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LECTURE 4: GASEOUS
EXCHANGE AND
TRANSPORT OF GASES IN
BLOOD
1 Dr. Lukubi Lwiindi
Physiology Unit
Medical School
PARTIAL PRESSURE: ATMOSPHERIC
AIR
The partial pressure of a gas is the pressure exerted by
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each gas in a mixture and is directly proportional to its
percentage in the total gas mixture
Example: Atmospheric Air
At sea level, atmospheric pressure is 760 mmHg
Air is ~78% Nitrogen
The partial pressure of nitrogen (P ) is:
N2
0.78 x 760 mmHg = PN2 = 593 mmHg
Air is ~ 21% Oxygen
The partial pressure of oxygen (P ) is:
O2
0.21 x 760 mmHg = PO2 = 160 mmHg
Air is ~ 0.04% carbon dioxide
The partial pressure of carbon dioxide (P
CO2) is:
0.0004 x 760 mmHg = PCO2 = 0.3 mmHg. 2
PARTIAL PRESSURE: ALVEOLAR AIR
Composition of the partial pressures of oxygen
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and carbon dioxide in the pulmonary capillaries
and alveolar air:
Pulmonary arterial capillary blood
PCO2 of pulmonary capillary blood is 46 mmHg
PO2 of pulmonary capillary blood is 40 mmHg
Alveolar air:
PCO2 of alveolar air is 40 mmHg
PO2 of alveolar air is 104 mmHg
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SOLUBILITY OF GASES IN A LIQUID
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The ability of a gas to dissolve in water
Important because O and CO are
2 2
exchanged between air in the alveoli
and blood (which is mostly water)
Even when dissolved in water, gases
exert a partial pressure
Gases diffuse from regions of higher
partial pressure toward regions of
lower partial pressure
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GAS EXCHANGE IN THE
LUNGS
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Gas exchange occurs by diffusion across the
respiratory membrane in the alveoli
Oxygen diffuses from the alveolar air into
the blood
Alveolar air PO2 = 104 mmHg
Pulmonary capillaries PO2 = 40 mmHg
Carbon dioxide diffuses from the pulmonary
capillary blood into the alveolar air
Pulmonary capillaries PCO2 = 46 mmHg
Alveolar air PCO2 = 40 mmHg
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GAS EXCHANGE IN RESPIRING
TISSUE
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Gas partial pressures in systemic capillaries
depends on the metabolic activity of the tissue
Oxygen concentrations
Systemic arteries PO2 = 100 mmHg
Systemic veins PO2 = 40 mmHg
Carbon dioxide concentrations
Systemic arteries PCO2 = 40 mmHg
Systemic veins PCO2 = 46 mmHg
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TRANSPORT OF O2 IN BLOOD
98% of O2 is transported bound with hemoglobin
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molecules (98%)
2% of O2 is dissolved and transported in the plasma
Hemoglobin (Hb)
A protein found in RBCs
O2 binds loosely to Hb due to its molecular structure
Hemoglobin consists of four polypeptide chains
Consists of 4 globin molecules, each of which is bound to
a heme group
The heme group contains an iron molecule, which is the
site of O2 binding
Each Hb molecule is able to carry 4 molecules of
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O2
Structure of hemoglobin
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Oxygen + Hb Oxyhemoglobin (Reversible)
Cooperative binding Hb’s affinity for O2 increases
as its saturation increases (similarly its affinity
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decreases when saturation decreases)
In the lungs where the partial pressure of oxygen is
high, the rxn proceeds to the right forming
Oxyhemoglobin
In the tissues where the partial pressure of oxygen is
low, the rxn reverses. OxyHb will release oxygen,
forming again Hb (or properly said deoxyhemoglobin)
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TRANSPORT OF O2 IN THE BLOOD
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O
2 binds temporarily, or reversibly, to Hb
Oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
Hb + O2 = HbO2
Hb attached to four O2 molecules is saturated
Saturated Hb is relatively unstable and easily releases
O2 in regions where the PO2 is low e.g. in tissues
Deoxyhemoglobin (HHb)
HHb = Hb + O
2
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O2 TRANSPORTED BOUND TO HB
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o 1g Hb can carry = 1.39 ml of O2.
o But due to impurities like metHb
1g Hb carries 1.34 ml of O2 in arterial blood;
thus 15g of Hb will carry 1.34 x 15 = 20.10 ml
of O2 in arterial blood.
o This happens at or more than 250mmHg when
Hb is 100% saturated.
o Normal Hb conc. in adult males and females are 12 –
14g/dl and 14 – 16g/dl respectively.
