Microprocessor Systems

Introduction to Computing

Refik Caglar Kizilirmak

1
 Outline
• Numbering and Coding Systems
• Inside the Computer
• Brief History of CPU
• The Processor
• Memory
• Memory Address Decoding
2
 Data representation
• Computer is a construction of digital circuits
with two states: on and off
• You need to have the ability to translate
between different representations to examine
the content of the machine
• Common number systems: binary, octal, decimal
and hexadecimal
3
Converting from Decimal to Binary

4
Converting from Binary to Decimal

5
Converting from Binary to Decimal

6
Converting from Decimal to Binary

7
 Hexadecimal system
• Base 16, hexadecimal system, is used as a
convenient representation of binary numbers.
• 100010010110 in HEX is 896H
• In Base 16, first 10 digits 0-9 are the same. For
the remaining six digits we use A,B,C,D,E,F.

8
Hexadecimal System

9
Hexadecimal System

10
Hexadecimal System

11
Hexadecimal System

12
Hexadecimal System

13
Hexadecimal System

14
Hexadecimal System

15
Binary Addition

16
2s Complement

17
2s Complement (signed numbers)

00101

11010 1s complement
1
11011 2s complement
18
2s Complement (signed numbers)

You sacrifice some of the positive

values to represent negative
values.

All negative values start with binary 1.

19
Addition of HEX numbers

20
Subtraction of HEX numbers

21
 ASCII code
• In 1960s, American Standard Code for
Information Interchange (ASCII) assigned 7 bit
patterns to represent all letters in English
alphabet.

22
23
 Outline
• Numbering and Coding Systems
• Inside the Computer
• Brief History of CPU
• The Processor
• Memory
• Memory Address Decoding
24
 Inside the Computer

Kilobyte is 1024 bytes, 2^10 bytes

Megabyte is 1,048,576 bytes, 2^20 bytes

25
 Internal Organization
Central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic circuitry that performs basic arithmetic,
logic, controlling, and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions in the
program

26
 Microprocessor
• A microprocessor is a computer processor where the data processing logic and
control is included on a single integrated circuit.

Intel 8086
Intel i9
27
 Microcontrollers
• A microcontroller has a CPU in addition to a fixed amount of RAM, ROM, I/O ports on one
single chip; this makes them ideal for applications in which cost and space are critical.

Microcontrollers differ in terms of their RAM,ROM, I/O sizes and type. 28

 Microcomputer
• A microcomputer is a small, relatively
inexpensive computer with a microprocessor
as its central processing unit (CPU).
• It includes a microprocessor, memory and
minimal input/output (I/O) circuitry mounted
on a single printed circuit board (PCB)
29
Internal Organization

30
Internal Organization

31
 RAM vs. ROM
• Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Read Only Memory (ROM)

32
 RAM
• RAM gives applications a place to store and
access data on a short-term basis.
• It stores the information your computer is
currently using so that it can be accessed
quickly.
• Not permanent storage.
33
 RAM
• Static RAM (SRAM): uses transistors and latches in
construction
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM): uses capacitors and
transistors.

• SRAM is comparatively faster than DRAM. It

consumes less power but more expensive.
34
 RAM
01100011

01110000
35
 ROM
• Read-only memory (ROM) is a type of non-volatile
memory.
• Data stored in ROM cannot be electronically modified
after the manufacture of the memory device.
• Read-only memory is useful for storing software that is
rarely changed during the life of the system, also
known as firmware.

36
 ROM
• In 80s, BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) firmware was stored
in a ROM chip on the PC motherboard.
• BIOS is firmware used to perform hardware initialization during
the booting process.
• Read-only memory strictly refers to memory that is hard-wired.
(It cannot be reprogrammed after manufacturing.)
• Today, many of these "read-only" memories are often replaced
with EEPROM or Flash memory to allow reprogramming in case
of firmware upgrade arise.
37
 Outline
• Numbering and Coding Systems
• Inside the Computer
• Brief History of CPU
• The Processor
• Memory
• Memory Address Decoding
38
 ENIAC
• Electronic Numerical
Integrator and
Computer (ENIAC)
was the first
programmable,
electronic, general-
purpose digital
computer made in
1945.

