MAJOR ANATOMY OF HUMAN

BRAIN: SURFACE AND

INTERIOR

Dr. Biswajit Dey

Assistant Professor, SBF
NFSU
 The eponyms of several anatomical
structures can date back to the first
anatomists in history, such as
Erasistratus (304 BC – 250 BC),
Herophilus (335 BC – 280 BC),
Alcmaeon of Croton (6th Century BC),
Hippocrates (460 BC – 375 BC) and
many…
 In very early age major organs of the
body were considered to be located
inside the abdominal cavity, for
example, heart and liver

 The “cardiocentric” view was replaced

by an “encephalocentric” theory,
postulated by Alcmaeon of Croton, who
identified the brain as the center of
human intelligence
 During the Italian Renaissance, many
multitalented men of genius contributed to
the artistic and scientific advancement of
anatomy

 Donatello (1386–1466), who is considered

the first artist who dissected human bodies,
Michelangelo (1475-1564), Eustachius
(1500-1574), Vesalius (1514-1564), and
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), the latter
considered the “founder of physiologic
anatomy”
 The brain is formed by three parts: the
cerebrum, cerebellum and brain stem, all
included in the neurocranium
 The cerebrum is composed of two
hemispheres, right and left, separated by
the longitudinal fissure and interconnected
with each other mainly by the corpus
callosum. For each hemisphere, three
surfaces (lateral, medial and basal) and
three poles (frontal, temporal and occipital
poles) can be differentiated.
Lateral CH
Medial CH
Basal CH
 The brain is covered by meninges. The

cerebral falx is the portion of dura mater

running in the depth of the longitudinal
fissure, separating the two hemispheres,
except in its more anterior part, where
the medial faces of the frontal lobes
(cingulate gyri) face each other
SKULL

 The neurocranium has two components,

the “hub” (calvaria), and the floor of
the cranial cavity, on which the brain
rests, defined as the skull base (skull
base)
 For the clinico-anatomical relationship
between the foramina of the skull base
and the cranial nerves
 Calvaria
The cranial vault is formed by the
frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal
bones, with some contributions from
the greater wing of sphenoid bone
The frontal bone is formed by a
vertical portion, which corresponds to
the forehead, and a horizontal portion,
forming the roofs of the orbital and
nasal cavities
 The two parietal bones form part of the

lateral sides and roof of the cranium

 The occipital bone forms the
posterolateral and posterior part of the
cranial vault, contributing to the
formation of the floor of the posterior
cranial fossa
 Cranial Fossa contains a central large oval

aperture, the foramen magnum

 The temporal bone has a pars petrosa: No. 1

in green (border of the middle cranial fossa),

a pars tympanica: No. 2 in blue and a pars
squamosa: No. 3 in yellow (concurring with
the formation of the lateral cranial vault)
Temporal Bones
Major Foramina of the
Skull
 The major foramina and their
associated venis, arteries and nerves
are summarized in the following slide
Foramina of the Olfactory nerve bundles from the nasal
lamina cribrosa mucosa to the olfactory bulb
Anterior and posterior Anterior and posterior artery and vein
ethmoidal foramina
Optic canal Optic nerve and ophthalmic artery
Superior orbital fissure Nerves III, IV, V (V1: ophthalmic nerve), superior
and inferior ophthalmic veins
Inferior orbital fissure Inferior ophthalmic vein, infraorbital nerve
Foramen rotundum Trigeminal nerve (V2: maxillary nerve)
Foramen ovale Trigeminal nerve (V3: mandibular nerve)
Foramen spinosum Middle meningeal artery and vein
Foramen lacerum Internal carotid artery with sympathetic plexus
Internal auditory Nerves VII, VIII and intermedius, labyrinthine
meatus artery
Jugular foramen Nerves IX, X, XI, convergence of inferior petrous
sinus and sigmoid sinus into jugular vein
Hypoglossal canal Nerve XII

