1

The need for transport systems

3.1.2 a
Keywords: surface area, exchange

Lesson Objectives:
• Describe the need for a transport system and
it’s features
• Describe the different components of blood
• Estimate of the size of erythrocytes in a
sample of blood
 The need for a transport system - RECAP

As organisms get bigger, the distances between the

cells gets greater. As diffusion is only effective over very
short distance (approx. 1cm), relying on diffusion, the
organism would not survive.
Organisms therefore need a specialised transport system
to move substances around the body
What is an exchange surface?
(Recap 3.1.1)
 Exchange surfaces
Adaptations to maximise effectiveness:
• Thin Short distance to diffuse
• Large surface area Lots of a substance can diffuse at
once
• Good blood supply Maintains a concentration gradient
• Moist Gases/ soluble substances dissolve

Say why each

feature is useful
 Features of a
transport system
1. A suitable transport medium (normally water based as
water easily dissolves chemicals and can be moved
easily).

2. Vessels to transport the medium – arteries, veins and

capillaries.

3. A pump (or pressure) to transport the medium around

the vessels – the heart.
4. Medium which flows in one direction.
5. Ability to control flow of medium to suit the changing
needs of different parts of the organism.
What is blood?
Blood is essential a liquid called
plasma.
Inside this liquid are:
• Red blood cells
• White blood cells
• Platelets
• Hormones
• Waste products
• Dissolved nutrients
2
Types of Circulatory systems
3.1.2 b
Keywords: open, closed, double

Lesson Objectives:
• Describe the different types of circulatory
systems
• Single closed
• Double closed
• Single open
Single closed circulatory systems

A single circulatory system only

passes through the heart once for
each complete circuit of the body

The heart has 2 chambers.

Because it goes through 2 sets of

narrow vessels, the pressure is low
which limits exchange processes.
 Double closed circulatory system

The blood travels twice through

the heart each circuit. The
ensures relatively high
pressure and fast flow of
blood.
Advantages
The blood only travels
through one capillary
network before
returning to the heart:

• Maintain higher
pressure
• Maintains steeper
conc. gradient
 Closed circulatory systems
The blood is enclosed in blood
vessels and doesn't come directly in
contact with cells.

The blood is pumped under pressure

and things leave through walls of the
blood vessels.

The amount of blood flowing can be

adjusted by widening or narrowing
the blood vessels.
 Open circulatory system
The blood (haemolymph) flows
freely from the heart into body
cavities (haemocoel) and comes
into direct contact with the cells.

This is where exchange takes

place before returning to the
heart through open-ended
vessels.

Ext. Why do you think insects do not have red blood cells of
haemoglobin in their blood?
Fast recall questions
Answers
3
Structure and function of
blood vessels 3.1.2 c
Keywords: artery, vein, capillary

Lesson Objectives:
• Describe and explain the structure and function of:
• Arteries
• Arterioles
• Capillaries
• Venules
• Veins
 What are these?

A
C

B
 What are these?

Artery

Vein Capillary
Artery or vein?
 Remember GCSE

Arteries Veins Capillaries

• Carry blood away •Transport blood to the Single cell thick –

from the heart heart short diffusion
• Thick muscular and •Large Lumen distance
elastic wall •Valves prevent blood Permeable –
• Blood is under flowing backwards substances can be
higher pressure than •Lower pressure exchanged with
in veins tissues
 Artery
Carry blood AWAY form the heart
High pressure
Thick muscular wall
Small lumen to maintain pressure

Thick muscular walls contain elastic

fibres to stretch and recoil

Allows the artery to expand

 Arterioles
Arterioles are small blood vessels that
distribute the blood from an artery to the
capillaries.

An arteriole wall contains rings of smooth

muscle which contract and constrict the
diameter of the arteriole.
This increases resistance to flow and
reduces the rate of flow of blood which
diverts the flow to parts of the body that
are demanding more oxygen.