39
 TRADIC
• TRAnsistor DIgital Com
puter was the first
transistorized computer
in the USA, completed
in 1954.

40
 IC history
Integrated circuit is a set of electronic circuits on one small flat piece (or "chip")
of semiconductor material.

Jack Kilby
The first IC in 1958.
Nobel Prize in Physics (2000) 41
 Intel 4004
• In early 70s, entire CPU was first built on a
chip.
• Intel 4004, had 4-bit data
bus, 12-bit address but and
2300 transistors.
• Used for hand-held
Intel 4004
calculators.
42
 Intel 8086
• 16-bit data bus (AD0-AD15)
• Register size 16 bit
• 20-bit address bus
• Clock speed 5 / 8 / 10 MHz

Intel 8086
43
Intel family of microprocessors

44
 Outline
• Numbering and Coding Systems
• Inside the Computer
• Brief History of CPU
• The Processor
• Memory
• Memory Address Decoding
45
 The Processor
• The CPU acts as the controller of all actions or services
provided by the system. It keeps executing the Fetch-
Decode-Execute cycle:
1. Fetch an instruction from the memory
2. Decode the instruction (i.e., find out what the
instruction is)
3. Execute the instruction (i.e., perform the action specified
by the instruction).
46
 Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle
RAM
Address Value
Program Counter
0 LOAD 6
CPU 0
1 ADD 7

