SSIP April – May 2019

PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Topic(s) :
ELECTROSTATICS

1
 SSIP AIMS/GOALS

The four interconnected outcomes that drive the professional

development activities for SSIP are:
1. Enhancing Teachers knowledge: deep understanding of
subject matter knowledge and students ideas on the content

2. Enhancing quality teaching and assessment for learning:

effective instructional approaches that teachers may use to
ensure improved understanding by most learners.
3. Developing ICT integration skills :Use of ICT to improve
teaching and learning
4. Building professional learning communities: allow teachers
to start collaborating and form professional networks in non-
formal settings in context of their schools

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 Training program
DAY ONE

SESSION TIME ALLOCATION ACTIVITY RESOURCES

16:30 – 17:00 Plenary

Registration
SESSION 17:00 – 17:30 Registration of participants
forms
ONE
Self-assessment – Pre-Test MCQ
17:30 – 18:30
Worksheets:

Video clips
Outline the purpose of the
18:30 -19:00 and lesson
work shop
plans

19:00 – 21:00 DINNER

3
DAY TWO
SESSION TIME ALLOCATION ACTIVITY RESOURCES
Electrochemical cells: Galvanic cells
SESSION Emphasis of Cognitive levels and Action Course material
08:00 – 10:30
ONE verbs and video clip
Multimedia

10:30 – 10:45 TEA BREAK

Electrolytic cells
SESSION Emphasis of Cognitive levels and Action
10:45 – 13:00 Course material
TWO verbs
Multimedia

13:00 – 14:00 LUNCH BREAK

Newtons laws: Newton 1,3 and Newtons’

SESSION law of gravitation
14:00 – 15:30 Course material
THREE Interpretation and clarifications of
misconceptions

15:30 – 15:45 TEA BREAK

Newtons 2nd law of motion: horizontal and
16:00 – 18:00 vertical motion
Course material
SESSION
Explanations using practical task
FOUR
Newtons 2nd law of motion: incline
18:00 – 19:00 Course material
Explanations using practical task

19:00 – 21:00 DINNER

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DAY THREE

SESSION TIME ALLOCATION ACTIVITY RESOURCES

Electrostatics:
SESSION Assessment
08:00 – 10:30 Coulombs law
ONE material
Electric fields
10:30 – 10:45 TEA BREAK
Course
Electric circuits material
Power point
Self-evaluation – Post Test
SESSION 11:00 -13:30
Completion of evaluation
TWO
forms Worksheet
Graphically presented
Feedback on Pre and Post test
Closing
13:30 Plenary followed by Lunch

5
 ATP FOR TERM 3
Time Content
frame
Coulomb’s law
Calculations
Electric fields
Electric field lines
Calculations
 ATP FOR TERM 2 cont..
• Ohm’s law
• Series and parallel circuits
• Combination circuits
• Calculations
• Power
• Energy

7
 MODULE 1
The following units will be covered in the topic of Electrostatics
Unit Concepts

Unit 1 Coulombs law: Two charges, 3 charges in 1D, 3 charges at right

angle with each other

Unit 2 Electric field: Two charges, 3 charges in 1D, 3 charges at right

angle with each other

8
9
 Forces between charges
Remember: Like charges repel

Forces between charge

d objects

While, unlike charges attract

Electrostatic forces exist between charged particles/objects

10
Coulomb’s law
Coulomb’s law is the relationship between the
forces experienced by charged objects when
situated a certain distance apart.
Coulomb's law

Opposite charges
attract

Like charges repel

11
Coulomb’s Law - Forces between charges

• where Q1 and Q2 are the magnitudes of the

two charges respectively and r is the distance
between them.
• The magnitude of the electrostatic force
between
Definition: two point-like
Coulomb’s Law charges is given by
Two stationary
Coulomb’s charged particles exert a force of
law.
attraction or repulsion on each other which is directly
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of their distance between
them.
 Coulomb’s law -mathematically
• If Q1 and Q2 are the magnitudes of the two charges
respectively and r is the distance between them. The
magnitude of the electrostatic force between two
point like charges is given by Coulomb’s law:

• The proportionality constant k is called the

electrostatic constant and has the value:
9,0 × 109 N·m2·C−2 in free space.
Coulomb’s law Coulomb's law