Further from the heart, the wall contain more

muscle tissue but less elastic tissue, why?
 Capillaries
Very narrow diameter (7μm) reduces blood flow to allow time for exchange
between blood and surrounding cells to take place more efficiently
Thin walls only one cell thick to ensure maximum rate of transfer between
blood and surrounding tissue fluid.
Walls are leaky to allow plasma and dissolved substances to leave the
blood. cell
endothelium
(one cell thick)

lumen
 Red blood cell
Capillary endothelial cell

Capillary wall is one cell thick Very small lumen

 Capillary Beds
Network of capillaries running through tissues
Precapillary sphincters
– Regulate the flow of blood to tissues
 Venule
Capillaries join to form venules. These collect blood from the
capillary bed and lead into veins. The venule wall consists of thin
layers of muscle, elastic and collagen.
 Vein
Outer layer of connective tissue with fibres of collagen (same as
artery).
Thin walls with few elastic fibres and smooth muscle.
Blood flows slowly under low pressure; there is no pulse so the
walls do not need to stretch and recoil.
Wide lumen in order to ease the blood flow.

Valves that prevent the

backflow of blood.
 Valves in veins
Has pocket valves that prevent the backflow of blood.
Blood in the vein is pushed forward by the pressure produced by
the contraction of the nearby skeletal muscles which the vein run
through.

When the muscles relax and stop pressing the pressure drops and
the valves prevent the blood flowing backwards.
Distribution of blood in the circulatory
system
Heart 3%
Pulmonary circulation to lungs 10%
Systemic circulation 87%
Arteries 17%
Capillaries 5%
Veins 65%
Fast recall questions
Answers
4
Formation of tissue fluid
3.1.2 d
Keywords:

Lesson Objectives:
• Describe how tissue fluid is formed
• Explain how it is returned to the circulatory
system
• Apply to exam questions
What is tissue fluid?
 Tissue fluid
Tissue fluid is formed by plasma leaking from capillaries. It surrounds the cells and
supplies them with oxygen and nutrients.
• constantly being formed at the arteriole end of capillary beds
• is constantly being drained away from the cells by lymph vessels
small artery small vein

cells
arteriole venule

lymphatic

capillaries tissue fluid

 Keytems

Hydrostatic pressure The pressure created by a

fluid pushing against the
container that it’s within

Oncotic pressure The pressure created by the

osmotic effects of the solutes
in a solution
Blood entering the capillaries from the arterioles has a relatively high
hydrostatic pressure (blood pressure).
 4.3kPa 1.6kPa
Hydrostatic Hydrostatic
pressure (kPa) High pressure (kPa) Low

Arteriole Venule
end end

Tissue lymphatic
fluid

Oncotic pressure = 1.8kPa

Body
Cells
 Lymphatic system

Drain surplus tissue fluid away from the cells.

Larger lymph vessels transport the lymph into the blood system via subclavian veins
under the collar bone
 Summary of tissue fluid formation
Formation of tissue fluid
• High blood pressure causes hydrostatic pressure (4.3kPa)
• Forces fluid out (filtered through holes in the capillary)
• Large proteins remain in capillary generates opposing force
(oncotic pressure 1.8kPA)

Return of tissue fluid

• Low water potential in capillary due to (plasma) proteins (1.6kPa)
• Water enters capillary by osmosis due to oncotic pressure (still
1.8kPa)
• Lymphatic system drains surplus fluid
 Mark scheme
Formation
• 1. High blood / hydrostatic pressure / pressure filtration;
• 2. Forces water / fluid out;
• 3. Large proteins remain in capillary generates opposing force
(oncotic pressure)

Return
• 4. Low water potential in capillary / blood;
• 5. Due to (plasma) proteins;
• 6. Water enters capillary / blood;
• 7. (By) osmosis;
• 8. Correct reference to lymph (drains surplus fluid)
5
The structure of the heart
3.1.2 e
Keywords: word

Lesson Objectives:
• Recap double circulation
• Describe the external structure of the heart
• Fully label the internal structure of the heart
• Link to the cardiac muscle structure
 The heart recap…
Pumps materials as a fluid quickly around body. It is divided into two
sides.
Double circulatory system:
The external features of the heart
The heart lies just off-
centre towards the left
of the chest cavity and is
made of muscle called
cardiac muscle.