Foramen magnum Medulla oblongata, vertebral arteries, spinal

roots of the nerve XI, spinal arteries
Cranial Fossa and
Foramina
Cranial Nerves
I: Olfactory nerve: It is formed by about 20 fila
olfactoria, where the olfactory fibers from the
mucosa they reach to the olfactory bulb
 The olfactory bulb is a rostral enlargement of
the olfactory tract, where mainly the mitral
cells project their axons to the olfactory
cortex via the medial and lateral olfactory
stria ( bundle of nerve fibers)
 The lateral olfactory stria is more prominent,
projecting to the primary olfactory cortex,
whereas the medial olfactory stria carries
impulses to the limbic system (emotional
response to odors)
Cranial Nerves
II: Optic nerve: A bundle of nervous
fibers, which leave posteriorly the
retina to reach the optic chiasm,
carrying visual information
 It is important to emphasize thatthe
olfactory nerve as well the optic nerve
are tracts of the central nervous system
and not true nerves
 The optic nerve passes through the
optic canal.
 The nerve joins the contralateral optic
nerve in the optic chiasm, where
approximately 50% of the axons cross
the midline
 Posterior to the chiasm a great portion of
the axons reach, by means of the optic
tract, the lateral geniculate body, from
where the sensory neurons reach the
occipital (calcarine) cortex via the optic
radiations (geniculocalcarine tract, or
Gratioliet’s radiations).
III: Oculomotor nerve: It innervates all the
extrinsic muscles of the eye, except the
lateral rectus muscle and the superior
oblique muscle
 This nerve originates in mesencephalic
nuclei, leaving the mesencephalon from
the oculomotor sulcus, medially to the
cerebral peduncle
 This nerve controls the voluntery and
involuntery movement of the eyes
IV: Trochlear nerve: This nerve originates
in the mesencephalic tegmentum, on
the contralateral side and enter the
orbits via the superior orbital fissure to
innervate the superior oblique muscles
of the eyes
 Injury to the trochlear nerve cause
weakness of downward eye movement
with consequent
vertical diplopia (double vision)
 Problems happen for ex. walking down
 V: Trigeminal nerve: At its origin on the
ventral surface of the pons, the
trigeminal nerve is formed by a radix
major (sensitive), and a radix minor
(motor)
 The trigeminal nerve sends signals
about touch, pain, and temperature
from the face to the brain. It helps in
chewing food also
 VI: Abducens nerve: It emerges from
the latero-ventral side between the
pons and medulla and enters the orbit
via the superior orbital fissure
 The lesion of the sixth nerve causes
paralysis of the abduction of the eye
(abnormal position of pupil in the eye
and lateral movement of the eyes)
 VII: Facial nerve: It has motor and autonomic
fibers with minor somatosensory components
 Special visceral efferent (SVE) motor
innervation is to the muscles of facial
expression and exits the skull through the
stylomastoid foramen deep to the parotid
gland
 Damage to these fibers results in ipsilateral
facial paralysis (facial palsy)
 Lesions of the facial nerve can also cause
loss of taste (in the anterior two-thirds of the
tongue)
 VIII: Vestibulocochlear nerve: It is formed by
two distinct nerves, the vestibular nerve
(balance information) and the cochlear nerve
(hearing)
 This nerve conveys special sensory afferents
(SSA) from the inner ear to the cochlear
nuclei and the vestibular nuclei in the caudal
medulla oblongata
 Lesion may lead to tinnitus and progressive
hearing loss, dizziness, nausea, to the
involvement of the nearest nerve, such as
the facial nerve, trigeminal nerve or the
lower cranial nerves
 IX: Glossopharyngeal nerve: The
glossopharyngeal nerve carries sensory,
efferent motor, and parasympathetic fibers
 Special visceral efferent fibers (branchial
motor) are the main motor fibers of the
glossopharyngeal nerve and supply motor
innervation to the stylopharyngeus muscle
 This muscle elevates the larynx and
pharynx, especially during speaking and
swallowing
 X: Vagus nerve: It “wanders” within the
body and has thelong course of the nerve
from the brain stem to the colon, reaching
several organs in the thorax and abdomen
 Lesions of this nerve result in paralysis of
the vocal cord (resulting in dysphonia)
 An interesting clinical correlation is that
hyperactivity of the vagus nerve causes
hypersecretion of gastric acid, the reason
why a selective vagotomy was used in the
past to treat this disease.
 XI: Accessory nerve: It is formed by
axons coming from the upper cervical
spinal cord, ascending into the skull
through the foramen magnum, and
converging into the nerve, which leaves
the skull thorough the jugular foramen
 Lesions of this nerve result in drop of
the shoulder, with downward and lateral
rotation of the scapula, in addition to
weakness in the rotation of the head
 XII: Hypoglossal nerve: From its nucleus
in the medulla oblongata, the axons
emerge from the brain stem from the
ventrolateral sulcus
 Cranial nerve XII, the hypoglossal
nerve, is responsible for the general
somatic efferent (GSE) innervation of
the intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of
the tongue
 Damage to the nucleus or nerve fibers
results in tongue deviation
MENINGES, CISTERNS AND
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

