THEME 4 - THINKERS,
BELIEFS, AND BUILDINGS
CULTURAL
DEVELOPMENTS
(600 BCE – 600 CE)
Prepered by
HARIDASAN.NADUVALA
TH
Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings
This chapter discusses the major
religious developments in early India
focusing on Buddhism.
It also examines how these religious
ideas were compiled as texts and
reflected in architecture and
sculpture.
Sources
Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmanical
texts
Mid-first millennium BCE turning point
It was during this period that thinkers such as
Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi in china, Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle in Greece, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha in
India emerged.
They tried to understand the mysteries of existence and
relationship between the humans and cosmic order.
In India this was also the time when cities and kingdoms
were developing and social and economic life was
changing in a variety of ways in Ganga valley.
These thinkers of India attempted to understand
The Sacrificial
The Rig Veda tradition
was compiled between c.1500 and 1000
BCE and consists of hymns in praise of a variety of
deities, especially Agni, Indra and Soma.
These hymns were chanted when the sacrifices were
performed and people prayed for cattle, sons, good
health, long life and other things.
The Sacrifices earlier were performed collectively. Later
(c.1000 BCE-500 BCE onwards) some were performed by
the heads of households for well being of the domestic
unit.
More
elaborate sacrifices, such as the rajasuya and
asvamedha were performed by chiefs and kings who
New questions in the early
period
Many people were curious about the meaning
of life, the possibilities of life after death and
rebirth. These issues were hotly debated.
People outside the Vedic tradition asked
whether there was even a single ultimate
reality. People also began speculating on the
significance of the sacrificial tradition
Debates and discussions-
Kutagarashala
Therewere as many as 64 sects or schools of
thought. Lively discussions and debates were took
place between the teachers and these schools of
thought.
Kutagarashalawere the places where the debates of
teachers, who tried to convince one another and
laypersons about the validity of their philosophy, took
place.
Debates and discussions-
Kutagarashala
Mahavira and Buddha questioned the
authority of the Vedas.
They emphasized on individual agency.
They suggested men and women could strive to
attain liberation from trials and tribulations of
worldly existence.
Thisdiffered from the Brahmanical position as they
believed that individual’s existence was determined
by his or her birth in specific caste or gender.
MAHAVEERA(BC 540-468)
Mahavira was preceded by 23 Thirthankaras. guide men and
women.
1st Theerthangara-Rishabadeva
23rd – Parswanatha
24th – Mahaveera
Birth – Kundalagrama, Musafarpur
District, in present Bihar, near
Vashali.
Father – Sidhartha, Jnathriya chief,
belongs to Kshathriya class.
Mother – Thrisala, Lichavi princess.
Yesoda – wife, and a daughter
At the age of 30 –left home,
The message of Mahavira (Basic
ideas of Jaina Philosophy)
The main teachings of Mahavira are:
Theentire world is animated: even stones, rocks and water
have life.
No-injury
to living beings, especially to humans, animals,
plants and insects.
The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma.
Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from
the cycle of karma.
Thiscan be attained only by renouncing the world;
therefore, monastic existence is a necessary condition of
The message of
Mahaveera
Mahaveera did not believe in the existence of God.
Hedid not believe that God created and controlled the
whole universe.
Itwas all waste of time to recite the mantras or perform
the sacrifices.
The three essentials for good life were;
1. Right faith
2. Right knowledge
3. Right action
These three things were called the three JEWELS OR
The message of Mahavira (Basic ideas of Jaina Philosophy)
Jaina monks and nuns must take five vows.
1.To abstain from stealing.
2.To abstain from lying.
3.To observe celibacy.
4.To abstain from possessing property.
5.To abstain from killing.
The spread of Jainism
Theteachings of Mahavira were recorded by his
desciples.
These were in the form of stories which could appeal
to ordinary people.
Jainascholars produced a wealth of literature in a variety
of languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil and
preserved in libraries attached to temples.
Gradually, Jainism spread to many parts of India.
Manystone sculptures connected with the Jain traditions
have been recovered from several sites.
Gautama Budha (BC 563 – 483)
o Birth – Lumbini, near Kapilavasthu in Nepal – BC 563.
o Father – Sudhodhana, king of Kapilavasthu, Sakya family.
o Mother – Mahamaya, princess of Kosala.
o She died within one week of his birth
and cared by his mother’s sister Gauthami.
o At the age of 16 – married with Yesodhara and she gave birth to a son –
Rahulan.
o Gauthama was not interested in married life.
o At the age of 29 he left home – Mahaparithyaga.
o At the age of 35 he attained knowledge – Great enlightenment.
o First sermon at Saranath near Banaras –
Dharmachakrapravarthana.
The Life of Buddha
The traumatic incidents that changed the life of the
Buddha.
Buddha was one of the most influential teachers of his time.
His message spread across the subcontinent and beyond-
through central Asia to China, Korea and Japan, and
through SriLanka, across the seas to Myanmar, Thailand
and Indonesia.
Buddha was named Siddhartha at birth and was the son of the
chief of Sakya clan, Sudhodhana.
He led a sheltered upbringing in the palace detached from the
harsh realities of life.