Instruction Register 2 STORE 6

3 JUMP 1

4 0
Accumulator
5 0

6 1

7 1

47
 Fetch
RAM
Address Value
Program Counter
0 LOAD 6
CPU 0
1 ADD 7

Instruction Register 2 STORE 6

LOAD 6 3 JUMP 1

4 0
Accumulator
5 0

6 1

7 1

48
 Decode
RAM
Address Value
Program Counter
0 LOAD 6
CPU 0
1 ADD 7

Instruction Register 2 STORE 6

LOAD 6 3 JUMP 1

4 0
Accumulator
5 0

6 1

7 1

49
 Execute
RAM
Address Value
Program Counter
0 LOAD 6
CPU 0
1 ADD 7

Instruction Register 2 STORE 6

LOAD 6 3 JUMP 1

4 0
Accumulator
5 0
1
6 1

7 1

50
 Fetch
RAM
Address Value
Program Counter
0 LOAD 6
CPU 1
1 ADD 7

Instruction Register 2 STORE 6

ADD 7 3 JUMP 1

4 0
Accumulator
5 0
1
6 1

7 1

51
 Decode
RAM
Address Value
Program Counter
0 LOAD 6
CPU 1
1 ADD 7

Instruction Register 2 STORE 6

ADD 7 3 JUMP 1

4 0
Accumulator
5 0
1
6 1

7 1

52
 Execute
RAM
Address Value
Program Counter
0 LOAD 6
CPU 1
1 ADD 7

Instruction Register 2 STORE 6

ADD 7 3 JUMP 1

4 0
Accumulator
5 0
2
6 1

7 1

53
 Fetch
RAM
Address Value
Program Counter
0 LOAD 6
CPU 2
1 ADD 7

Instruction Register 2 STORE 6

STORE 6 3 JUMP 1

4 0
Accumulator
5 0
2
6 1

7 1

54
 Decode
RAM
Address Value
Program Counter
0 LOAD 6
CPU 2
1 ADD 7

Instruction Register 2 STORE 6

STORE 6 3 JUMP 1

4 0
Accumulator
5 0
2
6 1

7 1

55
 Execute
RAM
Address Value
Program Counter
0 LOAD 6
CPU 2
1 ADD 7

Instruction Register 2 STORE 6

STORE 6 3 JUMP 1

4 0
Accumulator
5 0
2
6 2

7 1

56
 Fetch
RAM
Address Value
Program Counter
0 LOAD 6
CPU 3
1 ADD 7

Instruction Register 2 STORE 6

JUMP 1 3 JUMP 1

4 0
Accumulator
5 0
2
6 2

7 1

57
 Decode
RAM
Address Value
Program Counter
0 LOAD 6
CPU 3
1 ADD 7

Instruction Register 2 STORE 6

JUMP 1 3 JUMP 1

4 0
Accumulator
5 0
2
6 2

7 1

58
 Execute
RAM
Address Value
Program Counter
0 LOAD 6
CPU 1
1 ADD 7

Instruction Register 2 STORE 6

JUMP 1 3 JUMP 1

4 0
Accumulator
5 0
2
6 2

7 1

59
 Fetch
RAM
Address Value
Program Counter
0 LOAD 6
CPU 1
1 ADD 7

Instruction Register 2 STORE 6

ADD 7 3 JUMP 1

4 0
Accumulator
5 0
2
6 2

7 1

60
 Notes
• Previous example is indeed executing the
following code
var x = 1;
while (true) {
x = x + 1;
}

61
 Outline
• Numbering and Coding Systems
• Inside the Computer
• Brief History of CPU
• The Processor
• Memory
• Memory Address Decoding
62
 Semiconductor Memory
• Semiconductor memories are used as primary
storage of code and data that the CPU first
asks for the information.
• Among most widely used semiconductor
memories are RAM and ROM.

63
 Memory Capacity
• The number of bits that a memory chip can
store is called memory capacity.

64
 Memory Organization
• Memory chips are organized into a number of
locations within the IC.
• Each location can hold 1 bit, 4 bit, 8 bit or
even 16 bit (depends on how it is designed).
• Number of locations (2n) depends on number
of address pins (n).
65
 Memory Organization
• Number of locations (2n) depends on number
of address pins (n).
• Number of bits (m) at each location is equal to
number of data pins (m).
• 2n x m is referred as organization of the
memory
66
 Access Time
• Speed of the memory chip is one of the most
important characteristics.
• The address is presented to address pins, after
some time, data shows up at the data pins.
• The speed of memory chip is called access
time.
67
 Access Time
Device Access Time
Static RAM (SRAM) 5-15 nanoseconds
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) 50-70 nanoseconds
Solid State Disk (SSD) 0.1 milliseconds
Hard Disk drive (HDD) 6-12 milliseconds
CD-ROM 80-800 milliseconds

68
Example

69
Example

70
 Read Only Memory (ROM)
• ROM is a type of memory that does not lose
its content when the power is switched off.
(nonvolatile memory)
• There are different types of ROM
-PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, Flash ROM, mask
ROM
71
 PROM (Programmable ROM)
• PROM is user programmable
ROM, after manufacturing.
• For every bit of PROM, there
exists a fuse and PROM is
programmed is by blowing the
fuses (“burning”).
• So, it is one-time programmable.
• The data is then permanent and
cannot be changed.
72
PROM

73
 EPROM
• EPROM allows changes
the content of PROM
after it is programmed.
• EPROM chips have UV
window to erase the
content. It takes time.

74
 EEPROM
• Electrically erasable PROM.
• In EEPROM, user can select
which byte to be erased.
93C06-CB1 - 4K 256 X 16 Serial EEPROM

(4Kbit, n = 8, m = 16)

75
 Flash Memory
• Flash memory is an electronic non-
volatile computer memory storage
medium that can be electrically
erased and reprogrammed.
• Flash memory is used in computers,
digital audio players, digital
cameras, mobile phones,
synthesizers, video games, scientific
Earlier versions were erasing entire
instrumentation, industrial robotics, content. Later, erasure region broken
and medical electronics. up into smaller "fields“.
76
 Mask ROM
• Mask ROM is kind of ROM that the content
was programmed by the IC manufacturer.
• It is cheaper than other ROMs.