 The brain is covered by meninges, a

three-layer connective tissue

 The first layer, adherent to the
cortex, is the pia mater; the
intermediate layer is the arachnoid
mater, while the third layer, the most
external and thick, is the dura mater
 The pia mater is strictly adherent to
the cortex, while the arachnoid has a
space below, which is much larger in
some specific cavities. These spaces
are defined as cisterns, which are
areas of subarachnoid space, always
filled with cerebrospinal fluid, and
frequently by neurovascular
structures (blood vessels and nerves)
 The external meningeal layer or Dura
Mater is formed by several different
histological sheets of collagen, joined
together in an internal layer and an
external periosteal layer, the latter
strictly adherent to the bone
 The dura mater is crossed by
meningeal arteries, veins and nerves
 Three arterial systems vascularize
meninges, of which the middle
meningeal artery is the most
significant. The middle meningeal
artery comes from the maxillary
artery entering the middle cranial
fossa via the foramen spinosum. The
artery leaves an impression on the
endocranial surface of the skull,
leaving some frontal and temporo-
parietal branches
 The dura mater has two layers:
Periosteal Layer touching the
neurocranium and an inner
meningeal layer, aka. Dural border
cell layer
 The epidural space is a virtual space,
because the periosteal layer and
dura mater are apparently fused
together
 some conditions (meningeal tumors
or bleeding) can fill this virtual
space, splitting the dura mater from
the internal layer of the cranial vault.
A fracture of the calvaria or skull
base along the course of the middle
meningeal artery, for example, can
cause laceration of this artery, and
the accumulation of arterial blood
(i.e., under high pressure) in the
epidural space
 This condition is called “epidural
hematoma”, a neurosurgical emergency
which requires immediate treatment to
save the life of the patient
 Epidural haematoma causes, in fact,
compression of the underlying ipsilateral
hemisphere, which shifts its structures to
the contralateral side (the so-called
“midline shift)
 The condition results in contralateral
weakness and ipsilateral mydriasis
 Meninges are the physical barrier
protecting the brain, and are also a
useful landmark to localize lesions
 As discussed, epidural hematomas
occur over the dura mater, there are
other similar conditions diagnosed in
meningeal anatomy
 Accumulation of blood below the
dura mater is defined as subdural
hematoma
 Even if classically described as
bleeding occurring between
arachnoid and dura mater, from the
histological point of view the
“subdural” hematoma is, more
correctly, “intradural”, occurring
between the different histologic
 The subarachnoid hematoma is an
accumulation of blood between the
pia mater and arachnoid, generally
caused by the rupture of arteries
which run in the subarachnoidal
space
Ventricles-Cisterns-CSF

 Ventricles are the cavities in the

brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF). There are two lateral
ventricles, located in the
hemispheres, communicating by
means of the interventricular
foramen (foramen of Monro) with the
third ventricle
 The lateral ventricles are C-shaped
within the hemispheres, with a
frontal horn, a cella media, a horn in
the occipital lobe and a caudal
extension in the temporal lobe
(temporal horn)
 The distal part of the third ventricle
opens into the aqueduct (of Sylvius),
a single midline canal located in the
mesencephalon, by which the CSF
reachs the fourth ventricle, in the
rhombencephalon
 At the level of the fourth ventricle,
CSF passes outside the brain into the
cisterns of the posterior cranial fossa
and spinal cord
Ventricular System
CSF

 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a

clear, colorless transcellular body
fluid found within the meningeal
tissue that surrounds
the vertebrate brain and spinal cord,
and in the ventricles of the brain
 CSF is produced by the cells of the
choroid plexus, spongey structures
located within the ventricles
 CSF produced by the choroid plexus
circulate within the ventricles (from
the lateral ventricles to the third via
foramen of Monro and from the third
to the fourth ventricle via aqueduct),
to enter the subarachnoid space,
outside the fourth ventricle
 CSF fills the subarachnoid cisterns of
the brain and, via the foramen
magnum, reaches the subarachnoid
space of the spine, where the greater
portion of it is reabsorbed by
capillaries
 Normally, the volume of CSF in
adults 21 is about 150-200 ml
Pulse of CSF from MRI
CSF Cont…
Production

