Structure and Functions of

Animal Tissues and Cell

Modification
Module 2
Levels of Biological Organization
Histology
 Histology- the microscopic study of tissues and organs through
sectioning, staining, and examining those sections under a
microscope.
 Marie François Xavier Bichat- French anatomist and pathologist,
known as the father of modern histology. Although he worked
without a microscope, Bichat distinguished 21 types of
elementary tissues from which the organs of the human body
are composed.
There are four main types of tissue in the body:
 Epithelial tissue
 Connective tissue
 Muscle tissue
 Nervous tissue
Epithelial Tissue

 Epithelial tissue primarily appears as large sheets of cells

covering all surfaces of the body exposed to the external
environment and lining internal body cavities.
 In addition, epithelial tissue is responsible for forming a
majority of glandular tissue found in the human body.
 They perform a variety of functions that include protection,
secretion, absorption, excretion, filtration, diffusion, and
sensory reception.
Cell junctions

 Epithelial cells are held close together by cell junctions. The three basic
types of cell-to-cell junctions are tight junctions, gap junctions, and
anchoring junctions.
 A Tight junction restricts the movement of fluids between adjacent cells
due to the presence of integral proteins that fuse together to form a firm
seal.
 Gap junction forms an intercellular passageway between the membranes
of adjacent cells to facilitate the movement of small molecules and ions
between cells. These junctions thus allow electrical and metabolic
coupling of adjacent cells.
 An anchoring junction provides a strong yet flexible connection between epithelial
cells. There are three types of anchoring junctions: desmosomes,
hemidesmosomes, and adherens.
 Desmosomes hold neighboring cells together by way of cadherin molecules
which are embedded in protein plates in the cell membranes and link together
between the adjacent cells.
 Hemidesmosomes, which look like half a desmosome, link cells to components
in the extracellular matrix, such as the basal lamina. While similar in
appearance to desmosomes, hemidesmosomes use adhesion proteins called
integrins rather than cadherins.
 Adherens use either cadherins or integrins depending on whether they are
linking to other cells or matrix.
Classification of Epithelial Tissues

 Epithelial tissues are classified according to the shape of the cells composing the tissue
and by the number of cell layers present in the tissue.
 Cell shapes are classified as being either squamous (flattened and thin), cuboidal (boxy, as
wide as it is tall), or columnar (rectangular, taller than it is wide).
 Cells in the tissue can be arranged in a single layer, which is called simple epithelium, or
more than one layer, which is called stratified epithelium.
 Pseudostratified (pseudo- = “false”) describes an epithelial tissue with a single layer of
irregularly shaped cells that give the appearance of more than one layer.
 Transitional describes a form of specialized stratified epithelium in which the shape of the
cells, and the number of layers present, can vary depending on the degree of stretch
within a tissue.
 Simple Squamous Epithelium

The cells in a simple squamous

epithelium have the appearance of thin
scales.
The nuclei of squamous cells tend to
appear flat, horizontal, and elliptical,
mirroring the form of the cell.
The thinness of the cells allows the
rapid passage of chemical compounds
for nutrient distribution.
Simple Cuboidal epithelium

Simple cuboidal epithelium

consists of a single layer of
cuboidal cells. This epithelium is
often associated with
absorption, secretion, or
excretion of waste matter.
 Simple Columnar Epithelium

Simple columnar epithelium

consists of a single layer of cells
that are taller than they are
wide. This epithelium is often
associated with absorption or
secretion.
Goblet Cells - scattered cells that
secrete mucus. The basophilic
secretion granules form circular
clusters near the apical surface.
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Pseudostratified epithelium
appears to be stratified because
the nuclei of the epithelial cells
are at different levels. However,
every cell is in contact with the
basement membrane, but not
all cells reach the lumen.
Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Stratified squamous epithelium

has multiple layers of cells
becoming flattened as they
move from the basal layer to
the apical layers. It provides
protection from abrasion and is
keratinized on the external
surface of the body.
 Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

Stratified cuboidal epithelium has

multiple layers of cells with an
outermost layer of cuboidal cells.
Limited distribution - found in the
lining of larger ducts.
Connective Tissue
 Connective tissue provides support, binds together, and
protects tissues and organs of the body.
 Connective tissue consists of three main components: cells,
protein fibers, and an amorphous ground substance. Together
the fibers and ground substance make up the extracellular
matrix. Whereas the other tissue types (epithelium, muscle,
and nervous tissue) are largely made up of cells, the
extracellular matrix is the major component of most connective
tissue.
Connective Tissue Fibers