He undertook a journey into a city which was a turning point in
Bodhi tree
Main teachings of Buddhism
Sources: Sutta Pitaka contains
the teachings of Buddha in the
form of stories. Few stories
describe his miraculous powers
and others suggest that Buddha
tried to convince people
through reasons and
persuasion rather through
displays of supernatural power.
Teaching of Budhism
Four Noble Truths – Aryasathya
1. The world is full of sorrows and miseries
2. Desire is the cause of all sorrows and miseries.
3. Sorrowing can be ended only by the
elimination of desires. When sorrow ends, there is perfect bliss.
4. There must be a way to attain bliss and end
desires. That was the nobl Ashtangamarga- Eightfold path
The world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing.
It is also soulless (anatta) as there is nothing permanent or eternal in
it.
Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human
existence.
AshtangamargaFIVE MORAL RULES TO HIS DISCIPLINE
1.Right view 1. Don’t commit violence.
2.Right determination2. Don’t covet the property of others
3.Right speech 3. Don’t speak falsely.
4. Don’t use intoxicants.
4.Right livelihood
5. Let not one be unchaste.
5.Right action
6.Right exercise
Budha advised to overcome ange
7.Right memory
by kindness, hatred by love and e
8.Right meditation by good.
Followers of the Buddha
The Buddha’s followers came from many social groups. They included
kings, wealthy men and gahapatis, and also humbler folk; workers, slaves
and crafts people.
Once within the sangha, all were regarded as equal, having shed their
earlier social identities on becoming bhikkus and bhikkunis.
The Buddhist sangha which comprised of bhikkus and bhikkunis
functioned on the lines of ganas and sanghas where consensus was
arrived at based on discussions.
If discussions failed to bring about harmony then decisions were
taken by a vote on that subject.
o Buddha’s last words to his followers were: “Be lamps unto yourselves as
all of you must work out your own liberation”.
o The body of disciples of the Buddha or an organization of
monks is called sangha.
Spread of
Buddhism
Buddhism grew rapidly both during the lifetime of the Buddha
and after his death.
People were dissatisfied with the prevailing religions and were
confused by the social changes that were occurring.
Buddhism emphasized on the importance of conduct and
values rather than claims of superiority based on birth.
The emphasis was laid on metta (fellow feeling) and karuna
(compassion) especially for those who were young and weaker
than oneself. These were ideas that drew men and women to
Buddhism.
A Budhist
Budhist Shrines Temple at
Saranath
Stupas
Chaityas: Meaning
Certain places were regarded as sacred by the people in the
early times. Sites with special trees or unique rocks, or
sites of inspiring natural beauty with small shrine attached to
them were known as Chaityas.
Ajanth
a
Chaity
a
The four sacred places:
Buddhist literature describes
places connected with the life of Sanchi Stupa
Buddha.
These places are;
1. Lumbini- where he was born.
2. Bodh Gaya -where he attained
enlightenment.
3. Saranath -where he gave his
first sermon.
4. Kushinagara-Where he attained
nibbana.
These four places were
The fate of Amravati
The Mahachaitya at Amaravati is now just an
insignificant little mound, totally denuded of its former
glory.
Factors responsible for the present fate of
Amaravati.
In 1796, a local raja stumbled upon the ruins of
the stupas at Amravati using its stone to build a
temple.
In 1854, Walter Elliot, the commissioner of
Guntur (Andhra Pradesh), visited Amravati and
collected several sculpture panels and took
them away to Madras.
Colonel Colin Mackenzie also visited the site
but his reports were not published.
By the 1850s, some of the slabs from Amravati
had begun to be taken to different places: to the
Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta, to the India
Office in Madras and some even to London.
Many of these sculptures were seen
View of H.H. Cole
On the preservation of ancient
He wrote: “It seemsmonuments
to me a suicidal and
indefensible policy to allow the country to be looted
of original works of ancient art.”
Hebelieved that museums should have plaster-cast
facsimiles of sculpture, whereas the originals should
remain where they had been found.
Unfortunately, Cole did not succeed in convincing the
authorities about Amaravati, although his plea for in
situ (in the original place) preservation was adopted in
the case of Sanchi.
The role of the Begums of Bhopal in preserving the stupa at
Sanchi
Among the best preserved monuments of the time is the
stupa
at Sanchi.
Inthe 19th century, Europeans, first the French and later the
English were interested to take away the eastern gateway of
the stupa to Paris and London museums.
Shajehan Begum of Bhopal took a wise decision to make
plaster cast copies to please Europeans. This resulted in the
original remain at the state.
The role of the Begums of Bhopal in preserving the
stupa at Sanchi
The rulers of Bhopal, Shajehan
Begum and her successor Sultan
Jehan Begum, provided money
for the preservation of the
ancient site.
Museum was built; publication of
the volumes by John Marshall was
funded.
The Sanchi stupa as the most
important
Buddhist centre has helped in
the understanding of early
Buddhism.
Symbols of worship
The early sculpture does not have the image of
Buddha.
Instead it uses symbols like an empty seat represents
meditation of the Buddha and stupa represented the
mahaparinibbana.