In the equation:
F = force between charges (in newton)
Q1 & Q2 = respective charges (in coulomb)
r = distance apart (in m) and
k = Coulomb’s constant (9x 109 N.m2.C-2)
In a calculation, remember to convert units to the
correct units for the equation before substituting into
the equation.
14
 Application of Coulomb’s law

+3μC +3μC -2μC

A B C
r = 5 cm r = 10 cm
Determine the net force on sphere B.
1.Find the net force of attraction of C on B, towards C.
2.Find the net force of repulsion of A on B, towards C.
3.Find the net force of A & C on B towards C – by adding
the answers to 1 & 2.
15
 Application of Coulomb’s law
Determine the net force on sphere B.
Solution method A B
1.Find the net force of r = 5 cm
+3μC -2μC
attraction of C on B,
towards C.
r = 4 cm
2.Find the net force of attraction
Resultant
of A on B, towards A. C
+3μC

3.Find the net resultant force of

A & C on B, by adding
Application of Coulomb's law
force vectors BA & BC

16
 Similarity of Coulomb’s law to Newton’s
Universal law of gravitation.
• Notice how similar in form Coulomb’s law is to
Newton’s universal law of gravitation between two
point-like particles:

where m1 and m2 are the masses of the two point-like

particles, r is the distance between them, and G is the
gravitational constant.
• Both are inverse-square laws.
• Both laws represent the force exerted by particles
(point masses or point charges) on each other that
interact by means of a field.
Worked Example 1: Coulomb’s law
• Determine the electrostatic force and the gravitational
force between two electrons 10-10m apart.
• Relevant Information:
Electron charge=Q1=Q2=1.6 x 10-19C
Mass of an electron (me) = 9.1 x 10-31 kg
k=8.99 x 109N. m2.C-2
G= 6.67 X 10-11 N. m2.kg
 Worked example 1: Coulomb’s law
SOLUTION:
• Step 1: Determine what is required
• We are required to calculate the electrostatic
and gravitational forces between two
• electrons, a given distance apart.
• Step 2: Determine how to approach the
problem
 Worked example 1: Coulomb’s law
• We can use:

to calculate the electrostatic force and

to calculate the gravitational force.

 Worked example 1: Coulomb’s law
• Step 3: Determine what is given
• Q1 = Q2 = 1,6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C (The charge on an electron)
• m1 =m2 = 9,1 × 10⁻³¹ kg (The mass of an electron)
• r = d = 1 × 10⁻¹⁰ m
• We know that:
• • k = 9,0 × 109 N·m²·C⁻²
• • G = 6,67 × 10⁻¹¹ N·m ² ·kg ⁻²
• All quantities are in SI units.
• We can draw a diagram of the situation.
 Worked example 1: Coulomb’s law

• Q1 = -1.60 × 10¯¹⁹ C Q2 = −1,60 × 10¯¹⁹ C

10⁻¹⁰m

• Step 4: Calculate the electrostatic force

•
• =(9,0 × 10⁹ )(1,60 × 10⁹)(1,60 × 10¯¹⁹)/(10⁻¹⁰)²
• = 2,30 × 10⁸ N
 Worked example 1: Coulomb’s law
• Hence the magnitude of the electrostatic force
between the electrons is 2,30×10⁻⁸ N.
• Since electrons carry like charges, the force is
repulsive.
• Step 5: Calculate the gravitational force

• = (6,67 × 10⁻¹¹)(9,11 × 10⁻³¹)(9,11 × 10 ⁻³¹ )/(10⁻¹⁰)²

• = 5,54 × 10⁻⁵¹ N
 The 3 basic laws of charge are:

• Charges attract or repel each other.

• Like charges repel each other.
• Opposite charges attract each other
• There are 2 types of charge positive and
negative charge.
 Example 2 : Coulomb’s Law
QUESTION:

• Calculate the force between two point charges A and

B of +8 nC and – 2 nC respectively if they are 340 cm
apart.
 Solution: Example 2
• Draw each charge as a free body diagram ( a dot ), showing
the forces acting on each charge.