77
 BIOS Chip
• Originally, BIOS firmware was stored in a ROM chip on the PC
motherboard.
• In modern computer systems, it is using Flash Memory.

78
 RAM
• RAM is volatile memory since cutting off the
power will mean the loss of data.
• There are different types of RAM
- Static RAM, dynamic RAM, DDR SDRAM,
VRAM

79
 Static RAM (SRAM)
• Storage cells are made of flip-flops.
• Each cell requires 1 flip-flop, made of multiple
transistors.

80
001

81
 SRAM (6116 2Kx8)
• A0-A10 address inputs, 211 = 2K
• I/O0 – 1/O7 8 bit data line
• WE (write enable) to write into
RAM
• OE (output enable) for reading
from RAM
• CS (chip select) is used to select
the memory chip

82
Internal Diagram of 6116

83
 Memory Write Timing
1) Provide address to pins A0 – A10
2) Activate CS pin.
3) Make WE = 0
4) Provide data to pins I/O0 – I/O7
5) Make WE = 1 and data will be written on the positive edge of the WE signal.

84
 Memory Read Timing
1) Provide address to pins A0 – A10. This start of access time (tAA). (50-150 nsec)
2) Activate CS pin.
3) Ahigh to low pulse on the OE pin will read the data out of the chip.

85
 DRAM
• In 1970, Intel Corporation introduced the first dynamic RAM.
– Density (capacity) was 1024 bits. It used a capacitor to store
each bit.
– After the 1K-bit (1024) chip came the 4K-bit in 1973. Advancing
steadily, until the 256M DRAM chip in the 1990s.
• Using a capacitor to store data reduces the total number of
transistors needed to build the cell.
• Use of capacitors as storage cells in DRAM results in a much
smaller net memory cell size. They require constant refreshing
due to leakage 86
 DRAM
• Cheaper cost & lower power consumption per
bit.
• The disadvantage is that it must be refreshed
periodically, as the capacitor cell loses its
charge

87
 DRAM
• Each cell consists
of a transistor and
a capacitor.

88
 Synchronous DRAM
• Synchronous dynamic RAM (SDRAM)
significantly revises the asynchronous memory
interface, adding a clock (and a clock enable)
line. All other signals are received on the rising
edge of the clock.

89
 SDR and DDR Transfers
• In computing, a computer bus operating with
double data rate (DDR) transfers data on both
the rising and falling edges of the clock signal.

90
 DDR SDRAM
• Double data rate SDRAM
(DDR SDRAM or DDR) was
a later development of
SDRAM, used in PC
memory beginning in
2000.
• Subsequent versions are
numbered sequentially
(DDR2, DDR3, etc.).
91
 Outline
• Numbering and Coding Systems
• Inside the Computer
• Brief History of CPU
• The Processor
• Memory
• Memory Address Decoding
92
 Memory Address Decoding
• The CPU provides the address of the data desired,
but it is the job of decoding circuitry to locate the
memory chip where the desired data is stored.
• For example, the 8086 issues 20-bit addresses for
a total of 1MB of memory address space. Usually,
address bus of the CPU is wider than the address
space in a memory chip.
93
 Memory Address Decoding
• In order to splice a memory device into the
address space of the processor, decoding is
necessary.
• Out of 1MB (20-bit) address space, memory can
have 15-bit addresses.
• Memory can be placed in any 15-bit section of
the 1MB address space.
94
8086 - 32Kx8

95
 8086 – 32Kx8
• Lower bits of address bus directly go directly to the memory.
• Upper bits are used to activate memory chip.
• Here, A15-A19 should be 10000

96
8086 – 32Kx8

97
8086 – 64Kx8

A16 – A19 : 1001 to activate

98
 8086 – 64Kx8
A16 – A19 : 1001 to activate

99