Lecture (8)

Operational
Amplifiers

Electronic Devices and Circuits

Dr. Anwar Magdy
[email protected]
Office A-316
Objectives
• Describe the basic operational amplifier and its
characteristics
• Discuss op-amp modes and several parameters
• Explain negative feedback in op-amps
• Analyze op-amps with negative feedback
• Discuss bias current and offset voltage
 Introduction
• In the previous lecture, you have studied a number of important
electronic devices. These devices, such as the diode and the transistor,
are separate devices that are individually packaged and interconnected in
a circuit with other devices to form a complete, functional unit. Such
devices are referred to as discrete components.
• Now you will begin the study of linear integrated circuits (ICs), where
many transistors, diodes, resistors, and capacitors are fabricated on a
single tiny chip of semiconductive material and packaged in a single case
to form a functional circuit.
• An integrated circuit, such as an operational amplifier (op-amp), is
treated as a single device. This means that you will be concerned with
what the circuit does more from an external viewpoint than from an
internal, component level viewpoint.
• In this lecture, you will learn the basics of op-amps, which are the most
versatile and widely used of all linear integrated circuits.
Introduction to operational amplifiers
The standard operational amplifier
(op-amp) symbol is shown in Figure
(a). It has two input terminals, the
inverting (-) input and the
noninverting (+) input, and one output
terminal. Most op-amps operate with
two dc supply voltages, one positive
and the other negative, as shown in
Figure (b), Some typical op-amp IC
packages are shown in Figure (c).
The Ideal Op-Amp
The ideal op-amp has characteristics that simplify analysis of op-amp
circuits. Ideally, op-amps have infinite voltage gain, infinite bandwidth,
and infinite input impedance. In addition, the ideal op-amp has zero
output impedance.
The Practical Op-Amp
Practical op-amps have characteristics that often can be treated as ideal
for certain situations but can never actually attain ideal characteristics.
In addition to finite gain, bandwidth, and input impedance, they have
other limitations.
Block Diagram
Internally, the typical op-amp has a differential input, a voltage
amplifier, and a push-pull output. The differential amplifier amplifies
the difference in the two inputs.

+
Push-pull
Differential Voltage
amplifier
Vin amplifier amplifier(s) Vout
output
– input stage gain stage
stage
Signal modes
The input signal can be applied to an op-amp in differential-mode or in
common-mode.
Differential-mode signals
are applied either as single-
ended (one side on ground)
or double-ended (opposite
phases on the inputs).
Signal modes
The input signal can be applied to an op-amp in differential-mode or in
common-mode.
Common-mode signals are
applied to both sides with the
same phase on both.
Usually, common-mode signals
are from unwanted sources, and
affect both inputs in the same
way. The result is that they are
essentially cancelled at the
output.
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is an important parameter for op-amps. The
common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is defined as the ability of an amplifier to
amplify differential signals and reject common-mode signals.

𝐴 𝑜𝑙
CMRR is defined as CMRR =
𝐴 𝑐𝑚
where Aol is the open-loop differential-gain
and Acm is the common-mode gain.

CMRR can also be expressed in decibels as CMRR =20 log

𝐴 𝑜𝑙
𝐴𝑐𝑚 ( )
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
What is CMRR in decibels for a typical 741C op-amp?
The typical open-loop differential gain for the 741C is 200,000 and the
typical common-mode gain is 6.3.

CMRR=20 log ( )
𝐴𝑜𝑙
𝐴𝑐𝑚
200,000
¿ 20 log =¿ 90 dB
6.3

(The minimum specified CMRR is 70 dB.)

Voltage and Current Parameters

VO(p-p): The maximum output voltage swing is determined

by the op-amp and the power supply voltages
VOS: The input offset voltage is the differential dc voltage
required between the inputs to force the output to zero volts
IBIAS: The input bias current is the 𝐼 1+ 𝐼 2
average of the two dc currents required 𝐼 BIAS=
2
to bias the differential amplifier
IOS: The input offset current is the
difference between the two dc bias 𝐼 OS=|𝐼 1 − 𝐼 2|
currents
Impedance Parameters

ZIN(d) : The differential input impedance is the total ZIN(d)

resistance between the inputs

+

ZIN(cm) : The common-mode input impedance is the –

resistance between each input and ground

ZIN(cm)

Zout: The output impedance is the resistance viewed –

Zout

from the output of the circuit.