= ( 9 x 10 ⁹ ) ( 8 x 10¯⁹ ) ( 2 x 10¯⁹ ) /( 3,4 ) ²

Fon A = 1,25 x 10 ¯⁸ N to the right

Fon B = 1,25 x 10 ¯⁸ N to the left
 Example on Coulomb’s Law

A B
FA on B
FB on A

• Newton's third law : the two charges exert forces of

equal magnitude on one another in opposite
directions.
 Example 3: Coulomb’s Law
Two point-like charges carrying charges of +3 × 10¯⁹ C
and −5 × 10¯⁹ C are 2m apart. Determine the
magnitude of the force between them and state
whether it is attractive or repulsive.
IMPORTANT INFORMATION
• Step 1: Determine what is required
• We are required to determine the force between
two point charges given the charges
• and state whether the force is attractive or repulsive.
 Example 3: Coulomb’s Law
• We know that k = 9,0 × 10⁹ N·m²·C¯².
• We can draw a diagram of the situation.

• Q1 = +3 × 10¯⁹ C Q2 = −5 × 10¯⁹ C

F
F
2m

• Step 4: Check units

 Example 3: Coulomb’s Law
• All quantities are in SI units.
• Step 5: Determine the magnitude of the force
• Using Coulomb’s law we have

=(9,0 × 10⁹)(3 × 10¯⁹)(5 × 10 ¯⁹)/(2)²

= 3,37 × 10¯⁸ N
• Thus the magnitude of the force is 3,37 × 10 ¯⁸ N.
However since the point charges have opposite signs,
the force will be attractive.
 Activity : Questions
1. Three charged spheres P, Q and R with charges +1nC, -4nC
and +2nC respectively are placed as shown below.

+1 nC -4nC +2nC
P Q R
d 2d

If the magnitude of the force exerted by R on Q is F, then the

magnitude of the force exerted by P on Q is
A. F B.2F C. 3F D. 4F
 Questions
2. An electron is placed between two parallel
charged plates. It is closer to the negative plate
and experiences a force F. If the electron is moved
to a point halfway between the plates, the force
on it is now

A. 0

B. ½F

C. F

D. 2F
 Questions
3. When two charged spheres are placed 3 cm apart, the
force between them is F. If the distance between them is
changed to 30cm, the force will be

A. 10 times smaller

B. 10 times larger

C. 100 times smaller

D. 100 times larger

 Questions
4.Three point charges are in a straight line and their
charges are Q1 = +2 × 10¯⁹ C, Q2 = +1 × 10 ¯⁹ C and
Q3 = −3 × 10 ¯⁹ C. The distance between Q1 and Q2 is
2 × 10⁻² m and the distance between Q2 and Q3 is 4 ×
10 ⁻² m. What is the net electrostatic force on Q2 due
to the other two charges?
 Questions
5.Three point charges form a right-angled triangle.
Their charges are Q1= 4×10⁻⁹ C =4 nC,
Q2= 6 × 10 ⁻⁹ C = 6 nC and
Q3= −3 × 10 ⁻⁹ C = −3 nC.
The distance between Q1 and Q2 is 5×10¯² m and the
distance between Q1 and Q3 is 3×10¯² m.
• What is the net electrostatic force on Q1 due to the
other two charges if they are arranged as shown?
[Diagram next slide]
 questions

No.5:
 Questions
6 A small point charge carries a charge of +4 
10–10 C.
 Questions
6.1. Calculate the magnitude of the electric field
strength at a distance of 30 mm from the point
charge.
6.2. A second point charge of –8  10–10 C is placed at
position X. Calculate the magnitude of the force
between the charges.
6.3. Identify whether this is a force of attraction or
repulsion.
 Questions
7:Two spheres, Q1 and Q2, are 40 cm apart. The charge
on Q
is 8  10–9 C and the charge on Q2 is –6  10–9 C.
7.1 State Coulomb’s law in words.
7.2 Calculate the magnitude of the electrostatic
force
between charges Q1 and Q2.
7.3 Calculate the electric field strength at a distance
of 40 cm from the 8  10–9 C charge.
 Questions
8:Consider a positive point charge of +5  10–9 C
8.1. Draw a neat sketch of the electric field
pattern
around this point charge.
8.2. Calculate the magnitude and direction of
the force exerted on a negatively charged
particle of –3  10–9 C placed 0,5 m from the
point charge of +5  10–9 C.
 Questions
8.3. The negative charge moves toward the
positive charge. Explain how the force
experienced by each charge will change. (Only
use the words DECREASE, REMAIN THE SAME
or INCREASE as an answer.)
8.4The two charges come into contact and then
separate again. Calculate the charge on each
after they have separated.
 Questions
9: Two point charges exert a 5 N force on each other.
What will the resulting force be if the distance
between them is increased by a factor of three?
10: Two point charges are brought closer together,
increasing the force between them by a factor
of 25. By what factor was their separation
decreased?
 Questions
11: Calculate the resultant force on Q2 given this
charge configuration:
 Questions
12.1.Define electric field strength.