o At arterial PO2 only 97% of Hb is saturated. 14
THE HEMOGLOBIN-OXYGEN
DISSOCIATION CURVE
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Hb Saturation
Full saturation
Allfour heme groups of the Hb molecule in the blood
are bound to O2
Partial saturation
Not all of the heme groups are bound to O2
Hb saturation is largely determined by the P O2
in the blood
At normal alveolar P
O2 (104 mm Hg), Hb is
97.5 - 98% saturated
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THE HEMOGLOBIN-OXYGEN
CURVE DISSOCIATION CURVE
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Describes the relationship between the aterial PO2
and Hb saturation
The Hb- O2 Dissociation Curve plots the
percent saturation of Hb as a function of
the PO2
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Oxygen
Transport ¯Temp, CO2 , 2-3 DPG; pH
(favors loading) Bohr Effect
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100
80 P50 P50
%Saturation
60 Temp, CO2 , 2-3 DPG; ¯pH
(favors unloading)
40
20
0 20
20 40 60 80 100
PO2 (mmHg)
HB LOADING OF O2 (CURVE SHIFTS TO
LEFT, INCREASED AFFINITY OF HB FOR
OXYGEN, REDUCED P50)
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• Increased affinity of Hb for Oxygen
• Decreased delivery of Oxygen to tissues
• This is brought about by
1. Decreased partial pressure of Carbon
Dioxide
2. Higher pH (low [H+])
3. Decreased temperature e.g during cold
weather
4. Decreased levels of 2,3 DPG
• Example: decreased physical activity, low
body temperature (cold weather as well), 21
satisfactory tissue oxygenation
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HB UNLOADING OF O2 (CURVE SHIFTS TO
RIGHT, DECREASED AFFINITY OF HB FOR
OXYGEN, INCREASED P50)
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Factors that increase O2 unloading from
hemoglobin at the tissues :
Increased body temperature
Decreases Hb affinity for O2
Decreased blood pH (the Bohr effect)
H+ ions bind to Hb,
Increased arterial PCO2 (the Carbamino
effect)
Increased 2,3 DPG which binds more
avidly to beta chains of deoxyHb of Adult
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Hb......decrease Hb affinity for oxygen.
FACTORS SHIFTING CURVE TO
THE RIGHT
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These factors enable Hb to release more O2 (or
decreased Hb’s oxygen affinity) to meet the metabolic
demands of working tissues
↑ body temperature = ↓ Hb affinity for O2
↑ H+ ions (↓ pH) = ↓ Hb affinity for O2
↑ arterial PCO2 = ↓ Hb affinity for O2
↑2, 3 DPG in RBCs = ↓ Hb affinity for O2
Ex:increased physical activity or exercise, high body
temperature (hot weather as well), tissue hypoxia (lack of
O2 in tissues)
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THE BOHR EFFECT
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Based on the fact that when O2 binds to Hb,
certain amino acids in the Hb molecule
release H+ ions
Hb + O2 ↔ HbO2 + H+
Anincrease in H+ (a decrease in pH) pushes the
reaction to the left, causing O2 to dissociate from Hb
Hbaffinity for O2 is decreased when H+ ions
bind to Hb, therefore O2 is unloaded from Hb
H+ concentration increases in active tissues,
which facilitates O2 unloading from Hb so that
it may be utilized by the active tissues 30
THE CARBAMINO EFFECT
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Based on the fact that CO2 may bind to Hb
Hb + CO2 ↔ HbCO2
An increase in PCO2 pushes the reaction to the right,
forming carbaminohemoglobin (HbCO2)
HbCO2 decreases Hb affinity for O2
This decreases O2 transport in the blood
The carbamino effect is one method of
transporting CO2 in the blood
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TRANSPORT OF CO2 IN THE
BLOOD:
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CO2 may be transported in the blood
by…
Dissolving in the plasma (7% in plasma)
Binding to Hb (23% in carbamino
compounds i.e. bound to globin part of
Hb; carbaminohemoglobin)
Dissolving as bicarbonate ( 70% as
Bicarbonate)
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CO2 TRANSPORT AND CL- MOVEMENT
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TRANSPORT OF GASES IN THE
BLOOD: CO2
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CO2 Dissolved in Plasma
CO is very soluble in water; 20 times more
2
soluble than oxygen in solution.