+
 Other Parameters
Slew rate: The slew rate is the maximum rate of change of the output
voltage in response to a step input voltage
Δ 𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡
Slew Rate=
Δ𝑡
Vout (V)

Determine the slew rate for the output 13

response to a step input. 12

0 t

Δ𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ( +12 V ) − ( −12 V )

Slew Rate= = –12
Δ𝑡 4.0 μs –13 4.0 ms

= 6 V/ms
Negative Feedback

Negative feedback is the process of returning a portion of

the output signal to the input with a phase angle that opposes
the input signal.

The advantage of negative

Vin +
feedback is that precise values Vout

of amplifier gain can be set. In Vf –

addition, bandwidth and input Internal inversion makes Vf
and output impedances can be 180° out of phase with Vin.

controlled. Negative
feedback
circuit
Noninverting Amplifier
A noninverting amplifier is a configuration in which the
signal is on the noninverting input and a portion of the
output is returned to the inverting input.

+
Feedback forces Vf to be equal
Vout
to Vin, hence Vin is across Ri. Vin –
Rf
With basic algebra, you can Vf Feedback
show that the closed-loop gain circuit
of the noninverting amplifier is Ri

𝑅𝑓
𝐴 𝑐𝑙(NI )=1+
𝑅𝑖
Noninverting Amplifier

Determine the gain of the noninverting amplifier shown.

Vin +
𝑅𝑓 Vout
𝐴𝑐𝑙(NI)=1+ –
𝑅𝑖 Rf
82 kW
82 k Ω
¿ 1+
3.3 k Ω Ri
3.3 kW
= 25.8
Inverting Amplifier
An inverting amplifier is a configuration in which the
noninverting input is grounded, and the signal is applied
through a resistor to the inverting input.
Rf

Feedback forces the inputs to

be nearly identical; hence the Ri
inverting input is very close to –

0 V. The closed-loop gain of Vout

Vin
the inverting amplifier is +

Rf
Acl (I) 
Ri

0 V (virtual ground)
 Inverting Amplifier

Determine the gain of the inverting amplifier shown.

Rf

𝑅𝑓 82 kW
𝐴𝑐𝑙(I ) =−
𝑅𝑖 Ri
–
82 k Ω 3.3 kW
¿− Vout
3.3 k Ω Vin +

= -24.8

The minus sign indicates inversion.

Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits
1- Comparator:
Operational amplifiers are often used as comparators to compare the amplitude of one
voltage with another. In this application, the op-amp is used in the open-loop configuration,
with the input voltage on one input and a reference voltage on the other.

I- Zero-Level Detection:
One application of an op-amp used as a comparator is to
determine when an input voltage exceeds a certain level.
Figure given shows a zero-level detector. Notice that the
inverting (-) input is grounded to produce a zero level and
that the input signal voltage is applied to the noninverting
(+) input.
2
0
 Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits
 Fig. shows the result of a sinusoidal
input voltage applied to the
noninverting input of the zero-level
detector.
 When the sine wave is positive, the
output is at its maximum positive
level.
 When the sine wave crosses 0, the
amplifier is driven to its opposite
state and the output goes to its
maximum negative level, as shown.

Fig. The op-Amp as a zero-level detector.
As you can see, the zero-level
detector can be used as a squaring
circuit to produce a square wave
from a sine wave.
2
1
Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits
II.Nonzero-Level Detection:

• The zero-level detector shown can be modified to detect

positive and negative voltages by connecting a fixed
reference voltage source to the inverting (-) input, as
shown in opposite Fig.
• A more practical arrangement is shown in opposite Fig.
using a voltage divider to set the reference voltage, , as
follows:

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Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits

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Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits
The input signal in the given Fig. is applied to the comparator. Draw the output
showing its proper relationship to the input signal. Assume the maximum output
levels of the comparator are ± 14 V.