 CSF is formed by choroid plexuses,

situated within the ventricles
 Choroid plexuses are bunches of
capillary projections present inside
the ventricles and are covered by pia
mater and ependymal covering
 They are produced mostly in the
lateral ventricles in 0.3 mL per
minute
CIRCULATION OF CEREBROSPINAL
FLUID
 Major quantity of CSF is formed in lateral
ventricles and enters third ventricle by passing
through foramen of Monro
 From there, it passes through fourth ventricle

through cerebral acqueduct (aqueductus Sylvius)

 From fourth ventricle, CSF enters the cisterna

magna and cisterna lateral is through foramen of

Magendie (central opening) and and foramen of
Luschka (lateral opening)
 From cisterna magna and cisterna
lateralis, CSF circulates through
subarachnoid space over spinal cord
and cerebral hemispheres
 It also flows into central canal of
spinal cord
Functions
Protective and Supportive Function

1) Buffers the brain from shock: As CSF and brain mass

have almost similar specific gravity the brain floats in

CSF

When brain receives an external blow, CSF acts like a

cushion to prevent the movement of the soft tissue of

the brain against the skull

The CSF supports the weight of the brain estimated

at 1500 gm and suspends it in neutral buoyancy to a

net weight of about 25 to 50 gm

2) Homeostasis
 Maintains stable intrinsic CNS
temperature
 Biochemical constituents and
electrolytes maintain the osmotic
pressure responsible for normal CSF
pressure which is essential to
maintaining normal cerebral
perfusion
 Biochemical waste products diffuse into the

CSF and are removed as CSF is reasorbed

through arachnoid granulations into venous
circulation, a small percentage of CSF also
drains into lymphatic circulation
 Metabolic waste products diffuse rapidly into

CSF and are removed into the bloodstream as

CSF is absorbed
CSF Cont…

3) Nutrition - The CSF contains glucose, proteins,

lipids, and electrolytes, providing essential CNS
nutrition

4) Prevention of brain ischemia: The prevention

of brain ischemia is aided by decreasing the
amount of CSF in the limited space inside the
skull

This decreases total intracranial pressure and

facilitates blood perfusion
Cisterns

 There are areas where the CSF will

accumulate due to spaces between
the two innermost brain layers
 These areas are known as
the subarachnoid cisterns
Cisterna Magna

The cisterna magna (also known as the

cerebellomedullary cistern) is the largest of
the subarachnoid cisterns. It is located
between the medulla anteriorly and
the cerebellum posteriorly. The cistern
receives CSF from the diamond shaped fourth
ventricle via the median and lateral apertures
Pontine Cistern
 The pontine cistern can be found anterior to
the pons. It contains the following:
 basilar artery, which is formed by the
unification of the two vertebral arteries at
the caudal border of the pons
 anterior inferior cerebellar artery
 abducens nerve (cranial nerve 6), which
innervates the lateral rectus muscle and
abducts the eye
 superior cerebellar arteries
Chiasmatic Cistern
 The chiasmatic, or suprasellar cistern
is located above the sella turcica and
below the hypothalamus
 It contains the optic
chiasm and pituitary stalk.
Interpeduncular Cistern
The interpeduncular cistern is a
relatively wide and cone-shaped cistern
occupying the interpeduncular fossa
It is located at the confluence of the
supra- and infratentorial subarachnoid
space between the two temporal lobes
The cistern is surrounded by
the cerebral peduncles
Quadrigeminal Cistern
 The quadrigeminal cistern is also known as
the superior cistern, ambient cistern or
cistern of the great cerebral vein
 The precise location is between the
splenium of the corpus callosum and the
upper surface of the cerebellum, i.e. dorsal
to the midbrain
 The cistern extends laterally around the
midbrain, from the great cerebral vein to
the third ventricle
Crural and Carotid Cisterns
 The crural cistern can be found
surrounding the ventrolateral aspect
of the midbrain, between
the parahippocampal gyrus and
the cerebral peduncle. Within it,
the medial posterior choroidal
artery can be found
Insular Cistern
 The Sylvian or insular cistern can be
located between the temporal lobes
and the frontal lobes. It is bordered
by the arachnoid surface of
the Sylvian fissure and contains
several arteries, including the middle
cerebral artery
Cerebellopontine Angle Cistern
 Another relatively small cistern is the
cerebellopontine angle cistern. The
precise location is between
the pons and the cerebellum
Cistern of the Lamina Terminalis
 Next we have the cistern of the
lamina terminalis, which can be
found in the shape of a high-top tent
just anterior to the lamina terminalis.
It contains:
 anterior cerebral arteries, as well as
the vessel that connects them
 anterior communicating artery
 arteries to the hypothalamus
Lumbar Cistern
 Medullary cone (dorsal view)Finally
we have the lumbar cistern, which is
not located within the skull, but
rather within the spinal canal at its
very termination
Cerebral Cortex