12.2. A charge of 4,5 nC is placed in an electric field where

the field strength is 4x105 N·C-1 . What is the magnitude
of the force acting on the charge?

12.3.A charge experiences a force of 2,8 x 10-3 N when

placed in an electric field at a point where the strength
of the field is 7x105 N·C-1 . Calculate the magnitude of
the charge?

13.1. State Coulomb’s Law.

 Questions
13.2 Determine the size and nature of the
force acting between two positive
point charges of 5 nC and the other of 4
nC placed 40 mm apart.

14. Calculate the magnitude and direction

of the electric field strength at a
distance 4mm from a point charge of
charge -4 μC.
 Questions
15. A positive charge of 6x10-9 C is placed a distance
of 50 mm from the centre of a small charged
sphere. The force of repulsion between the two is
5,4x10-7 N. Calculate the charge on the sphere and
state whether it is positive or negative.

16.A 10 μF capacitor is charged to a potential

difference of 100 V and then disconnected from
the power supply. Calculate the charge on each of
the plates of the capacitor.
 Questions

+20µC
-14µC
Q1 P Q2

2m
3m

17. Two point charges, Q1 and Q2, with a distance of

3 m apart are shown below. The charge on Q1 is
-14 µC and the charge on Q2 is +20 µC.
 Questions
17.1 Define the electric field at a point in space

17.2 Draw the electric field patterns due to these

two charges

17.3 Calculate the net electric field at point P

situated 2m from Q2.
 SOLUTIONS
1. B

2.C

3.C
 Solutions
4: Force on Q2 due to Q1:

• = (9,0 × 10 ⁹ ) (2 × 10 ¯⁹ )(1 × 10 ¯⁹ )/(2 ×

10 ⁻² ) ²
• = (9,0 × 10 ⁹)(2 × 10 ¯⁹)(1 × 10 ¯⁹)/(4 ×
10¯⁴)
• = 4,5 × 10¯⁵ N
 Solutions
4 cont.
Force on Q2 due to Q3:

• = (9,0 × 10 ⁹ ) (1 × 10 ¯⁹ )(3 × 10 ¯⁹ )/(4 × 10 ⁻² ) ²

• = (9,0 × 10 ⁹)(1 × 10 ¯⁹)(3 × 10 ¯⁹)/(16 × 10¯⁴)
• = 1,69 × 10¯⁵ N
• Step 5: Vector addition of forces
• We know the force magnitudes but we need to use the
charges to determine whether the forces are repulsive or
attractive.
 Solutions
4 cont.:
• It is helpful to draw the force diagram to help determine
the final direction of the net force on Q2. We choose the
positive direction
• to the right (the positive x-direction).
• The force between Q1and Q2 is repulsive (like charges).
This means that it pushes Q2 to the right, or in the
positive direction.
• The force between Q2 and Q3is attractive (unlike charges)
and pulls Q2 to the right.
 Solutions

No.4 cont

• Therefore both forces are acting in the positive

direction.
• Therefore FR = 4,5 × 10⁻⁵ N + 1,69 × 10 ⁻⁵ N
= 6,19 × 10 ⁻⁵ N
• The resultant force acting on Q2 is 6,19 × 10 ⁻⁵ N to
the right.
 Solutions
• No.5:
• Step 1: Determine what is required
• We need to calculate the net force on Q 1. This force is the sum
of the two electrostatic forces - the forces of Q2 on Q1 and Q3on
Q 1.
• Step 2: Determine how to approach the problem
• We need to calculate, using Coulomb’s law, the
electrostatic force exerted on Q1 by Q2, and the
electrostatic force exerted on Q1 by Q3.
• We then need to add up the two forces using our rules
for adding vector quantities, because force is a vector
quantity.
 Solutions
No.5:
• The magnitude of the force exerted by Q3 on Q1 ,
which we will call F3, is:

