical works. Jaina priests
showed remarkable interest in the study and development of mathematics. They
devoted one of the four branches of Anuyoga (religious literature) to the elucidation of
ganitanuyoga (mathematical principles) and prescribed proficiency in samkhyana
(science of calculation) and jyotisa (astronomy) as an important prerequisite of the Jaina
priest. An idea as to the various mathematical topics discussed at this early age and
recognized in later Jaina mathematical works such as the Ganitasarasangraha of
Mahavira (A.D 850) and Ganitatilaka of Sripati (A.D. 999) may be obtained from an extant
passage in the Sthananga-sutra (1 st Cent. B.C.). This passage enumerates: parikarma
(fundamental operations), vyavahara (determination), rajju (geometry), kalasavarna
(fraction), yavat-tavat (linear equation), varga (quadratic equation), ghana (cubic
equation), vargavarga (biquadratic equation), and vikalpa (permutations and
 Arithmetic Decimal Place-value
Numeration:
At first, from the Vedic times the basis of numeration in India has
consistently been ten. Long lists of names for several decimal places
are found in the sacred literatures of the Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists.
The Vajasaneyi, Taittiriya, Maitrdyani, and Kathaka Samhitas give
denominations up to 13 places, e.g. eka (1), daja (10), sata (100),
sahasra (1000),.. .samudra, madhya, anta, and pardrdha. Buddhist
literature continued the same tradition and introduced a centesimal
scale (Jatottara-ganana), obtaining the name talaksana for the 54th
place. The Jains in the Anuyogadvara-sutra (c. 100 B.C.) called the
decimal places ganana-sthana, gave a numerical vocabulary
analogous to that of the Brahmanic literature, and mentioned
fantastically large numbers up to 29 places and beyond.
 Algebra