It is surrounded by
inelastic pericardial
membranes which helps
to prevent the heart
from over-distending
with blood.
Why does the heart have arteries on the
outside?
The external features of the heart

Ext. What happens if these become constricted

What has caused the build up of plaque?
 Treating cardiovascular disease
Stents (GCSE)
A tube is inserted inside the artery to keep it open to make sure
that blood can pass through.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-BuazAhs
7uA
 The Heart
Right side Left side
Pulmonary
artery Aorta
Vena Cava Pulmonary vein

2 3 Left atrium
Right atrium 1 4

Right ventricle
(pumps blood to the lungs) Left ventricle
(pumps blood to the rest of
VALVES
the body)
1 Atrioventricular valve (tricuspid)
2 + 3 semi lunar valves Valves Ext. What do you notice about the
4 Atrioventricular valve (bicuspid) muscle on this side of the heart?
 The internal heart structure
4. Deoxygenated 1.Oxygenated
blood enters blood enters
through the vena through the
cava into the right pulmonary veins
atrium into the left
atrium

5. It’s then
2. It’s then
pumped through
pumped through a
a valve (tricuspid)
valve (mitral) into
into the right
the left ventricle
ventricle chamber

6. And then up through the pulmonary 3. And then through the aortic
valve into the pulmonary artery towards valve and out of the aorta to
the lungs the rest of the body
 Summary Questions
1. List the correct sequence of the 4 main blood vessels and
the 4 heart chambers that a red blood cell will pass through
on its journey from the lungs through the heart and body
and back again to the lungs.

2. Why does the left ventricle have a thicker wall than the right
ventricle?

3. Where would you find the following valves:

– Bicuspid?
– Tricuspid?
– Semi-lunar valves?
 Using your heart diagrams and your double
circulation diagrams, describe the path that the
blood follows naming the individual blood vessels. 5 minutes

Hint!! There are 17 keywords to use here. Highlight/ underline them when
you are finished and check spellings
 Peer assess
5 minutes
Keywords to use:
1. Deoxygenated
2. Vena cava Peer assessed by: __________
3. Right atrium
4. Right ventricle
5. Valve * G S N U
6. Pulmonary artery
7. Lungs How many of the 17 keywords have you used?
8. Alveoli
9. Oxygenated
10. Pulmonary vein T:
11. Left atrium • Try to use the key term…
12. Left ventricle
13. Contract
• Check your spelling for …
14. Aorta • Write in full sentences
15. Body tissues • Like to adaptations of the gas exchange system
16. Respiration
17. Double circulation
6
Heart dissection
PAG 2
Keywords: septum, valve

Lesson Objectives:
Follow instructions to dissect a mammalian
heart
Heart dissection
7
The cardiac cycle
3.1.2 f -h
Keywords: word

Lesson Objectives:
• Define key terms: systolic, diastolic, cardiac cycle
• Describe and explain the cardiac cycle
• Atrial systole
• Ventricular systole
• Diastole
• Link to heart sounds
 Key definitions

systolic – contraction

diastolic – relaxation

cardiac cycle – the sequence of events

in one full heart beat of the heart
1. Atrial diastole. Blood is entering the
atria, which are relaxed.

2. Atrial and ventricular diastole

Both the atria and ventricles relax, blood flows through
AV valve and enters atria and ventricles passively

3. Atrial systole, the atria contract and the pressure on blood increases
blood flows through AV valve and the ventricles fill up with blood
Volume of ventricles increases and so does the pressure. Pressure in
arteries is low

4. Ventricular systole and ventricles contact. The volume

of ventricles decreases and the pressure increases .
AV valves close and semi-lunar valves open. Blood flows
into aorta and the pulmonary arteries
 Atrial systole begins
Atrial contraction forces additional
blood into the relaxed ventricles

Ventricular diastole 2
All chambers are relaxed
Ventricles fill passively
Atrial systole ends
Atrial Diastole begins

Ventricular systole 1
Ventricular contraction
pushes AV valves
closed (not enough
Ventricular diastole 1 pressure to open semi
Ventricles relax. Pressure lunar valves)
drops. Blood flows back
against cusps and closes the
semi lunar valves. Ventricular systole 2
Blood flows into the relaxed Ventricular pressure rises, semi
atria lunar valves open and eject the
blood
 Atrial systole