• = (9,0 × 10 ⁹ ) (4 × 10 ¯⁹ )(3 × 10 ¯⁹ )/(3 × 10 ⁻² ) ²

• = (9,0 × 10 ⁹)(4 × 10 ¯⁹)(3 × 10 ¯⁹)/(9 × 10¯⁴)
• = 1.199 × 10⁻⁴ N
 Solutions
No.5 Cont.:
• Write down the data that is given
• We are given all the charges and two of the distances.
• Step 4: Calculate the magnitude of the forces.
• The magnitude of the force exerted by Q2 on Q1, which
we will call F2, is:

• = (9,0 × 10 ⁹ ) (4 × 10 ¯⁹ )(6 × 10 ¯⁹ )/(5 × 10 ⁻² ) ²

• = (9,0 × 10 ⁹)(4 × 10 ¯⁹)(6 × 10 ¯⁹)/(25 × 10¯⁴)
• = 8,63 × 10¯⁵ N
 Solutions
• We choose the positive directions to be to the right
(the positive x-direction) and up (the positive y-
direction).
• We know the magnitudes of the forces but we need to
use the signs of the charges to determine whether the
forces are repulsive or attractive.
• The force between Q1 and Q2 is repulsive (like
charges).
• This means that it pushes Q1 to the left, or in the
negative x-direction.
 Solutions
• No.5:The force between Q1 and Q3 is attractive
(unlike charges) and pulls Q1 in the positive y-
direction.
• We can redraw the diagram as a free-body
diagram illustrating the forces to make sure
we can visualise the situation:
 Solutions
• No.5: Resultant force
• The magnitude of the resultant force acting on Q1
can be calculated from the forces using Pythagoras’
theorem because there are only two forces and they
act in the x- and y-directions:
• FR2 = F22+ F32

FR= 1,48X 10¯⁴ N

 Solutions
No.5:The angle, R made with the x-axis can be found using
trigonometry.
tan(ӨR) =y-component/x-component

tan(ӨR) =1,199 × 10¯⁴/8,630 × 10¯⁵

ӨR = tan−1(1,199 × 10 ¯⁴ /8,630 × 10 ¯⁵ )

ӨR = 54,25⁰ to 2 decimal places

The final resultant force acting on Q1 is 1,48

× 10 ¯⁴ N acting at an angle of 54,25⁰ to
the negative x-axis or 125,75⁰to the positive
x-axis.
 Solutions

kQ
6.1. E= 2
r
(9 10 9 )( 4 10  10 )
• =
(30 10  3 ) 2

• = 4 000 N.C–1
 Solutions

6.2.

F =QE

(8 10  10 )( 4 000)
• =
• 3,2 10  6

• = N

6.3. Attraction force

 Solutions

7.1.
The electrostatic force which one charge in rest exert on another is
directly proportional to the product of their charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between the two charges.

7.2. F = kQ1Q2
r2
=

= N
2,7 10 6

attraction
 Solutions

7.3. F
• E =Q
2,7 10 6
9
• = 6 10

• = 450 N.C–1
 Solutions
No. 8.1:

8.2. F =
(9 10 9 )(3 10  9 )(5 10  9 )
0,5 2
=

=5,4  10–7 N, attraction

 Solutions
8.3. Increases
Q1  Q2
8.4. Charge = 2
( 3 10  9 )  (5 10  9 )
2
=

= 1  10–9 C
 Solutions
No.9:
Let the charges be Q1 and Q2. For the first situation
we have: kQ Q 1 2

Fe1 =
2
r

• Now we increasekthe
QQ distance by a factor of three
1 2

so we get: 9r 2

Fe2 =
• We now note the following:
 Solutions
kQ1Q2
No. 9: (Fe1 )(r2) =
r2

kQ1Q2
• (Fe2 )(9r2) = r2

• Therefore
• (Fe1 )(r2) = (Fe2 )(9r2)
•
• Fe1 = 9 Fe2
• = 0,56N
•
 Solutions

No.10:
• Let the charges be Q1 and Q2. For the first situation we
have:
kQ1Q2
• Fe1 = r2
• Now we decrease by an unknown factor, x, the distance
and we get:
kQ1Q2
• Fe2 = (xr) 2