The differentiation of algebra as a distinct branch of mathematics

took place from about the time of Brahmagupta, following the
development of the techniques of indeterminate analysis (kuttaka).
In fact, Brahmagupta used the terms kuttaka and kuttakaganita to
signify algebra. The term bijaganita, meaning ‗the science of
calculation with elements or unknown quantities‘ (bija), was
suggested by Prthudakasvamin (A.D 860) and used with definition by
Bhaskara II. Brahmagupta gave the following classifications: (1)
ekavarna-samikarana-equations in one unknown, comprising linear
and quadratic equations; (2) aneka-varnasamikarana-equations in
many unknowns; and (3) bhavita-equations containing products of
unknowns. Quadratic Equations: The Sulabhasutras contain
 Geometry, Trigonometry, Calculus
Problems receiving geometrical treatment were discussed under such topics as ksetra
(plane figures), khata (excavations or cubic figures), citi (piles of bricks), krakaca (saw
problems or cubic figures), and chaya (shadows dealing with problems of similarities and
proportions). This mode of treatment continued up to the time of Bhaskara II or even
later. But it was not until the beginning of the eighteenth century that Euclid‘s Elements
was translated into Sanskrit by Jagannatha (A.D 1652) under the title of the Rekhaganita.
Trigonometry was developed as an integral part of astronomy. Without its evolution
many of the astronomical calculations would not have been possible. Three functions,
namely, jyat kojya (also kotijya), and utkramajya, were used and defined in ancient
times.
Calculus: Rudimentary ideas of integration and differentiation are found in the works of
Brahmagupta and Bhaskara II. Bhaskara II, in particular, determined the area and volume
of a sphere by a method of summation analogous to integration
 Chemistry in IKS
eir alloys. In ancient India, chemistry had various names i.e., Rasāyana Śāstra,
Rasatantra, Rasakriyā or Rasavidyā. It included metallurgy, medicine, manufacture of
cosmetics, glass, dyes, inks, etc. Ancient Indians applied that knowledge of chemistry
in various walks of life. The major chemical arts and crafts in early period were
pottery, jewellery making, dying of cloths, tanning of leather, glass making, etc.
Several evidences are available in favour of these in literature and many have been
obtained from archaeological excavations.
Indus Valley people used a number of minerals for a variety of purposes.
Archaeological findings show that baked bricks were used in the construction work.
Gypsum cement has been used in the construction work in which lime, sand and
traces of CaCO3 have been found. Archaeological evidences show the mass
production of pottery in Indus Valley Civilisation or the Harappan culture, which can
be regarded as the earliest chemical process in which materials were mixed,
moulded and subjected to fire to achieve desirable qualities.
 Chemistry in IKS
There is a vast alchemical literature, authored by savants such as Nāgārjuna,
Govinda Bhāgavat, Vāgbhata, Somadeva, Yaśodhara, among many others.
The rasaśāstra texts discuss many chemical substances and their
interactions. They were categorized as follows (with some variations):
• Mahārasas or eight major substances: mica, tourmaline, copper pyrite, iron
pyrite, bitumen, copper sulphate, zinc carbonate, and mercury (sometimes
lapis lazuli and magnetite or lodestone are included);
• Uparasas or eight minor substances: sulphur, red ochre, iron sulphate,
alum, orpiment (arsenic trisulphide), realgar (arsenic sulphide), collyrium
(compounds of antimony), and tinstone or cassiterite (tin dioxide).
• Navaratna’s or nine gems, including pearl, topaz, emerald, ruby, sapphire
and diamond;
• dhatus or seven metals: gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, tin, zinc; a few
alloys (such as brass, bronze and combinations of five metals) were also
included;
• poisons (visha or garala) and plants; among the latter, over 200 are named
in the texts (their identification is not always certain); plants were required,
 Physics in IKS
From the 19th century to the 21st century everyone knows John Dalton who is credited with the
development of atomic theory. But today in this era a very few people know that the atomic theory was
originated about 2,600 years ago by an Indian sage and philosopher.
It is believed that the sage lived between the 6th century to 2nd century BCE. It was Rishi Kanada, an
Indian philosopher who drafted the ideas about the atom in a systematic manner. His real name was to
be known as "Kashyap". Since his childhood, even small things tempted his attention. He is being been
called as the father of the atomism, who propounded the parmanu (atoms), an approach to physics and
philosophy in the approach to physics and philosophy in the Sanskrit text "Vaisesika Sutra".
Kanada's statements about physics are central that is knowable which is based on motion. His imputation
to physics is the understanding of the universe which follows from his invariance principles.
His primary area of study was Rasavadam, which is known to be a type of alchemy. He said that he
presumed that all livings beings are composed of 5 elements: water, fire, earth, air, and ether. He
proposed that Gurutva (Hindi/Sanskrit for gravity) was responsible for the earth, rising of fire and heat
upwards, the growth of grass, the natural rainfall, and thunderstorm. He then attempted to apply his
observations with his theories on atoms, molecules, and their interaction. This atom between the 5th
and 3rd centuries BC, the atom is mentioned in the Bhagavad Gita (chapter 8).
 Physics in IKS
People in ancient times were well aware about electricity. Electricity has been cited in the 5 th Mandal of Ṛigveda.
Example: Oh people! The day and night can be spent in comfort, if electricity and fire, just like the Sun God are
used tactically. ्ासृजन्तत्यस्तं गवां सहस्रैरुश्ासो अग्ने । तीव्रा इन्तर्््न्त्ुुः
सुतासोऽक्तौव्यमुष्टौ परितक्मर्मयायाुः ॥ ऋग्वे् – ष.्३०.१३
The three main sources of Light and Energy mentioned in the Ṛigveda are: 1. The Sun 2. Electricity 3. Fire inside the
Earth ारो
ना
चवरूण त्रीीँरूत द्युन्त्त्रीणण मित्र धारयथो रजाांमि । वावधृ ा नावयततां
्ऋग्वेद ५.६९.१
Different kinds of electricity
• TAḌITA (तडित) – Generated by rubbing silk cloths
• SAUDĀMINĪ (सौदाडिनी) – Generated by rubbing two gems
• VIDYUT (डिद्युत) – Generated from thunder
• ŚATAKUMBHĪ (शतकुंुभी) – Generated by hundred cells of pillars (Kumbha’s)
• HṚDANI (हृदनी) – Stored electricity with portable properties
• AŚANI (अशनी) – Generated from magnetic rods (P. P. Hole –Machines in Samskrit Literature)
The two technical terms ‘Rayi’ and ‘Prāṇa’ are used to mean ‘Positive’ and ‘Negative’ charges in ancient language.
These are always in compound state together naturally. The compound state of these two are collectively called
Electricity.
 Physics in IKS
• Laws of Motion: Invention of laws of motion There are two great scientists behind
the invention of law of motion: (1) Rishi Kanada and (2) Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727).
The Rishi Kanada’s Vaisheshika Sutra [5, 6, 11] Mahrshi Kanada mentioned karma is
related to motion, and there five types of motion: 1) Upward Motion 2) Downward
Motion 3) Motion due to release of tensile stress 4) Shearing stress 5) General
motion.
Matter States: On an interesting note, the above-mentioned value of Paramaanu
corresponds to the organic molecular size as estimated by the modern western
scientists. As mentioned in the Upanishads, the five elements of the nature are - •
Earth • Water • Air • Fire and • Akasa
However, the concept of Akasa was missing amongst the ancient Greek or Roman
philosophers. It was quite easy to deduce the role of the remaining four elements as –
• The Earth represents the solid state • The Water constitutes the liquid state • The
Air forms the gaseous state and • The Fire constitutes of the plasma as the fourth
state of matter.
 Art in IKS
Indian art consists of a variety of art forms, including painting, sculpture, pottery, and textile arts
such as woven silk. Geographically, it spans the entire Indian subcontinent, including what is now
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, and at times eastern Afghanistan. A strong
sense of design is characteristic of Indian art and can be observed in its modern and traditional
forms.
The origin of Indian art can be traced to prehistoric settlements in the 3rd millennium BCE. On its
way to modern times, Indian art has had cultural influences, as well as religious influences such
as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and Islam. In spite of this complex mixture of religious
traditions, generally, the prevailing artistic style at any time and place has been shared by the
major religious groups.
In historic art, sculpture in stone and metal, mainly religious, has survived the Indian climate better
than other media and provides most of the best remains. Many of the most important ancient finds
that are not in carved stone come from the surrounding, drier regions rather than India itself.
Indian funeral and philosophic traditions exclude grave goods, which is the main source of ancient
art in other cultures.
 Art in IKS
Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) view art as a fundamental part of human expression and a way of
understanding the world, encompassing various forms like classical dance, music, literature, and visual
arts, all deeply rooted in Indian culture and spirituality. The spirit, motive and aim of Indian art is to
render the sense of infinity, and the sense of Cosmo city through symbolic forms, forms that are
subtle, forms which are symbolic and forms which are distinctive and which may correspond, in
varying degrees, to the external forms which nature has fashioned in its own ...
Key Aspects of Art within IKS:
•Aesthetic Expression:
•Art is seen as a way to express human emotions and experiences, with Indian classical dance forms
like Bharatanatyam, Kathak, and Odissi, and music with its intricate ragas and rhythms, serving as
powerful mediums.
•Spiritual and Philosophical Roots:
•Indian art is deeply intertwined with spirituality and philosophy, drawing inspiration from ancient texts
like the Vedas, Upanishads, and Puranas, as well as the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.
•Traditional Knowledge:
•IKS emphasizes the importance of preserving and transmitting knowledge through various art forms,
 Examples of Art Forms:

•Classical Dance: Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Odissi, Manipuri,

Kathakali, Kuchipudi.
•Classical Music: Hindustani and Carnatic music.
•Literature: Epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata, ancient texts
like the Upanishads and Puranas.
•Visual Arts: Painting, sculpture, and architecture.
•Traditional Painting Styles: Madhubani, Kalamkari, Warli,
Pattachitra.

•Shilpa shatra: Rock carvings and Idol makings

What are the main features of Indian art?
Traditional Indian art usually had a religious character and
 Art in IKS
The tradition of Indian Classical dance & music is ancient like the flow of the river
Ganga, from the Vedas (Upanisads) to contemporary time. In Indian tradition,
dance and music have been used to express devotion. They form an integral part of
the socio-religious rituals and festivities, to the extent that Bharatmuni’s Natya
Shastra (third century AD) has enjoyed the status of being the fifth Veda. Great
Indian poet Kalidas mentions in Meghaduta that the Mahakal temple in Ujjain
resounded with the sound of the ankle bells of the dancing girls. Several of the
Puranas; Matsaya Purana, Kurma Purana, Bhagwat Purana and Shiva Purana –
recommended that arrangement should be made to enlist the services of singing
and dancing girls to provide vocal and instrumental music and dance at the time of
divine services. The oldest archaeological evidence of dance exists in the form of
pictures and sculptures dating from about 2500 B.C.As it can be closely linked with
religion and ritual dances that are mentioned in the Vedas.
Sangeet Ratnakara written by Sarangdeva in the 13thcentury mentions 264 ragas.
A variety of string and wind instruments were invented over the period of time.
Many rulers patronised music & dance. The Gupta monarch Samudra Gupta was
himself an accomplished musician. In some of his coins, he is shown playing on the
 DANCES OF INDIA