Before atrial systole,

blood flows passively
from the atrium into
the ventricle (through
slightly open AV valves -
bicuspid/tricuspid
valves).
As the atrial fill with blood, the During atrial systole the atrium
pressure increases. contracts and tops off the volume
in the ventricle. The pressure in the
atrium drops after contraction.
Ventricular systole
The AV valves close
when the pressure in
the ventricles exceeds
the pressure in the atria
(due to them filling up).
This marks the start of
ventricular systole.
As the ventricles
contract, the pressure While the ventricles continue
inside increases, contracting, the pressure in the
approaching the pressure ventricles exceeds the pressure in
in the aorta and the aorta and pulmonary arteries;
the semilunar valves open, blood
pulmonary arteries. exits the ventricles.
Ventricular systole

The increase in atrial pressure is

due to the right ventricular
contraction pushing the tricuspid
valve into the atrium and increases
atrial pressure. The valve is prevent
from turning inside out by
tendinous cords.
Ventricular systole When the pressure in the ventricles falls
below the pressure in the arteries, blood
After the peak in in the arteries begins to flow back
ventricular and arterial toward the ventricles and causes the
pressures, blood flow out semilunar valves to close. This marks the
of the ventricles end of ventricular systole mechanically.
decreases.
Diastole

Throughout ventricular systole, the atrium in diastole

has been filling with blood on top of the closed AV
valve, causing atrial pressure to rise gradually.
The pressure in the ventricles continues to drop. The
lower pressure in the ventricles (in comparison),
causes the semi-lunar valves. Both chambers are
relaxed.
Diastole

Both chambers are relaxed. The AV valves open and

start filling the ventricles with blood, ready to start
the cycle again.
 Heart sounds
The sounds of the heartbeat are made
by blood pressure closing the heart
valves, described as ‘lub-dub’.

The lub is the AV valves closing due the

contraction of the ventricles.

The dub is the comes from the semi-

lunar valves closing as a result of the
backflow from the aorta and
pulmonary artery as the ventricles relax
and the pressure is lower.
 Blood Pressure (HSW)
Measured in blood vessels (artery)

Determined by cardiac output and resistance to flow of

blood in vessels

Resistance to flow affected by diameter of blood vessels

Narrower vessels (vasoconstriction)

Wider vessels (vasodilation)

 Recording blood pressure
Systolic blood pressure:
– Maximum blood pressure
– Occurs when ventricles are contracting
(at the end of the cardiac cycle)
Diastolic blood pressure:
– Minimum blood pressure
– Occurs when ventricles are relaxed and
filled with blood (at the beginning of
the cardiac cycle)

We record blood pressure as: Systolic

BP/Diastolic BP
– e.g. 120/80 mm Hg
Diastolic pressure gives clearest
indication of resistance to flow in blood
vessels
 Factors affecting blood pressure
• Cardiovascular centre
– Diameter of blood vessels controlled by stimulation of
sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves
• Smoking
– Nicotine causes vasoconstriction
– Build up of fatty deposits in vessels
• Diet
– High fat diet leads to build up of fatty deposits in blood vessels
• Adrenaline
– Causes selective vasoconstriction & vasodilation
• Increase in blood viscosity
– Excess water loss (sweating/excessive urination)
7
How heart action is initiated and coordinated
3.1.2 (g)

Keywords: sino-atrial, pacemaker

Learning Objectives:
• Describe how the heart beat is initiated:
• SAN
• AVN
• Define the keywords: heart rate, stroke volume
and cardiac output
 The heart beat

In the wall of the right atrium

is a mass of specialised heart
tissue called the sino-atrial
(S-A) node. Also called the
pacemaker.

The cells of the pacemaker,

are myogenic (initiate its own
heart beat) and causes the
heart to beat between 55-70
times each minute.
1. The SAN produces electrical impulses which cause both atria to
contract (systole)

Label on:
The SAN
Right and left
atria
2. This forces open the atrioventricular (AV) valves,
blood flows into the ventricles
There is a band of non-conducting fibres which Label on:
• the AV valves
prevents the atria sending impulses to the • Right and left
ventricles ventricles
• Non- conducting
tissue between
As and Vs
3. A patch of muscle fibres at the top of the interventricular septum,
called the AVN, conduct impulses through the Bundle of His to the tip
of the ventricles. There is a short delay in this node to allow the
ventricles to fill up with blood before contracting Purkyne tissue
Label on:
Bundle of His
Purkyne tissue
4. The two ventricles contract, from the base upward, the AV valves shut
and blood passes through the semilunar valves into the arteries