We now note the following:

• and: Fe2 = 25
 Solutions

No.10 cont:
• Therefore
• kQ Q
1 2
kQ1Q2
2
r (xr) 2
• 25( )=

• 25 =
 Solutions
No.11:
We first calculate the force on Q2 from Q1:
Fe = kQ1Q2
r2

=(9,0 x 10⁹)(8x 10 ¯⁹ )(3 x 10 ¯⁹ )/(0,05)²

= 8,63 x10⁻⁵ N
And then we calculate the force of Q3 on Q2 :
Fe = kQ1Q3
r2
= (9,0 x 10⁹)(3x 10 ¯⁹ )(2x 10 ¯⁹ )/(0,03)²
= 5,99x10⁻⁵ N
 Solutions
No.11cont:
The magnitude of the resultant force acting on Q2
can be calculated from the forces using
Pythagoras’ theorem because there are only two
forces and they act in the x- and y-directions:
FR2 = F22+ F32

=
= 1,04 x 10¯⁴N
 Solutions
No.11 cont:
We can find the angle using trigonometry:
tan R = y-component/x-component
= 5,99 x 10 ⁻⁵ /8,63x 10 ⁻⁵
= 0,694 ....
ӨR = 34,76⁰

The final resultant force acting on Q1 is 1,0510-4 N

acting at an angle of 34,76 ⁰to the positive x-axis.
 Solutions
12.1. Electric field strength is force per unit charge

12.2. F = QE
= 4,5 x 10-9 x 4x105
= 8 x 10-5 C

12.3. Q=F
E
= 2,8 x 10-3
7x105
= 4 x 10-9 C = 4nC
 Solutions
13.1. Coulomb’s Law states that the force of attraction or
repulsion between the two electric charges at rest is
directly proportional to the product of the charges
and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them

13.2. F = kQ1Q2
r2
= 9x109 x 5x10-9 x 4 x 10-9
(0,004)2
= 1,13x10-4 N, repulsion
 Solutions

14. E = kQ
r2
= 9x109 x 4x10-6
(0,004)2

= 2,25 x 109 N·C-1

 Solutions
15. F = kQ1Q2
r2

Q2 = 5,4x10-7 x 0,0052
9x109 x 6x10-9
Q = 2,5x10-11 C

16. Q=CV
= 10x10-6 x 100
= 1,0x10-3 C
 Solutions
17.1 Electric force experienced per positive charge placed at a point

17.2

+
-
 Solutions
17.3 Electric field due to Q1
kQ1 9 109 10  6 5 1
E 2  2
1, 26 10 N .C to the left
r 1

Electric field due to Q2

kQ2 9 109 20 106 4 1

E 2  2
4,5 10 N .C to the left
r 2
Enet 1,26 105  4,5 10 4 N .C  1 1,71105 N .C  1 to the left
ELECTRIC FIELDS
The following represents ideal patterns
of electric fields.
Field
Field about 2
about + positive
charge charges
Electric field li
nes

Field Field
between 2 between
opposite parallel
charges plates
81
 Electric field strength
Just as the gravitational field of the earth (or a
planet) is determined by:
Both E & F are
Fg F
g= E= q F = qE vector quantities.
m
The electric field strength is found by placing a
charge in an electric field and measuring the force
experienced by the charge: Electric field near point charge

Def.: Electric field strength at a point in an electric field is

the force experienced per unit charge placed at that point.
The unit is N.C-1 and it is a vector quantity.
82
Now do some calculations involving electric field strength.
Electric field strength near a charged object
and
QQ
Consider: F = k 1 2
F = qE
r 2
Since these forces are equal, we can combine the
equations and now we have:
kQ Where: E = electric field strength (in N.C -1
)
E=
r2 Q = charge in C.
r = dist. in m. & k = 9 x 109 N.m2.C-2

Electric field strength

Find the electric field

strength at this point
Charged object 83
Electric field strength near
2 charged objects
kQ A C
E=
r2
Using find the strength of the -2µC
electric at C relative to the charge at
A. R
Using the same formula, find the
strength of the field at C, relative to B
-1µC
the charge at B.
Now find the resultant field strength R
by adding the two vectors CA & CB.
This the resultant field strength at
point C.
84