Both dance and music, collectively known as Sangit, became connected with Drama. Like
Indian music and dance has also developed a rich classical tradition. It has a great power of
expression and emotions while telling a story. In India, the art of dancing may be traced back
to the Harappan culture. The figure of Lord Shiva as Nataraja represents the creation and
destruction of the cosmic cycle. The popular image of Shiva in the Form of Nataraja clearly
shows the popularity of dance form on the Indian people. In fact classical dance forms like:
•Kathak, from Uttar Pradesh.
•Bharatanatyam, from Tamil Nadu
•Kuchipudi, from Andhra Pradesh
•Odissi, from Odisha.
•Sattriya, from Assam.
•Manipuri, from Manipur.
•Kathakali and Mohiniyattam, from Kerala are an important part of our cultural heritage
Gradually dances came to be divided as folk and classical. The classical form of dance was
performed in temples as well as in royal courts. The dance in temples had a religious objective
whereas in courts it was used purely for entertainment. In both the cases, the artists devoted
to this art form, found it no less than praying to God.
 Astronomy in IKS
Indian knowledge systems, particularly astronomy, have a rich history, with Vedic texts
and later treatises demonstrating a deep understanding of celestial bodies and their
movements, influencing calendrical systems, religious rituals, and even astrology. -Key
aspects of Indian astronomy:
•Ancient Roots:
•The earliest evidence of astronomical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent can be
traced back to the Vedic period (1500-600 BCE), with hymns and texts indicating
knowledge of cosmological concepts, timekeeping, and the movements of celestial
bodies.
•Vedic Astronomy:
•The Vedic texts, including the Rig Veda, mention the sun, moon, stars, solstices,
seasons, equinoxes, and eclipses, demonstrating an understanding of the natural
divisions of time.
•Vedanga Jyotisa: It is the earliest astronomical text attributed to Maharishi
Lagadha dating back to the 6th century BCE.
•Maharajah Sawai Jai Singh II of Jaipur constructed five astronomical observatories
in northern India (New Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura and Varanasi).
 Astronomy:

•Astronomy and astrology were closely linked in ancient

India, with astronomical principles used for forecasting
horoscopes and understanding the influence of celestial
bodies on various aspects of life. Indian astronomy flowered
in the 5th–6th century, with Aryabhata, whose work, Aryabhatiya
, represented the pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at the time.
The Aryabhatiya is composed of four sections, covering topics
such as units of time, methods for determining the positions of
planets, the cause of day and night, and several other
cosmological concepts.[10] Later, Indian astronomy significantly
influenced Muslim astronomy, Chinese astronomy, European
astronomy and others.[11] Other astronomers of the classical era
who further elaborated on Aryabhata's work include Brahmagupta
 Astrology

Hindu astrology, also called Indian astrology, jyotisha (Sanskrit: ज्योतिष, romanized
: jyotiṣa; from jyót 'light, heavenly body') and, more recently, Vedic astrology, is the

traditional Hindu system of astrology. It is one of the six auxiliary disciplines in

Hinduism that is connected with the study of the Vedas.
The Vedanga Jyotisha is one of the earliest texts about astronomy within the Vedas. [1]

Some scholars believe that the horoscopic astrology practiced in the

[2][3][4]

Indian subcontinent came from Hellenistic influences. However, this is a point of

[5][6]

intense debate, and other scholars believe that Jyotisha developed independently,
although it may have interacted with Greek astrology. [7]