Label on:
Semi lunar valves
5. As the ventricles are contracting, the atria relax and fill with blood

Label on:
Semi lunar valves
Label check
 Definitions

• Heart rate: number of heartbeats per minute

Heart rate = beats per minute

• Stroke volume: volume of blood (cm3) pumped by

heart in 1 beat
Stroke Volume = blood cm3 per beat
• Cardiac output: stroke volume multiplied by the heart
rate gives the amount of blood (cm3) pumped by heart
in 1 minute
Cardiac Output = blood cm3 per beat X beats per minute = blood per minute
What is the effect of exercise on cardiac output?

Heart rate Stroke Cardiac

(beats/min) Volume Output
(cm3/beat) (cm3/min)

At rest 75 75 5,625

During 180 120 21,600

exercise
 Cardiac muscle structure
Cardiac muscle consists of fibres
that branch, producing cross-
bridges.

These help the stimulus to spread

around the heart, producing a
squeezing action.

They have lots of mitochondria to

supply energy for contraction and
are separated by intercalated discs
which helps to synchronise the
contraction.
8
Specification reference: 3.1.2 (h)

The use and interpretation of

electrocardiograms (ECG’s)

Learning Objectives:
• Describe what an ECG measures
• Describe the parts of an ECG trace
• Link ECG to different rhythms
• Calculate heart rate from an ECG
 Electrocardiograms
Electrical activity of the heart can
be monitored using an ECG

ECG leads are attached to the

body

Gel is applied to allow the

electrical impulses of the heart
to be more easily trans mitted
to the leads.
A healthy trace
Trace animation
 Electrocardiogram (ECG)
P wave represents atria
contraction (only very small).

Q represents electrical impulses

going down the bundle of His.

QRS represents ventricular

contraction.

T represents ventricular
repolarisation.
 Types of Rhythms
Bradycardia = rate of <60 bpm

Normal = rate of 60 60-100 bpm

Tachycardia = rate of >100 100-160 bpm

 Calculating heart Rate

6-Second Method: Have a six second strip, count the QRS complexes
and multiple by 10.
 Ventricular Fibrillation
Impulses originate from several places in the ventricles at a
high rate.
 Ectopic heartbeat

Ectopic heartbeats are when either the atria or ventricle

has an extra beat. The trace below shows an extra
ventricular beat
 Atrial Fibrillation

Atria beating more frequently than ventricles

so no clear P wave is seen.
 Fast recall question
Sino- atrial node

Sets the rhythm of the heartbeat, waves of electrical activity over the atrial walls –
atria both contract at the same time
Non-conducting collagen tissue

Conducts electrical activity from AV node to Purkyne tissue

Carries waves of electrical activity into the muscular walls of R and L ventricles.
Contract at the same time
Electrocardiogram

Tachycardia, bradycardia, ectopic heartbeat, fibrillation

8
Haemoglobin
3.1.2 i
Keywords: dissociate, affinity

Lesson Objectives:
• Describe how O2 is transported in the blood.
• Define partial pressure
• Explain the shape of the oxygen dissociation curve
• Explain the shape of the oxygen dissociation curves
for different animals and for foetal haemoglobin
• Explain the effect CO2 has on the dissociation curve
Recall the components of blood
 Key facts about oxygen
• Oxygen has a low solubility in water.

• Only about 3 ml of O2 are dissolved in each litre of

plasma.
• If we have a total plasma volume of 3 to 5 litres,
only about 9 – 15 ml of O2 can be carried in the
dissolved state.

• The resting body requires 250ml of O2 per minute.

 Oxygen Transport
O2 is transported by the blood either,
– Combined with haemoglobin (Hb) in the red blood cells
(>98%) oxyhaemoglobin or
– Dissolved in the blood plasma (<2%).

Respiratory
pigments are
evolutionary.
• We have 4-6 billion haemoglobin containing red blood cells.
• Each red blood cell contains about 270 million molecules of
haemoglobin.
• The haemoglobin allows nearly 70 times more O2 than dissolved in
plasma.
 What is the advantage of carrying haemoglobin in red blood
cells?