 Brain cortex has a multilayer structure,

from the six layers of the neocortex to
the three layers of the archicortex
 An exemplary structure possessing
archicortex is the hippocampus, in the
limbic system.
 The paralimbic structures, such as the
insula, parahippocampal gyrus and
cingulate gyrus, have a transitional
cortex (thus called mesocortex)
 The six typical layers of the neocortex
are described here (beginning from the
surface to the deeper layers
 I: Molecular layer
 II: External granular layer
 III: External pyramidal layer
 IV: Internal granular layer
 V: Internal pyramidal layer
 VI: Multiform layer
 It can be summarized that the
molecular layer comprises mostly
neuronal interconnecting
arborizations; the two granular layers
contain mostly small pyramidal and
non-pyramidal cells, while the two
pyramidal layers contain mostly
large pyramidal cells
 A special kind of large pyramidal
cells are the so-called “Betz giant
pyramidal cells” (in layer 5), which
are the first motoneurons of the
pyramidal tract, giving rise to the
axons forming the corticospinal and
corticobulbar tracts.
 According to the different distribution
of the layers in the different areas of
the brain, the cortex can be defined
as “agranular” (where there is a
predominance of pyramidal cells, for
example, in the motor area) and
“granular” (where there is an
abundance of granular cells, such as
in the somatosensory areas)
 According to the different
cytoarchitectures, several maps of
the cortex have been carried out, of
which the most famous and popular
is the Broadmann’s map, which
divides the whole cortex into 52
areas
 Each cortical area is involved in different
functions
 According to their function, lesions in each
anatomical region of the cortex can produce
some specific neurological deficits,
summarized in different pathology, such as:
 Agnosia
 Apraxia
 Aphasia
 Epilepsy etc.
Surfaces of the
hemispheres
Lateral Surface
 The surface of the brain exhibits a high
variability, as several distinct patterns of
the sulci have been described
 The classic anatomic terminology of the
four cerebral lobes of the convexity is
related to the name of the overlying cranial
bone (the “fifth” lobe, the insula, is instead
“buried” in the depth of the lateral fissure,
making it necessary to split the frontal
from the temporal lobe to reach it)
 The lateral surface of the brain is
formed by the brain convexity,
underlying the cranial cap
 After the careful removal of the
meninges (dura mater and
arachnoid, while the pia mater is
much too thin and adherent to the
glial membrane to be removed from
the cortex), it is possible to visualize
the gyri and sulci and their patterns
 The identification of the most
important sulci is essential to
delineate the borders of the cerebral
lobes, as well important anatomical
landmarks and functional regions
 The first important sulci to be
identified are the lateral sulcus and
the central sulcus
Lateral Surface
Continues...
Frontal Lobes
 The frontal lobe is the biggest lobe of
the human brain (about 1/3 of the
hemispheres)
 The frontal pole lies over the pars
orbitalis of the frontal bone and over the
lamina cribrosa, behind the tabula interna
of the frontal bone
 Its posterior border is formed by the
central sulcus, whilst its inferior border is
the lateral sulcus
 On the surface of the convexity of
the frontal lobe, it is possible to
recognize a vertical sulcus, the
precentral sulcus; between the
central sulcus and the precentral
sulcus, lies the precentral gyrus
 The two identifiable horizontal sulci
(superior and inferior sulci), divide
the frontal lobe into three further
horizontally-displaced gyri:
 Superior frontal gyrus (F1), middle
frontal gyrus (F2) and inferior frontal
gyrus (F3)
 On the surface of the inferior frontal
gyrus two of the three rami of the
lateral sulcus are visible, the anterior
 The "rami of the frontal lobes" refers
to the branches of the lateral sulcus
(also known as the Sylvian fissure)
that extend into the frontal lobe,
primarily dividing the inferior frontal
gyrus into three parts: the pars
orbitalis, pars triangularis, and pars
opercularis
 Moreover, the frontal lobe is involved in the
higher cognitive functions (orientation,
attention, planning, personality,
emotionality, sexual behavior, mental
processes, working memory)
 The bilateral lesion of the frontal lobes
causes the so-called “frontal lobe
syndrome”, which consists essentially of
abulia (lack of motivation) and serious
personality disturbances, as shown in
patients undergoing surgical operations of
frontal leucotomies
Parietal Lobes