The scientific consensus is that astrology is a pseudoscience and has consistently failed
experimental and theoretical verification.
In the Indian knowledge system, astrology, known as Jyotisha,
is a traditional system of divination and astronomy, rooted in
the Vedas and considered one of the six auxiliary disciplines of
Hinduism. Astrology has holistic approaches and strongly
rooted in Indian minds.
 Crafts and Trade in India
Although a substantial number of non-producing people concentrated in the cities, the age of the Shakas,
Kushans, Satavahanas (200 BC—AD250) and the first Tamil states was the most flourishing period in the
history of crafts and commerce in ancient India.
Arts and crafts in particular witnessed remarkable growth.
The inscriptions of the period mention weavers, goldsmiths, dyers, workers in metal and ivory, jewellers,
sculptors, fishermen, smiths and perfumers as constructors of caves and donors of pillars tablets, cisterns, etc.
to the Buddhist monks. All these suggest that their crafts were in a flourishing condition.
Some of the popular Indian traditional products are Cane and Bamboo handicrafts, Pashmina shawla, Zardozi,
Chikankiri, Bidriware metal handicrafts, block printing, mural art, etc. Throughout centuries crafts have been
embedded as a culture and tradition within rural communities.
One of the oldest cultures in the world is the practice of handicrafts. The Indus Valley Civilization, one of the
world’s oldest civilizations, is the source of many handicrafts, including those made in India. The Indian
handicrafts sector was thriving during the Middle Ages and kept expanding up until the arrival of the British.
After the British and other colonial powers arrived in India, the handicrafts sector found it difficult to compete
in the international market.
 Types of Merchants:

The Garland of Madurai calls the streets broad rivers of people who buy and sell in
the market place. The importance of shopkeepers is indicated by the repetition of the
term apana in the description of the city of Sakala. Its shops appear as filled with
various types of cloth made in Kashi, Kotumbara, and elsewhere. Many artisans and
merchants were organized into guilds called sreni and ayatana, but how these
organizations functioned is indicated neither in the Mahavastu nor in the Milinda-
Panho. Both merchants and craftsmen were divided into high, low, and middle ranks.
The Buddhist texts mention the sresthi, who was the chief merchant of the nigama,
and the sarthavaha, the caravan leader who was the head of the corporation of
merchants (vanijgramo). It also speaks of nearly half a dozen petty merchants called
vanija. They dealt in fruits, roots, cooked food, sugar, bark cloth, sheaves of corn or
grass, and bamboo.
Money Economy:
How did the Indians use the silver and gold currency which came to India from
Rome? The Roman gold coins were naturally valued for their intrinsic worth, but
they may also have circulated in major transactions. In the north, the Indo-Greek
rulers issued a few gold coins, but the Kushans issued gold coins in considerable
 Engineering and Technology in ancient India
In Ancient India not only great accomplishments were achieved in the fields of art and architecture,
literature, philosophy etc., but many natural and pure sciences also flourished and registered remarkable
growth and development. In the realm of astronomy, mathematics, biological, and medical science
ancient Indians made various breakthroughs.
The earliest-known dockyard, which could berth and service ships, was situated at Lothal. Indian
metallurgy was very advanced. The Mehrauli iron pillar of Delhi is seven metres high and has never
rusted, is a testimony to that technology.
India has been contributing to the fields of science and technology since ancient times. Even today,
what we term as ‘traditional knowledge’ is actually based on scientific reasoning. Technology is today
defined as applied science, but early humans developed technologies such as stone-working,
agriculture, animal husbandry, pottery, metallurgy, textile manufacturing, woodcarving, boat-making,
and sailing.
•The first stone tools in the Indian subcontinent go back more than two million years.
•The Neolithic revolution saw the development of agriculture in parts of the Indus and the Ganges
valleys, which in turn triggered the need for pots, water management, metal tools, transport, etc.
•Metallurgy brought about significant changes in human society as it gave rise to an entirely new range
of weapons, tools, and implements.
 Engineering and Technology in ancient India
Technology is today defined as applied science, but early humans developed
technologies — such as stone-working, agriculture, animal husbandry, pottery,
metallurgy, textile manufacture, bead-making, wood-carving, cart-making, sailing,
etc. — with hardly any science to back them up. If we define technology as a human
way of altering the surrounding material world, we find that the first stone tools in
the Indian subcontinent go back more than two million years! (That was long before
the advent of modern man in India, which is thought to have occurred some 70,000
years ago.) Jumping across ages, the “Neolithic revolution” of some 9,000 years ago
saw the development in agriculture in parts of the Indus and the Ganges valleys,
which in turn triggered the need for pots, water management, metal tools, transport,
etc.

Metallurgy after the Harappans

As we have seen, the Indus civilization was essentially bronze-based, while the later
Ganges civilization was iron -based. But it is now known that iron was produced in
central parts of the Ganges valley right from 1800 BCE. Its use became widespread
by about 1000 BCE, and we find in late Vedic texts mentions of a “dark metal”
(krishnāyas), while the earliest texts, such as the Rig-Veda, only spoke