TRAVERSING

GROUP 5
INTRO

Traverse (general defination)

Traverse means to pass, move over, or travel through
an area or a particular space. It can also refer to
crossing an obstacle or adversity. In a more specific
context, it describes the act of moving back and forth
over something, such as a bridge crossing a stream.
Traverse (survey defination)

 Is a method in the field of surveying to establish control networks. Traverse networks

involved placing the survey stations along a line or path of travel, and then using the
previously surveyed points as a base for observing the next point.

 Traverse in mine surveying refers to a method of surveying where a series of connected

survey lines are established to determine the coordinates and distances between points
within a mining area. This technique involves measuring the lengths and directions between
these points, forming a framework that aids in the accurate mapping and navigation of the
mine site.
 Components of a Traverse Survey
1.Traverse Stations
These are the points on the ground where measurements are
taken. Traverse stations are marked, typically with stakes or monuments, and
their coordinates are determined through the survey.

2. Traverse Legs
These are the individual survey lines connecting traverse stations.Each leg is defined by
its length and direction, often measured using distancemeasuring instruments and
compasses.

3. Bearings
Bearings are a common way to express the direction of a traverse leg or line. A bearing
is typically defined as the horizontal angle measured clockwise from the north direction
to the line , expressed in bearings (e.g., N 30° E) to define the direction of each leg.
4. Azimuths
Azimuths are another way to express direction.
Azimuths are measured clockwise from either true north or south, with 0°
or 360° representing north.

4. Distances
The lengths of traverse legs are measured using various instruments,
such as tapes, EDMs (Electronic Distance Meters), or total stations.
PURPOSE OF TRAVERSE SURVEY

 Boundary Determination
Traverse surveys are often used to establish property boundaries and
resolve disputes between landowners. They provide a legally defensible
framework for defining land ownership and preventing encroachments.
 Engineering Projects
In civil engineering and construction, traverse surveys are indispensable for
laying out roads, buildings, and infrastructure. Engineers use traverse data to
ensure that structures are built in the correct locations and that they adhere to
design specifications.
 Topographic Mapping
For creating accurate topographic maps, land surveyors rely on traverse surveys to
record the coordinates of key points on the terrain. This information is crucial for
urban planning, environmental assessments, and natural resource management.

Geodetic Control
Traverse surveys contribute to geodetic control networks,
which serve as the foundation for precise positioning using GPS and other
satellite-based technologies. They enable the integration of local surveys into a
global coordinate system.
TYPES OF TRAVESING

 1. Loop Traverse (Closed traverse)

It is the traverse which is start from a known point and ends on the
same points.

 2. Open (or free) traverse

Its start from known point and end on another point which the
coordinates are known.
 Closed Traverse
A closed traverse is a series of connected lines whose endpoints return to the
starting point, forming a closed loop. This type of traverse is commonly used
in surveying for defining property boundaries, creating maps, and laying out
construction projects. The key feature of a closed traverse is that the sum of
the interior angles should theoretically equal (n-2) x180 for a polygon with n
sides, allowing for error checking and adjustments
.Example
Imagine surveying a rectangular plot of land with four sides:
1. Points: A, B, C, and D.
2. Angles: Measure the interior angles at each corner (A, B, C, D).
3. Distances: Measure the distances between the points (AB, BC,
CD, DA).
By summing the interior angles and ensuring they equal 360, and by checking
that the measured distances form a closed loop, surveyors can verify the
accuracy of their work.
How They Work
Closed Traverse Steps
1. Establish Control Points: Determine the positions of
control points (A, B, C, D).
2. Measure Angles and Distances: Use surveying equipment
(e.g., theodolite, total station) to measure the interior angles and
distances between control points.
3. Calculate Coordinates: Use the measured angles and
distances to calculate the coordinates of each point.
4. Error Checking: Verify that the sum of the interior angles
equals (n-2) x180^ and that the traverse forms a closed loop.
Advantages
 1. Error Detection: Since it forms a loop, errors can be
detected and adjusted by comparing the calculated sum of
interior angles to the theoretical sum
 . 2. High Accuracy: The ability to check and adjust
errors results in higher accuracy for boundary and property
surveys.
 3. Reliability: It is highly reliable for defining enclosed
areas, making it ideal for property boundaries, construction
layouts, and mapping.
Disadvantages
 1. Complexity: Requires more calculations and
adjustments, making it more complex to perform and process.
 2. Time-Consuming: Setting up and measuring a closed
traverse takes more time compared to a link traverse.