There was the use of wheel which stood for the first
sermon delivered by Buddha at Saranath.
As it is obvious, such sculptures cannot be understood
literally.
For example, the image of a tree does not stand simply
for a tree, but symbolizes an event in the life of the
Buddha.
Hence historians have to familiarize themselves with the
traditions of those who produced these works of art to
understand such symbols.
Symbols of worship
These include beautiful women known as salabhanjika swinging from the
edge of the gateway, holding onto a tree.
According to popular belief, the mere touching of the tree by her would
make the tree to flower and bear fruit.
Many people who turned to Buddhism enriched it with their own pre-
Buddhist and even non-Buddhist beliefs, practices and ideas.
Many animals were also carved to create lively scenes to attract viewers.
For example elephant was carved which signified strength and wisdom.
Another figure found at Sanchi stupa is that of Maya the mother of
Buddha
or popular goddess Gajalakshmi.
The figure of a serpent was found at Sanchi. James Fergusson, a modern art
historian considered Sanchi as the centre of tree and serpent worship.
Mahaveer - Shravanabalgola
Saranath Dharmachakramud
Budha ra
New Religious Traditions
The development of Mahayana Buddhism
By the first century CE, there were changes in Buddhist ideas and practices.
Early Buddhist teachings had given great importance to self-effort in achieving
nirvaana.
Buddha was regarded as a human being .The idea of Buddha as a saviour
emerged.
It was believed that he is the one who could ensure salvation.
Simultaneously, the concept of the Bodhisatta also developed.
Bodhisattas were perceived(seen) as deeply compassionate(sympathetic) beings
that could help others to attain nirvaana.
The worship of the images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas became an important
part of this tradition.
This new way of thinking was called Mahayana-literally; the “greater vehicle”.
Growth of Puranic
Hinduism
Therewere two important traditions that developed
within puranic Hinduism.
1.
Vaishnavism is a form of Hinduism within which Vishnu
was worshipped as the principal deity. In the case of
Vaishnavism; cults were developed around the various
avatars or incarnations of Lord Vishnu. According to
Vaishnavism there are ten avatars of Vishnu.
Avatarswere forms that the deity was believed to have
assumed in order to save the world whenever the world
was threatened by evil forces.
Different avatars were popular in different parts of the
1.MATSYA 2. KURMA
3. VARAHA 4.
NARASIMHA
5.VAMANA 6.
BALARAMA
7. PARASURAMA
Growth of Puranic
2. Shaivism is aHinduism
tradition within which Shiva was regarded as the chief god.
Shiva was symbolized by the linga, although he was occasionally represented in
the form of human figure too.
Some of these deities were represented in sculptures. All such representations
depicted a complex set of ideas about the deities.
To understand the meaning of these sculptures historians have to be familiar with
the Puranas.
Puranas contained stories about gods and goddesses. They were written in
simple Sanskrit and were meant to be read aloud to everybody.
Puranas evolved through interaction amongst people-priests, merchants, and
ordinary men and women who travelled from place to place sharing ideas and
beliefs.
For example, Vasudeva-Krishna was an important deity in the
Mathura region.
Trini
ty
Growth of temple architecture
When the stupas at sites such as Sanchi were taking their present form,
at the same time the first temples to house images of gods and
goddesses were also being built.
The early temple was a small square room, called the garbhagriha, with a
single doorway for the worshipper to enter and offer worship to the image.
Gradually, a tall structure, known as sikhara, was built over the central
shrine.
Temple walls were often decorated with sculpture.
Assembly halls, huge walls, gateways and arrangements for supplying water
made the later temples far more elaborate.
One of the unique features of early temples was that some of these were
hollowed out of huge rocks, as artificial caves.
An amazing example of the carving out of an entire temple from a cave is
that of Kailasnatha temple at Ellora (Maharashtra).
Growth of temple Ellora –
architecture Kailasnath
Temple
Barabar Cave Mahabalipuram
Problems faced by the European scholars
while studying the sculptures.
Firstly, the Europeans scholars were not familiar with the local
traditions and beliefs. They were horrified by the images of half
human and half animals. They considered the Indian sculptures
inferior to that of European sculptures from Greece with which
they were familiar. This was because they compared the Indian
sculpture to the images of Greece with which they were familiar.
Secondly, the art historians used textual traditions to understand
the meaning of sculptures. While this is a better strategy than
comparing the images found in India with that of Greece but it
was not always easy to use. For example, to identify the sculpture
along a huge rock in Mahabalipuram, art historians have to
search through the Puranas.
Mahabalipura
m
Key words
Hagiography: Hagiography is a biography of a
saint or religious leader.
Thervadins: The followers of the older tradition of
Buddhism.
Tripitaka:
Literally Tripitaka means ‘Three
Baskets’. These were Buddhist texts namely Sutta
Pitaka,Vinayapitaka and Abhidhamma pitaka.
Chaitya:Chaitya may also have been derived from
the word chita, meaning a funeral pyre, and by
extension a funerary mound.
CREATED AND
DRAFTED BY ;
PRAJWAL.KU.SAH
OO
SURAJ BHADANI