 It is located between the central

sulcus, the parietooccipital line, and
the posterior ramus of the lateral
sulcus
 The cortical strip located between
the central sulcus and the
postcentral sulcus is the postcentral
gyrus, which is the somatosensory
cortex
 The somatosensory area of the
cortex contains a defined map of the
body (somatosensory homunculus)
 Lesions of primary somesthetic areas
(areas 1, 2, 3 of Broadmann) may
give rise to contralateral impairment
of touch, pressure, and/or
proprioception
 The intraparietal sulcus divides the
posterior part of the parietal lobe
into a superior parietal lobule and an
inferior parietal lobule
 The inferior parietal lobule is formed
by the supramarginal gyrus (upon
the ending part of the ramus
posterior of the lateral sulcus) and
angular gyrus, upon the ending
ramus of the superior temporal
 This lobule is functionally important
because it contains the so-called
“Wernicke’s speech region”,
approximately located in the
supramarginal gyrus, whilst the
angular gyrus is essentially
connected with visual areas
 Lesions involving the Wernicke’s
region result in receptive (or fluent)
aphasia, in which the patient fluently
 A specific syndrome related to the
dysfunction of the parietal lobe
(angular and supramargial gyri of the
dominant hemisphere) is the
Gerstmann syndrome, with anomia,
alexia, acalculia, agraphia, finger
agnosia, and inability to coordinate
the left side with the right side
Temporal lobes

 Beginning at the temporal pole, the

temporal lobe reaches posteriorly
the arbitrary parietotemporal line
 On the lateral surface, two sulci run
parallel to the lateral sulcus, i.e.
superior temporal sulcus and inferior
temporal sulcus, which divide the
lobar surface into three gyri: superior
(T1), middle (T2) and inferior (T3)
temporal gyri
 By opening the lateral portion of the
sylvian fissure, it is possible to
visualize on the surface of the
posterior part of the superior
temporal gyrus, two to three
transverse temporal gyri, the
temporal transverse gyri (of Heschl),
the latter containing the terminal
axons of the auditory cortex
 The temporal lobe is mainly involved
in auditory functions and in the
integration of complex information
 The temporopolar cortex of the
temporal lobe is a paralimbic
structure; it is described in that
specific paragraph
 Lesions of the auditory cortex (areas
41 and 42 of Broadmann) may affect
hearing (even if unilateral lesions
have little effect on it), or may cause
auditory aphasia where the patient is
able to hear but not to understand
 The medial temporal
lobe structures are critical for long-
term memory, and include
the hippocampal
formation, perirhinal
cortex, parahippocampal,
and entorhinal neocortical regions
The major functions are
Processing sensory stimuli
 Auditory
 Visual
Language Recognition and
Processing
Memories
 Especially Long Term Memories
The major dysfunctions are
 Aphasia
 Dyslexia
 Apathy
 Amnesia
 Korsakoff’s Syndrome
 Kluver-Bucy Syndrome
Occipital lobes

 From the parieto-temporal line, the

occipital lobe reaches the occipital
pole, which lies below the occipital
bone
 Parieto-occipital sulcus is the major
sulcus
 The most significant sulcus of the
occipital lobe is visible on its medial
surface, the calcarine sulcus, where
the granular cortex of the visual
 Intraoccipital sulcus is connected
with intra parietal sulcus
 Whereas, inferior occipital sulcus
runs from posterior temporal lobes
 These two sulci divide the lobes into
three gyri: superior, middle and
inferior occipital gyri
 The functions of the occipital lobe
are essentialy visual, with all the
vision-related specific functions:
color perception, shape processing,
three-dimensional reconstructions of
the objects, etc.
 Among other specific signs related to
lesions of the occipital lobe, the
author mentions: central blindness,
central color blindness
(achromatopsia), selective difficulty
to identify faces (prosapognosia),
and dysfunction in perceiving
movements (cortical akinetopsia)