~ 7% of CO in the blood is dissolved in
2
plasma
The partial pressure gradient between the
tissues and blood allows CO2 to easily
diffuse from the tissues into the plasma
The amount of CO dissolved in the plasma
2
is proportional to the partial pressure of 34
CO2
TRANSPORT OF GASES IN THE
BLOOD: CO2
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CO2 bound to Hb (carbaminohemoglobin)
Carbaminohemoglobin
CO2 attached to a hemoglobin molecule
Hb + CO2 ↔ HbCO2
~ 23% of CO2 is bound to Hb in RBCs
CO diffuses into RBCs and binds with the
2
globin component (not the heme
component) of Hb for transport to the
lungs
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CO2 TRANSPORT AS BICARBONATE
IONS
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CO2 + H2O <---> H2CO3 <---> H+ + HCO3-
Carbon dioxide dissolved in water readily
combines with water to form carbonic acid.
The carbonic acid then dissociates into the
hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ion. The
former reaction is catalized by and enzyme
called Carbonic Anhydrase in many tissues.
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CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT IN THE
BLOOD: AT THE TISSUES
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Tissue Cell
Carbonic Anhydrase
CO2 + H2O ---> H2CO3 ---> H+ + HCO3
+ Hb ---> HbCO + Hb --->HbH
2
HbO2 -----> Hb + O2
Red Blood Cell
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CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT IN THE
BLOOD: AT THE LUNGS
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Alveolus
Carbonic Anhydrase
CO2 + H2O <--- H2CO3 <--- H+ + HCO3-
+ Hb <--- HbCO + Hb <---HbH
2
HbO2 <--- Hb + O2
Red Blood Cell
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The Chloride Shift
Thebicarbonate ion (H2CO3) diffuses out of
the RBC into the plasma to be carried to the
lungs
As
bicarbonate ions leave the RBC, Cl- ions enter the
RBC
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THE EFFECT OF O2 ON CO2
TRANSPORT
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The Haldane effect
Loading/Unloading of CO2 onto Hb is directly related to:
1) The partial pressure of CO2 (PCO2)
In areas of high P
CO2, carbaminohemoglobin forms
This helps unload CO from tissues
2
2) The partial pressure of O2 (PO2 )
In areas of high P (such as in the lungs), the amount of
O2
CO2 transported by Hb decreases
This helps unload CO from the blood
2
3) The degree of oxygenation of Hb
Deoxygenated Hb is able to carry more CO than a Hb
2
molecule loaded with O2
The binding of O to Hb decreases the affinity of Hb for 41
2
CO2
SUMMARY OF CO2 TRANSPORT AND CL- SHIFT
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PULMONARY CIRCULATION
Distribution of pulmonary
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blood flow
When a person is supine,
blood flow is nearly uniform
throughout the lung.
–When a person is standing,
blood flow is unevenly
distributed because of the,
effect of gravity.
Blood flow is lowest at the
apex of the lung (zone 1)
and highest at the base of Fig. Variation of
the lung (zone 3). ventilation (V) and blood
flow [perfusion (Q)] in 43
different regions of the
lung.
1. Zone 1—blood flow is lowest.
–Alveolar pressure > arterial pressure > venous
pressure. The high alveolar pressure may
compress the capillaries and reduce blood flow in
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zone 1. This situation can occur if arterial blood
pressure is decreased as a result of hemorrhage
or if alveolar pressure is increased because
of positive pressure ventilation.
2. Zone 2—blood flow is medium.
–Arterial pressure > alveolar pressure > venous
pressure.
–Moving down the lung, arterial pressure
progressively increases because of gravitational
effects on hydrostatic pressure.
–Arterial pressure is greater than alveolar
pressure in zone 2, and bloodflow is driven by the
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difference between arterial pressure and alveolar
pressure.
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3. Zone 3—blood flow is highest.
–Arterial pressure > venous pressure >
alveolar pressure.
–Moving down toward the base of the lung,
arterial pressure is highest because of
gravitational effects, and venous pressure
finally increases to the point where it
exceeds alveolar pressure.
–In zone 3, blood flow is driven by the
difference between arterial and venous
pressures, as in most vascular beds.
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V/Q RATIOS IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE
LUNG
Both ventilation and blood flow (perfusion)
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are nonuniformly distributed in the normal
upright lung.
1. Blood flow is lowest at the apex and
highest at the base because of
gravitational effects.
2. Ventilation is also lowest at the
apex and highest at the base, but the
regional differences for ventilation are not
as great as for perfusion.
3. Therefore, the V/Q ratio is highest at
the apex of the lung and lowest at the 46
base of the lung.
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4. As a result of the regional differences in
V/Q ratio, there are corresponding differences
in the efficiency of gas exchange and in the
resulting pulmonary capillary Poe and PCO2.
Regional differences for P0 2 are greater than
those for PCO2.
a. At the apex (highest V/Q), P02 is
highest and PCO2 is lowest because
there is more gas exchange.
b. At the base (lowest V/Q), Poe is
lowest and PCO2 is highest because
there is less gas exchange 47
