Biological Effects of
Radiation
Radiation Protection
Standards
Dose limits to radiation workers are
based on the quantitative risk
estimates for cancer incidence and
genetic effects
Dose limits have been set to ensure
the safety of the radiation workers
Present occupational exposure levels
make radiation industry a very safe
enterprise
Direct Effects of Radiation:
Ionizing radiation can directly damage a biomolecule by
ionizing it or breaking its bonds
Direct effect is predominent with high LET radiation
Eg:Alpha particle, neutrons.
Indirect effect of Radiation:
create an H2O+ ion, which reacts with H2O to form a hydroxyl
radical, which in turn reacts with the biomolecule, causing damage
indirectly.
Indirect effect is predominent with low LET radiation.
Radiolysis of Water
The process begins when “an atom of water is irradiated; this
ionizes the water, and produces a free radical. Then the free
radical interacts with another water molecule and causes the
water molecule to form a Hydrogen ion and a Hydroxide ion.
If two hydroxide ions then proceed to chemically combine the
product will be Hydrogen Peroxide. The Chemical Equation of
this process is as follows:
“H2O +radiation HOH+ + e-
H2 O + e - HOH-
HOH+ H+ + OH* (Free Radical)
HOH- OH- + H* (Free Radical)
OH* + OH* H2 O 2 ”
Biological Effects of
Radiation
Deterministic Effect:
e.g. Lens opacities,
Stochastic Effect:
skin injuries,
Cancer, genetic
infertility, epilation,
effects
etc
Deterministic effects:
High doses of radiation (several Gy)
received within a short duration can cause
deleterious effects in human beings. A
significant level of cell killing in any organ or
tissue can result in deterministic effects.
These effects do not occur below a threshold
dose (0.5 Gy). These effects cannot occur
under normal working conditions but can be
seen in accident situations, or in patients
undergoing cancer radiotherapy involving
several Gy of radiation(40-70Gy)
Body/Organ effects:
-Threshold
-Severity dose dependent above threshold
-Organ specific dose
examples:
Cataract formation
Skin injury
Sterility
The dose–response relationship is threshold-sigmoid
Also called as Tissue Reaction
Radiation damage due to cells being killed
& removed from a tissue or organ
Initial loss of some cells does not effect the
organ
Threshold dose – radiation dose which
causes loss of cells high enough to effect
the tissue or organ functioning
Below the threshold dose no affect on
functioning
Above the threshold dose the severity of
harm increases with increase in dose –
reaches 100% at a certain dose
Cataract formation:
Now 0.5Gy(2011) previously 2.0Gy
Recommended decreasing annual
equivalent dose to 20mSv averaged
over five years
Wear eye protection
Skin Injury:
Threshold
- 2Gy
Range of severity
-Transient erythema-2Gy
-Dermal necrosis-18Gy
-Secondary Ulceration-20Gy
Skin effects
Effects are:
Erythema: 1 to 24 hours
after irradiation of about 3-
5 Gy
Alopecia(*): 5 Gy is
reversible; 20 Gy is
irreversible.
Pigmentation: Reversible,
appears 8 days after
irradiation.
Dry or moist
desquamation: traduces
epidermal hypoplasia (dose
20 Gy).
Sterility
• Permanent sterility
• males 3.5-6 Gy
• females 2.5-6 Gy
• Temporary sterility
• males 0.15 Gy
• females 0.6 Gy
Stochastic Effects :
• Stochastic effects of radiation are caused by
the modification of genetic information of cells.
• These modifications (mutations can occur both
in somatic cells and germ cells (germ cells)
• Modification of somatic cells may cause
cancers
• Whereas, the mutation in germ cells
(sperm/ovum) has potential to cause genetic
disorders in the future generations. These are
the two important stochastic effects in human
beings.
Examples of Stochastic effect: Cancer,
Leukemia, hereditary effects
Low-level radiation exposure (a few mGy)
for prolonged period may entail an
increased risk of cancer induction in old
age. But human populations exposed to
low level radiation (<100mGy) from
occupational exposure, routine diagnostic
X-rays and nuclear medicine procedures
or to elevated natural background
radiation do not show a statistically
significant increase in cancer incidence as
compared to control populations.