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 Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits
The reference voltage is set by R1 and R2 as follows:

 As shown in opposite Fig., each time the

input exceeds +1.63, the output voltage
switches to its +14 V level, and each time the
input goes below +1.63 V, the output
switches back to its -14 V level.

25
 Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits
2- Summing Amplifier:
 A summing amplifier has two or more inputs, and its output voltage is proportional to the
negative of the algebraic sum of its input voltages.
 A two-input summing amplifier is shown in Figure below, but any number of inputs can
be used. The operation of the circuit and derivation of the output expression are as
follows. Two voltages, VIN1 and VIN2, are applied to the inputs and produce currents I1 and
I2, as shown.

26
 Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits
 Using the concepts of infinite input impedance and
virtual ground, you can determine that the inverting
input of the op-amp is approximately 0 V and has no
current through it. This means that both input
currents I1 and I2 combine at a summing point, A,
and form the total current (IT), which goes through
Rf, as indicated in opposite Figure.

27
 Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits
 If all three of the resistors are equal (R1 = R2 = Rf = R), then:

 A general expression is given in previous Equation for a unity-gain summing

amplifier with n-inputs, as shown in Figure below where all resistors are equal in value.

28
 Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits
Show that the amplifier in Figure below produces an output whose magnitude is
the mathematical average of the input voltages

 Since the input resistors are equal, R = 100 kΩ. The output
voltage is:

 A simple calculation shows that the average of the input values is the
same magnitude as VOUT but of opposite sign.

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 Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits
Scaling Adder:
 A different weight can be assigned to each input of a summing amplifier by simply
adjusting the values of the input resistors. As you have seen, the output voltage can be
expressed as:

 The weight of a particular input is set by the ratio of Rf to the resistance, Rx, for that input
(Rx = R1, R2, ... Rn).

 For example, if an input voltage is to have a weight of 1, then Rx = Rf. Or, if a weight of
0.5 is required, Rx = 2Rf. The smaller the value of input resistance Rx, the greater the
weight, and vice versa.

30
Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits
Determine the weight of each input voltage for the scaling adder in Figure below
and find the output voltage?

 The output voltage is:

31
Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits
• What is the normal output voltage in operational amplifier shown in Fig. below?
• What is the output voltage if R2 opens?

 if R2 opens:

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 Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits
3- Op-Amp Integrator:
 The Ideal Integrator: An ideal integrator is shown in Figure below. Notice that
the feedback element is a capacitor that forms an RC circuit with the input resistor.
 How a Capacitor Charges? To understand how an integrator
works, it is important to review how a capacitor charges. Recall
that the charge Q on a capacitor is proportional to the charging
current (IC) and the time (t).

33
 Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits
 This expression has the form of an equation for a straight line that begins at zero with a
𝐼C
constant slope of . Remember from algebra that the general formula for a straight line is
𝐼
�
�
y = mx + b. In this case, y = VC, m C= 𝐶
, x = t, and b = 0.

34
Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits
 The Output Voltage Vout is the same as the voltage on the negative side of the capacitor.
When a constant positive input voltage in the form of a step or pulse (a pulse has a
constant amplitude when high) is applied, the output ramp decreases negatively until the
op-amp saturates at its maximum negative level. This is indicated in Figure below.

35
 Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits
4 Op-Amp Differentiator:
 The Ideal Differentiator: An ideal differentiator is shown in Figure below. Notice how
the placement of the capacitor and resistor differ from the integrator. The capacitor is
now the input element, and the resistor is the feedback element. A differentiator
produces an output that is proportional to the rate of change of the input voltage.

36
 Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits
 How the differentiator works, apply a positive-going ramp voltage to the input as
indicated in Figure below. In this case, IC = Iin and the voltage across the capacitor is equal
to Vin at all times (VC = Vin) because of virtual ground on the inverting input. From the
formula, 𝑉� = 𝐼�
basic C
𝑡, the capacitor current is:
� �

37
Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits
 Output of a differentiator with a series of positive and negative ramps (triangle wave)
on the input.

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