 3. Limited Application: Not suitable for linear projects like

roads or pipelines where a loop is impractical.
 OPEN TRAVERSE
An open traverse is a surveying technique where the starting point (A)
and ending point (B) are known, but the traverse is not closed, meaning
the last point does not return to the starting point.
An open traverse consists of a series of lines which are connected but
do not return to either the original starting point or another known point
or free traverse (link traverse) consist of known points plotted in any
corresponding linear direction, but do not return to the starting point or
close upon a point of equal or greater order accuracy.
OPEN TRAVERSE
 How Does it Work?
 1. Establish a starting point (A) with known coordinates.
 2. Measure the distance and direction (bearing or azimuth) from point
A to point B.
 3. Measure the distance and direction from point B to point C.
 4. Continue measuring distances and directions between consecutive
points.
 5. Record the data, including distances, directions, and any angles.
Advantages:
1. Efficient for large areas or long distances
2. Useful for mapping roads, boundaries, or other linear features.
3. Reduces errors caused by closing traverses.
Disadvantages
1. Requires accurate measurements to maintain precision.
2. Cumulative errors can occur if not properly checked
3. Difficult to detect errors or blunders.
The open traverse is the least desirable traverse type, because it does not
provide the opportunity for checking the accuracy of the fieldwork. All
measurements must be carefully collected, and every procedure for
checking position and direction must be used. Therefore, the planning of
a traverse should always provide for closure of the traverse.
Real-World Applications:
Mapping and surveying roads, highways, and infrastructure.2. Boundary
surveys for property development.3. Topographic mapping for urban
planning.
Software and Tools:
1. GPS receivers.2. Total stations.3. Theodolites.4. Surveying software
(e.g., AutoCAD, ArcGIS
Traverse calculations
These are fundamental aspect of land surveying, allowing surveyors to
adjust and analyze the measurements collected during traverse surveys.
Compass Rule:
 The Compass Rule is a straightforward method used to adjust traverse
surveys, particularly closed traverses. It addresses errors in angular
measurements (bearings) and corrects them to ensure that the traverse
closes accurately.
Here's how the Compass Rule works:
1. Error Detection: After completing a closed traverse, surveyors
calculate the algebraic sum of the measured interior angles. Ideally, the
sum of these angles in a closed traverse should be 360°.
2. Adjustment: If the sum of interior angles differs from 360°, an error
exists in the traverse. The Compass Rule distributes this error
proportionally to each angle based on the ratio of each angle to the
total angular error.
3. Correction: The adjusted angles are obtained by adding the
calculated correction angle to each measured angle. This correction
ensures that the traverse closes correctly.
4. Iterative Process: Depending on the magnitude of the error, the
adjustment may need to be performed iteratively, with corrections
applied successively until the traverse closes satisfactorily.
Bowditch Rule:
The Bowditch Rule, also known as the Transit Rule or the Method of
Adjustment by Azimuths, is another method for adjusting traverse surveys,
primarily focusing on azimuths. It is particularly useful for open traverses
or surveys that involve azimuths rather than bearings. Here's how the
Bowditch Rule works:
 1. Error Detection: Similar to the Compass Rule, surveyors calculate
the algebraic sum of the measured azimuths. In an open traverse, this
sum should be equal to 180°. Land Surveying Principles - Traverse
Surveys – A07-002 12
 2. Adjustment: If the sum of azimuths differs from 180°, an error
exists in the traverse. The Bowditch Rule distributes this error
proportionally to each azimuth based on the ratio of each azimuth
to the total azimuth error.
 3. Correction: The adjusted azimuths are obtained by adding the
calculated correction azimuth to each measured azimuth. This
correction ensures that the traverse aligns correctly with the
reference direction (usually north).
 4. Iterative Process: As with the Compass Rule, the adjustment
process may be iterative, with corrections applied repeatedly until
the traverse aligns accurately
 TRAVERSING PROCEDURE

