CELL DIVISION

Cell division
Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into
two or more cells called daughter cells
The newly formed cells could themselves divide and grow thus
allowing a single cell to form a structure consisting of a million of cells
What are the functions of cell
division?
Reproduction
Growth
Repair
 Types of cell division
• There are two distinct types of cell division

 MITOSIS – Each daughter cell duplicates the parent cell

- Cells make exact replicas of themselves
- Observed in almost all body cells
MEIOSIS – The cell divides into four haploid daughter cells
- Sperm or egg cells are produced instead

 BINARY FISSION- is also a type of cell division by single-celled organisms

like bacteria copy themselves for reproduction.
Phases of cell cycle
 There are two primary phases in the cell cycle

I. Interphase - G1, S, G2
II. M Phase (Mitosis phase) – Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase,
Telophase, Cytokinesis.
Phases of the cell cycle cont…
• The cell cycle is a 4stage process which a cell
undergoes as it grows and divides.
• Consists of Gap 1 (G1), Synthesis (S), Gap 2 (G2) and
Mitosi (M)
• After completing the cycle, it either starts the
process again from G1 or exits through G0
• The stages between G1, S, AND G2 are known
collectively as Interphase
G1 PHASE
• Cell increases in size
• Cellular contents are duplicated
S phase
• DNA replication
• Each of the 46 chromosomes(23 pairs) is
replicated by the cell.
G2 phase
• Cell grows more
• Organelles and proteins develop in preparation
for the cell division
M phase
• Mitosis followed by cytokinesis (cell separation)
• Formation of two identical daughter cells
G0 phase
• This is the resting state
• In G0 phase the cell is performing its function
without actively preparing to divide
• For some cells this phase is a permanent state
while for others stay in this state for a while until
they get the right signal to restart division.
Regulation of the cell cycle
• The cell cycle is controlled by various check points at
different stages.
• These detect whether a cell contain damaged DNA and
ensure such do not replicate and divide.
• The restriction point (R) is located at G1 and is a key
checkpoint for most of the cells that pass through the R will
end up completing the entire cycle.
• Other checkpoints are located at the transitions between G1
and S, and G2 and M
Regulation cont’d…..
• Incase a damaged DNA is detected at any check point;
activation of the checkpoint is activated resulting to
increased production of p53 protein production.
• p53 is a tumour suppressor gene that stops
the progression of the cell cycle and starts
repair mechanisms for the damaged DNA
• If this DNA cannot be repaired, it ensures the
cell undergoes apoptosis and can no longer
replicate.
Mitosis
• This is the process by which a eukaryotic cell
separates the nuclear DNA and chromosomes
and divides into two different but similar sets of
nuclei
• Mitosis occupies a portion of cell cycle
• The chromosomes are pulled apart by a mitotic
spindle, which is a specialized structure
consisting of microtubules.
MITOSIS
• Mitosis is conventionally divided into 5 phases:
i. Interphase
ii. Prophase
iii. Metaphase
iv. Anaphase
v. Telophase and cytockinesis
Interphase:

• The DNA in the cell is copied in preparation for

cell division, this results in two identical full
sets of chromosomes.
• Outside of the nucleus are two centrosomes,
each containing a pair of centrioles, these
structures are critical for the process of cell
division.
• During interphase, microtubules extend from
these centrosomes.
Prophase
• This is the first phase of mitosis, the process that
separates the duplicated genetic material carried in the
nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells
• During prophase, the complex of DNA and proteins
contained in the nucleus known as chromatin condenses.
In Xshaped that can be easily seen under a microscope.
• Each chromosome is composed of two sister
chromatids, containing identical genetic information.
Prophase cont,d
• The chromosomes pair up so that both copies of
chromosome 1 are together, both copies of chromosome 2
are together, and so on.
• At the end of prophase the membrane around the nucleus
in the cell dissolves away releasing the chromosomes.
• The mitotic spindle, consisting of the microtubules and
other proteins, extends across the cell between the
centrioles as they move to opposite poles of the cell.
Metaphase:

• The chromosomes line up neatly end-

to-end along the centre (equator) of
the cell.
• The centrioles are now at opposite
poles of the cell with the mitotic
spindle fibres extending from them.
• The mitotic spindle fibres attach to
each of the sister chromatids.
Anaphase:

• The sister chromatids are then pulled

apart by the mitotic spindle which pulls
one chromatid to one pole and the
other chromatid to the opposite pole.
Chromosomes break at the
centromeres and sister chromatids
move to opposite ends of the cell
 Telophase:

At each pole of the cell a full set of

chromosomes gather together.
• A membrane forms around each set of
chromosomes to create two new nuclei.
• The single cell then pinches in the middle to
form two separate daughter cells each
containing a full set of chromosomes within a
nucleus. This process is known as cytokinesis.
Cytokinesis
• The actual cell division occurs here.
• it is the physical process of cell division, which
divides the cytoplasm of a parental cell into two
daughter cells.
• There are two key steps in this phase, namely
cytokinesis and karyokinesis
• Karyokinesis is the process of division of the nucleus.
• Cytokinesis means the process of division of
cytoplasm whereby,the cytoplasm splits in two and the
cell divides.
MEIOSIS
Meiosis introduction
• Meiosis is a type of cell division in sexually reproducing
organisms that reduces the number of chromosomes in
gametes (the sex cells, or egg and sperm)
• A single cell divides twice and produces four daughter cells.
• This daughter cells contain half the amount of genetic
material and are known as sex cells (gametes)
Introduction cont,d
• Meiosis is used for just one purpose in the human body:
the production of gametes -sex cells, or sperm and eggs.
• To put that another way, meiosis in humans is a division
process that takes us from a diploid cell one with two sets
of chromosomes to haploid cells ones with a single set of
chromosomes.
• When a sperm and an egg join in fertilization, the two
haploid sets of chromosomes form a complete diploid set:
a new genome.
Phases of meiosis
• Meiosis is a lot like mitosis
• Cells go through similar stages and uses similar
strategies to organize and separate chromosomes
• However in meiosis the cells have more complex task
• It still needs to separate sister chromatids (the two
halves of a duplicated chromosome), as in mitosis. But
it must also separate homologous chromosomes, the
similar but nonidentical chromosome pairs an
organism receives from its two parents.
Phases of meiosis cont’d
• These goals are accomplished in meiosis using a two-
step division process. Homologue pairs separate during
a first round of cell division, called meiosis I. Sister
chromatids separate during a second round,
called meiosis II.
• Since cell division occurs twice during meiosis, one
starting cell can produce four gametes (eggs or
sperm).
• In each round of division, cells go through four stages:
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
 MEIOSIS 1- TELOPHASE
• Before entering meiosis I, a cell must first go
through interphase.
• The DNA in the cell is copied resulting in two
identical full sets of chromosomes.
• Outside of the nucleus are two centrosomes, each
containing a pair of centrioles; these structures
are critical for the process of cell division.
• During interphase, microtubules extend from
these centrosomes.
Prophase 1
• The copied chromosomes condense into X-shaped structures that can be easily
seen under a microscope.
• Each chromosome is composed of two sister chromatids containing identical
genetic information.
• The chromosomes pair up so that both copies of chromosome 1 are together,
both copies of chromosome 2 are together, and so on.
• The pairs of chromosomes may then exchange bits of DNA in a process called
recombination or crossing over.
• At the end of Prophase I the membrane around the nucleus in the cell dissolves
away, releasing the chromosomes.
• The meiotic spindle, consisting of microtubules and other proteins, extends
across the cell between the centrioles.
Metaphase 1
• The chromosome pairs line up next to
each other along the centre (equator)
of the cell.
• The centrioles are now at opposite
poles of the cell with the meiotic
spindles extending from them.
• The meiotic spindle fibres attach to
one chromosome of each pair.
Anaphase 1
• The pair of chromosomes are then
pulled apart by the meiotic spindle,
which pulls one chromosome to one
pole of the cell and the other
chromosome to the opposite pole.
• In meiosis I the sister chromatids stay
together. This is different to what
happens in mitosis and meiosis II.
Telophase 1 and cytokinesis
• The chromosomes complete their move to the opposite
poles of the cell.
• At each pole of the cell a full set of chromosomes gather
together.
• A membrane forms around each set of chromosomes to
create two new nuclei.
• The single cell then pinches in the middle to form two
separate daughter cells each containing a full set of
chromosomes within a nucleus. This process is known
as cytokinesis.
MEIOSIS II – Prophase II
• Now there are two daughter cells, each with 23
chromosomes (23 pairs of chromatids).
• In each of the two daughter cells the chromosomes
condense again into visible X-shaped structures that
can be easily seen under a microscope.
• The membrane around the nucleus in each
daughter cell dissolves away releasing the
chromosomes.
• The centrioles duplicate.
• The meiotic spindle forms again
Metaphase II
• In each of the two daughter cells the
chromosomes (pair of sister
chromatids) line up end-to-end along
the equator of the cell.
• The centrioles are now at opposites
poles in each of the daughter cells.
• Meiotic spindle fibres at each pole of
the cell attach to each of the sister
Anaphase II
• The sister chromatids are then pulled
to opposite poles due to the action of
the meiotic spindle.
• The separated chromatids are now
individual chromosomes.
Telophase II and cytokinesis
• The chromosomes complete their
move to the opposite poles of the cell.
• At each pole of the cell a full set of
chromosomes gather together.
• A membrane forms around each set of
chromosomes to create two new cell
nuclei.
• This is the last phase of meiosis,
however cell division is not complete
Cytokinesis

• Once cytokinesis is complete there are four

granddaughter cells, each with half a set of
chromosomes (haploid):
• in people with XY chromosomes, these four cells
are all sperm cells
• in people with XX chromosomes, one of the cells
is an egg cell while the other three are polar
bodies (small cells that do not develop into
eggs).