Radiation induced genetic effects have
been seen in experimental animals
exposed to large doses (several Gy).
Among the 70,000 children born to A-
bomb survivors exposed to moderate
doses of 500mSv, there is no increase
in the incidence of genetic disorders as
compared to the children of the
unexposed. Hence, there is no human
evidence to the induction of serious
genetic effects by radiation.
• Human being is more sensitive to
radiation effects before birth and also in
childhood, than during adulthood.
Irradiation in utero (prenatal-before birth)
to doses of the order of 100 mGy entails
the risk of malformation, mental
retardation and increased risk of
childhood cancers (during the first decade
after birth). Smaller doses may not involve
any significant risk. However, as a
measure of precaution, ICRP has
recommended a dose limit of 1 mSv to the
foetus during the entire period of
pregnancy.
Deterministic effect v/s Stochastic
effect
Chromosome aberrations
and mutations:
When cells are exposed to radiation or
carcinogens, DNA sometimes breaks,
and the broken ends may rejoin in
different patterns from their original
arrangement. The abnormalities that
result are termed “chromosome
aberrations” and may be visualized at
mitosis when cells divide.
Biochemical Reaction with
ionizing Radiation
DNA is the primary target for cell
damage from ionising Radiation.
The most important
Radiation induced lession
Indirect action of Radiation
Radiation effects on whole
body
Early effects
Late effects
Early effect: Response that occurs
within minutes or days after exposure.
Late effects: Response that occurs
within months or years.
Most human responses have been
observed after LARGE doses. To be
cautious we assume even small doses
are harmful.
Early Effects (Prodormal
period)
It consists of acute clinical
symptoms that appear within
minutes to hours of total body
exposure to the radiation
doses approximately100rad
(1Gy) and may last for few
hours to a couple of days.
-Anorexia, Nausea, Vomiting,
Diarrhea.
-Easy Fatigability
-Reduction in WBCs
Late effect (Latent Period)
After the period of initial radiation
sickness, a period of apparent well-
being occurs, which is called the latent
period.
-Extends from hrs or less(5000rad) to
weeks (100 to 500 rad)
Manifest Illness stage: In this stage
the symptoms depend on the specific
syndrome and last from hours up to
several months.
Recovery or Death: Most Patients who
do not recover will die within a few to
several months of exposure. The
recovery process lasts from several
weeks up to two years.
Acute radiation
syndrome.
The body consists of cells of different
radiation sensitivity, a large dose of
radiation delivered acutely does larger
damage than the same does delivered
over a long period of time.
The body response to a large acute
dose manifests itself in the acute
radiation syndrome.
Threshold doses
max 1cc
Brainstem 54Gy 60Gy
Spinal cord
45Gy 50Gy
Optic chiasma
Optic nerve 54Gy 60Gy
Eyes mean
<35Gy
Parotid Mean <24Gy Both<100%20Gy
Single<50%30Gy
Eyes Mean <35Gy
Ear Mean <50Gy
Lens mean<10Gy
kidney Mean20Gy both Each100%<23Gy
67%<30Gy 33%<50Gy
liver 100%<30Gy 50%<35Gy
Heart Max 40Gy
lung Mean 18Gy V13<40%,V20<25%
V30<10%
Concept of doubling dose:
The amount of radiation doubles the incidence of
stochastic effect
The doubling dose refers to the radiation dose required
to double the number of spontaneous genetic mutations in
a given population of cells.
The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of
Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) have traditionally estimated
the doubling dose in humans at 1.0 Gy. A report in 2000
states that this figure is more likely to be 1.5 Gy.
Using data from Japanese atomic bomb survivors and their
children, Neel et al (1991) estimate the doubling dose for
acute radiation-induced mutations to be between 1.7 and
2.2 Sv, and for chronic radiation-induced mutations to be
between 3.4 and 4.5 Sv.