1) Reconnaissance
 This is a preliminary field inspection of the entire area to be covered. During
the reconnaissance stage the surveyor goes to the entire area and decides on the
best plan of working. From office reconnaissance thus the existing control
points in the whole entire area, is noted and the map of the area is also
extracted for filed reconnaissance. Field reconnaissance includes examination
of the area to be surveyed, selection of suitable positions for traverse stations,
insuring the intervisibilty of the traverse stations, and deciding on the method
of traverse and type of equipment to be employed.
1)Selection of traverse
 Involves decision making on number of stations to be used,
ensuring the length of traverse lines is as long as possible to
reduce the effect of centering errors, ensure the stations are
intervisible, also making sure that the ground conditions are
suitable for linear measurements
1)Marking stations
 The station mark should be of permanent nature as far as
possible, so that the stations can be used for future referencing
and extending of control network.
1)Making linear and angular measurements
 After marking of stations, the distance and angular measurements
proceeds simultaneously. The traversing method employed
determines the type of equipment to be used. Tapping,
Tacheometric and or EDME method can be used in measuring the
distance between two traverse stations. In angular measurements
measuring of angles or directions can either be done using any of
the methods below
i)Loose needle method of bearings
ii)Fast needle method of bearings
iii)Method of interior angles
iv)Method of angles to the right
v)Azimuth method
vi)Method of deflection angles and Locating details
 METHODS OF TRAVERSING

The traversing is performed by four different methods and these

methods are classified according to the survey instrument used. The
methods are as follows.
Chain Traversing
Compass Traversing
Theodolite Traversing
Plane Table Traversing
Chain Traversing
Chain traversing is done by taking linear measurements only. Hence,
chain or tape is enough for chain traversing. The angle between the
adjacent traverse lines is measured using the chain angles concept. Chain
traversing is performed in areas such as ponds etc. where it is difficult to
adopt triangulation.
The chain angles concept is nothing but finding the angle between two
adjacent sides by establishing the third side using tie stations. This angle
between the sides can also be fixed by establishing a chord of known
length between the sides.
Advantages:
1. Simple Equipment: Only a chain or tape measure and basic tools
are required
.2. Cost-Effective: Less expensive compared to other advanced
surveying methods
.3. Ease of Use: Can be used by less experienced personnel with
minimal training.
4. Suitable for Short Distances: Effective for small to medium-
sized plots of land.
Disadvantages:
1. Accuracy Limitations: Susceptible to errors due to
chain sag, temperature variations, and human error.
2. Labor-Intensive: Requires more time and effort,
especially for large areas.
3. Terrain Dependency: Difficult to use in rough or uneven
terrain.
4. 4. Visibility Issues: Obstructions such as trees or
buildings can hinder measurements.
 SURVEY COMPASS

2. Compass Traversing
In the case of compass traversing, both
linear and angular measurements of
traverse lines are taken by using chain and
prismatic compass respectively. Both fore
bearing and back bearings are measured.
Advantages:
1. Lightweight and Portable: Easy to carry and set up in the
field
.2. Quick Setup: Faster initial setup compared to more complex
instruments.
3. Simple Operation: Requires less technical skill and training.
4. Direct Measurement: Measures bearings directly, simplifying
the process.
Disadvantages:
1. Magnetic Interference: Can be affected by nearby
metallic objects or magnetic anomalies.
2. Less Precision: Lower accuracy compared to
theodolites or total stations.
3. Cumulative Errors: Errors can accumulate over long
distances or many measurements.
4. Weather Dependent: Adversely affected by bad
weather, such as strong winds or rain.
Theodolite Traversing
In the case of theodolite traversing, the linear measurements
are done by using chain or stadia method and angular
measurements are done by theodolite. Using theodolite, the
magnetic bearing of the first traverse line is measured and
from that magnetic bearing of other sides are calculated. This
method is very accurate compared to other methods.
Advantages:
 1. High Accuracy: Provides precise angular
measurements.
 2. Versatility: Suitable for a wide range of surveying
tasks, including vertical and horizontal measurements.
 3. Stability: Less affected by external conditions like
magnetic fields.
 4. Error Minimization: Allows for systematic error
checking and correction
.Disadvantages:

 1. Complexity: Requires skilled personnel for setup and

operation.
 2. Cost: More expensive than simpler instruments like
chains or compasses.
 3. Time-Consuming: Takes longer to set up and
perform measurements.
 4. Bulky Equipment: Heavier and less portable
compared to basic instruments.
Plane Table Traversing
In the case of plane table traversing, the measuring and
plotting of the traverse on the paper are done simultaneously.
The plane table equipment is set up at every traverse station
one by one in a clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. The
sides of each traverse station are drawn on paper to a suitable
scale. If there is any closing error, graphical methods are
used for its adjustment.
Advantages:
 1. Visual Representation: Provides a direct, on-site visual
representation of the survey
 . 2. Immediate Results: Allows for immediate plotting and
checking of data in the field
 . 3. Intuitive Method: Easier to understand for those unfamiliar
with complex surveying instruments.
 4. Interactive: Facilitates immediate adjustments and corrections.
Disadvantages:
 1. Limited Accuracy: Less precise than theodolites or
electronic surveying instruments
 . 2. Weather Sensitivity: Adversely affected by weather
conditions, such as rain and wind.
 3. Cumbersome Setup: Requires setting up a stable
plane table, which can be time-consuming.
 4. Manual Drawing: Relies on manual plotting, which can
introduce human error.
 TRAVERSE ERRORS
Instrumental Errors:
 o Angular Measurement Errors: Theodolites or total stations used for angle
measurements can introduce errors due to instrument misalignment, imperfect
calibration, or reading inaccuracies.
 o Distance Measurement Errors: Errors in distance measurements can occur due to
equipment inaccuracies, temperature variations, or improper measurement techniques
2. Systematic Errors:
 o Equipment Calibration: Failing to calibrate survey instruments regularly can lead
to systematic errors. Calibration ensures that instruments are correctly aligned and
adjusted.
 o Scale Factor: Maps and instruments may have different scales, leading to scale
factor errors when transferring data between them.
 o Instrument Height: Incorrect instrument height or leveling can introduce
systematic errors in vertical angles.
. Blunders:
 Data Recording Errors: Human errors in recording measurements,
transposing numbers, or misidentifying points can result in blunders
that affect the accuracy of survey data. Land Surveying Principles -
Traverse Surveys – A07-002 15
 Station Setup: Errors in setting up surveying instruments at stations
can lead to angular and distance measurement errors.
4. Natural Factors:
 Atmospheric Conditions: Changes in temperature, pressure, and
humidity can affect the speed of light and sound, impacting distance
measurements in survey instruments.
 Magnetic Variation: Magnetic north may not align with true north
due to geographic location, requiring correction for compass readings
STRATEGIES TO MINIMISE ERRORS
1. Calibration and Maintenance:
 Regularly calibrate survey instruments to ensure their
accuracy and alignment.
 Maintain instruments properly by keeping them clean,
protected, and free of dust or debris.
2. Quality Control
 Implement strict quality control procedures during
fieldwork and data collection.
 Verify and cross-check measurements to catch any data
recording errors or inconsistencies
3. Blunder Checks
 Review and validate field notes and recorded data for blunders or
anomalies.
 Recheck instrument setup and measurements to ensure consistency and
correctness.
4. Proper Instrument Setup
 Set up surveying instruments precisely over traverse stations, ensuring that
they are level and properly aligned.
 Use stable and reliable tripod stands for instrument stability.
5. Correction for Atmospheric Effects:
 Apply corrections for temperature, pressure, and humidity variations that
affect distance measurements.
 Account for atmospheric refraction in distance measurements for high
6. Coordinate Systems
 Use consistent coordinate systems and datum references to
minimize errors when combining data from different sources.
7. Use Modern Technology:
 Incorporate advanced technology like electronic distance meters
(EDMs) and global positioning systems (GPS) to improve
measurement accuracy and reduce human errors.
By understanding and addressing the various sources of errors,
surveyors can produce accurate and reliable survey data. These
efforts ensure that the survey data is trustworthy and can be
confidently used for land mapping, boundary determination, and
engineering projects.