1. Haemoglobin is close to enzymes that maintain or vary

the pigment’s binding property.

2. Within red blood cells, haemoglobin does not affect

osmotic pressure of plasma.

3. Red blood cells clear stagnant plasma near capillary walls

making exchange of O2, CO2, nutrients and waste more
efficient.
 Haemoglobin structure
2α-globin and 2 β-globin polypeptide chains (each
having their own tertiary structure).
“prosthetic” group
 Protein structure recap
Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary
structure structure structure structure
Sequence of amino Forms α-Helix or Shape formed by the Arises from a
acids found in beta pleated sheet. bending, twisting combination of :
polypeptide chains and folding of the • a number of
3-D shape due to the polypeptide helix. different
Sequence H bonds polypeptide
determines Consists of: chains
properties and • Disulfide bonds • non-protein group
functions • Ionic bond
• H bonds.
It is the 3-D structure
that controls how a
protein functions
 What is partial pressure?
It is the individual pressure exerted independently by a
particular gas within a mixture of gasses.
The partial pressure exerted by each gas in a mixture equals
the total pressure times the fractional composition of the
gas in the mixture.
 Quick calculation Q
If atmospheric pressure at sea level is 760mmHg
and air is about 21% oxygen. Calculate the
partial pressure of Oxygen

0.21 x 760mmHg = 160mmHg.

 Association and dissociation of oxygen

When 4 O2’s are bound to haemoglobin, it is 100% saturated,

with fewer O2’s it is partially saturated.
 Affinity for oxygen
Affinity for oxygen – tendency of a molecule to bind with oxygen
At high pO2, oxygen loads onto haemoglobin
At low pO2 it unloads
10
Transporting carbon dioxide
3.1.2 (i)

Keywords: dissociation, carbaminohaemoglobin

Lesson Objectives:
• Describe how CO2 is transported in the blood.
• Explain the shape of the oxygen dissociation curve
• Apply exam questions on the oxygen dissociation curve
Carbon dioxide is transported in 3 ways:

1. 5% dissolved in the plasma

2. 10-20% combined with amino groups on the
polypeptides chains on haemoglobin to form
carbaminohaemoglobin.
3. 75-85% as hydrogen carbonate ions
75-85% as hydrogen carbonate ions

Carbonic acid
Don’t forget carbaminohaemoglobin

carbaminohaemoglobin
Oxygen dissociation curve
 Why is the dissociation curve S-shaped?
‘Positive cooperativity’
At low PO2, oxygen binds to haemoglobin. This binding causes a
change in the position of the polypeptide chains – an ‘allosteric
change’ which makes binding of O2 easier with only a slight increase in
PO2 (steep rise in the slope).

The importance of this means that with small PO2 changes, oxygen can
readily bind onto haemoglobin i.e. in the lungs or readily unloaded in
active tissues.

It flattens of at the top because joining the fourth O2 is more difficult.

In the lungs, PO2 is about 100-110mm Hg
and 98% of the haem groups in the
haemoglobin molecule will bind to O2.
Typical PO2 in resting tissue is about 30-40mm Hg. At this PO2, the haemoglobin is
about 60-75% saturated.
During exercise, the PO2 can drop as low as 15mm Hg. At this level,
78% of O2 is released to the capillary bed.
Dissociation curves for different animals

In small mammals, oxygen dissociation curves

shift to the right. This means that O2
dissociates at higher PO2 allowing extra O2 to
be released when O2 is relatively high.
This means that a mouse can generate more ATP,
producing more heat in the process. As a mouse has a
large surface area to volume ratio. This is important in
ensuring that it can maintain its body heat.
 Foetal haemoglobin
The PO2 in foetal tissues is
very low due to the high
metabolic rate due to high
foetal growth rates.

Therefore foetal Hb has a

higher affinity for oxygen
(picks up more) in such a
low partial pressure.
 Bohr effect
Christian Bohr ‘haemoglobin's
oxygen binding affinity is
related to acidity and to the
concentration of carbon
dioxide’

A decrease in blood pH ( more

H+) or an increase in blood CO2
concentration will result in
haemoglobin proteins
releasing their loads of oxygen
CO2 forms
carbaminohaemoglobin