The three types of connective tissue fibers are:

 Collagen fibers - most are type I collagen (most abundant protein in the
body)
Tensile strength - resistance to stretching
 Elastic fibers - contain elastin and fibrillin
Elasticity - can be stretched, yet still, return to its original length
 Reticular fibers - contain type III collagen
Support - network of thin fibers
Loose Connective Tissue

 Loose connective tissue is found between many organs where it acts both to
absorb shock and bind tissues together. It allows water, salts, and various
nutrients to diffuse through to adjacent or imbedded cells and tissues.
 Types:
 Adipose Tissue
 Reticular Tissue
 Areolar Tissue
 Adipose Tissue

 Adipose tissue consists mostly of fat storage cells,

with little extracellular matrix. A large number of
capillaries allow rapid storage and mobilization of
lipid molecules.
 White adipose tissue is most abundant. It can appear
yellow and owes its color to carotene and related
pigments from plant food. White fat contributes
mostly to lipid storage and can serve as insulation
from cold temperatures and mechanical injuries.
 Brown adipose tissue is more common in infants,
hence the term “baby fat.” In adults, there is a
reduced amount of brown fat and it is found mainly
in the neck and clavicular regions of the body.
Areolar Tissue

 Areolar tissue shows little

specialization. It contains all the cell
types and fibers previously
described and is distributed in a
random, web-like fashion. It fills the
spaces between muscle fibers,
surrounds blood and lymph vessels,
and supports organs in the
abdominal cavity.
Reticular Tissue

 Reticular tissue is a mesh-like,

supportive framework for soft
organs such as lymphatic tissue,
the spleen, and the liver (Figure
4.14). Reticular cells produce
the reticular fibers that form
the network onto which other
cells attach. It derives its name
from the Latin reticulus, which
means “little net.”
 Dense Connective Tissue

 Dense connective tissue contains more collagen fibers than does loose connective
tissue. As a consequence, it displays greater resistance to stretching.
 There are two major categories of dense connective tissue: regular and irregular.
 Dense regular connective tissue fibers are parallel to each other, enhancing tensile
strength and resistance to stretching in the direction of the fiber orientations.
 Ligaments and tendons are made of dense regular connective tissue, but in
ligaments not all fibers are parallel. Dense regular elastic tissue contains elastin
fibers in addition to collagen fibers, which allows the ligament to return to its
original length after stretching. The ligaments in the vocal folds and between the
vertebrae in the vertebral column are elastic.
Dense regular CT
Dense irregular CT

 In dense irregular connective tissue, the direction of fibers is random. This

arrangement gives the tissue greater strength in all directions and less strength in
one particular direction. In some tissues, fibers crisscross and form a mesh. In
other tissues, stretching in several directions is achieved by alternating layers
where fibers run in the same orientation in each layer, and it is the layers
themselves that are stacked at an angle. The dermis of the skin is an example of
dense irregular connective tissue rich in collagen fibers. Dense irregular elastic
tissues give arterial walls the strength and the ability to regain original shape
after stretching
Dense Irregular CT
 Specialized Connective Tissue

 Specialized connective tissues

include adipose, cartilage, bone,
blood, and lymphatic tissues.
These tissues contribute to
diverse functions.
Cartilage

 Cartilage is a special form of C.T. that consists mainly of cells

called chondrocytes and chondroblasts
 Providing a firm structural support for soft tissue, which allows
flexibility without distortion and is resilient to compression.
 Types of Cartilage:
 Hyaline Cartilage
 Fibrocartilage
 Elastic Cartilage
 Hyaline Cartilage

 Hyaline cartilage, the most

common type of cartilage in the
body, consists of short and
dispersed collagen fibers and
contains large amounts of
proteoglycans.
 Under the microscope, tissue
samples appear clear. The surface
of hyaline cartilage is smooth.
 Fibrocartilage

 Fibrocartilage is tough
because it has thick bundles
of collagen fibers dispersed
through its matrix. The knee
and jaw joints and the the
intervertebral discs are
examples of fibrocartilage.
Elastic Cartilage

 Elastic cartilage contains elastic

fibers as well as collagen and
proteoglycans. This tissue gives
rigid support as well as elasticity.
Tug gently at your ear lobes, and
notice that the lobes return to their
initial shape. The external ear
contains elastic cartilage.
Bone

 Bone is also a special of C.T. It is tough and more brittle tissue than cartilage.
Bones become calcified due to mineral deposition ( the salts of calcium
phosphate and calcium carbonate) in the matrix.
 As a result, they can bear more weight than cartilage, sever as a rigid
skeleton for the body and provide attachment sites for muscle and organs,
protects the vital organs, supports mechanical movement, hosts
hematopoietic cell, and maintains iron homeostasis.
 There are three key cells of bone tissue. Osteoblasts, Osteocytes and
Osteoclasts They each have unique functions and are derived from two
different cell lines.
 Types of Bone

A- SPONGE BONE
-Spongy bone(trabecular bone, cancellous bone)
-Basically bone tissue with many spaces/ struts and is covered by compact bone, it
has no haversian system.
-This is where you find red bone marrow.
-Spongy bone is found on the ends of long bones
B- DENSE OR COMPACT BONE
Compact bone is formed of haversian system (osteons) and is located in the outer
surface of bone ; e.g. shaft of long bones.
Fluid Connective Tissue (Blood and Lymphocytes)

 Blood and lymph are fluid connective tissues. Cells circulate in a liquid
extracellular matrix. The formed elements circulating in blood are all derived
from hematopoietic stem cells located in bone marrow.
 Erythrocytes, red blood cells, transport oxygen and some carbon dioxide.
 Leukocytes, white blood cells, are responsible for defending against potentially
harmful microorganisms or molecules.
 Platelets are cell fragments involved in blood clotting. Some white blood cells
have the ability to cross the endothelial layer that lines blood vessels and enter
adjacent tissues. Nutrients, salts, and wastes are dissolved in the liquid matrix
and transported through the body.
Muscle Tissue
 Muscle tissue is composed of cells specialized for
contraction. Muscle is classified into three types
according to their structure and function:
 Skeletal muscle cells - striated, voluntary control
 Cardiac muscle cells - striated, involuntary control
 Smooth muscle cells - nonstriated, involuntary control
Skeletal Muscle

 Skeletal muscle fibers are long

cylindrical, multinucleated, striated,
and under voluntary control.
 Skeletal and cardiac muscle cells are
called striated because they show
an alternating series of bands. The
repeating arrangement of their
basic contractile unit, the
sarcomere, produces these
striations.
Cardiac Muscle

 Cardiac muscle are short

branching fibers, have a single,
centrally located nucleus, show
the same striations as skeletal
muscle, and are under involuntary
control.
 Purkinje fibers are modified
cardiac muscle cells that convey
electrical impulses that
coordinate contraction of cardiac
muscle.
Smooth Muscle

 Smooth muscle cells are

spindle-shaped (fusiform),
have a single, centrally
located nucleus, and are
under involuntary control.
The uniform, nonstriated
appearance gives rise to the
name smooth muscle.
Nervous Tissue
 Nervous system is specialized for the rapid communication of
information from one region of the body to another.
 Nervous system is divided anatomically into two major
components:
 Central nervous system (CNS) – consists of the brain and
spinal cord
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – peripheral nerves and
ganglia
Components of NS

Nervous system is divided functionally into two major components:

 Somatic nervous system – conscious voluntary movements
 Autonomic nervous system – regulates the functions of internal
organs - further divided into two subdivisions:
 Sympathetic nervous system – involved in functions requiring
quick responses (i.e., stress, impending danger, and fight or flight
response)
 Parasympathetic nervous system – regulates functions that do not
require a quick response
NEURON

 The neuron is the structural

and functional unit of the
nervous system.
 However, non-neural cells (i.e.,
glial cells) provide support and
protection in the CNS
(oligodendrocytes, astrocytes,
ependymal cells, and microglia)
and the PNS (Schwann cells and
satellite cells).
Central Nervous System

 The central nervous system

is made up of the brain and
spinal cord: The brain
controls how we think,
learn, move, and feel. The
spinal cord carries messages
back and forth between the
brain and the nerves that
run throughout the body.
 Peripheral Nervous System

 Peripheral nervous system (PNS) is

that part of your nervous system that
lies outside your brain and spinal
cord.
 It plays key role in both sending
information from different areas of
your body back to your brain, as well
as carrying out commands from your
brain to various parts of your body.