University of Eastern Philippines

GRADUATE STUDIES

LANGLIT 801 (STATISTICS)

MARY JUNE TAN-ADALLA

Course Professor
Course Description
This course introduces statistical techniques that are
essential to data analysis in educational researches. The main
goal in this exploration is statistical literacy – the ability to
understand and apply a variety of parametric statistical
operations. Topics will cover descriptive statistics and inferential
statistics that will be used in hypothesis testing using parametric
and non-parametric tools. Emphasis will be on the application of
the different statistical tests used in analyzing data. Students will
be required to conduct a research related to teaching and
learning that will showcase the use of both descriptive and
inferential statistics. Moreover, this course will enhance students’
ability in using statistical software such as SPSS to automate
data processing.
 Statistics involve the use of numbers,
measurements, estimation, prediction,
and problem solving. These processes
are used to substantiate the research
findings in such fields.
 Statistics is a branch of mathematics
that deals with the scientific collection,
organization, presentation, analysis, and
interpretation of numerical data in order
to obtain useful and meaningful
information.
Aspects of Statistics

1. Theoretical
It deals with the development,
derivation, and proof of statistical theorems,
formulas, rules, and laws.

2. Applied
It involves the applications of those
theorems, rules, and laws to solve real-world
problems.
 Collection of data refers to the process of
obtaining information.

 Organization of data refers to the

ascertaining manner of presenting the data
into tables, graphs, or charts so that logical
and statistical conclusions can be drawn
from the collected measurements.
 Analysis of data refers to the process
of extracting from the given data
relevant information from which
numerical description can be
formulated.

 Interpretation of data refers to the

task of drawing conclusions from the
analyzed data.
 Two Major Areas of Statistics
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS - is a statistical
method concerned with describing the
properties and characteristics of a set of data. It
involves data gathering, organizing, describing
and presenting.
Example:
Respondents in a survey may be described in
terms of how many are males and how many
are females, what is the total family income,
how many belong to a certain age group, etc.
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS - is a
statistical method concerned with the analysis
of a sample data leading to prediction,
inferences, interpretation, or conclusion about
the entire population.
- is concerned with higher degree of critical
judgment and advanced mathematical modes
such as using the different statistical tools both
the parametric and nonparametric tests.
Example:
A teacher computes the mean score of
her class in a mathematics test to
determine if the class mean is
significantly related to their scores in a
science test.
Four Major Types of Descriptive Statistics

1. Measures of Frequency

-Count, Percent, Frequency

-Shows how often something
occurs
-Use this when you want to show
how often a response is given
2. Measures of Central Tendency
-Mean, Median, and Mode
-Locates the distribution by various
points
-Use this when you want to show
how an average or most commonly
indicated response
-Use this when you want to show
how "spread out" the data are. It is helpful
to know when your data are so spread out
that it affects the mean.
3. Measures of Dispersion or Variation
-Range, Variance, Standard Deviation
-Identifies the spread of scores by stating
intervals
-Range = High/Low points
-Variance or Standard Deviation =
difference between observed score and mean
4. Measures of Position
-Percentile Ranks, Quartile Ranks
-Describes how scores fall in relation
to one another. Relies on standardized
scores
-Use this when you need to compare
scores to a normalized score (e.g., a national
norm)
PARAMETRIC AND NONPARAMETRIC TEST

Parametric Test is one which has information

about the population parameter.

Nonparametric Test is one where the researcher

has no idea regarding the population parameter.
 Some Statistical Terms

1. Data is any quantitative or qualitative

information. These are the values that
the variables can assume.

a. Quantitative data refers to

numerical information obtained from
counting or measuring that can be
manipulated by any fundamental operation.
Examples: age, IQ scores, height,
weight and income
 Some Statistical Terms

b. Qualitative data refers to

descriptive attributes that cannot be
subjected to mathematical operations.

Examples: gender, citizenship,

educational attainment, and religion
2. Variable is a specific factor, property,
or characteristics of a population, or a
sample which differentiates a sample or
group of samples from another group.
Variables whose values are determined by
chance are called random variables.

a. Discrete variable is a variable

that can be obtained by counting.

Examples: the number of cellphones

users in a company, the number of
computers in the laboratory
 b. Continuous variable is a variable that
can be obtained by measuring objects or
attributes.

Examples: the weight of students, the

temperature in a city over a period of time, the
area of classrooms
3. Population is the totality of all the actual
observable characteristics of a set of objects or
individuals.

Ex. The students of University of Eastern

Philippines

4. Sample is a part of a population determined

by sampling procedures.

Ex. This class

5. Parameter is any statistical information
or attribute taken from a population.

Example: The GPA of all the students

in the University of Eastern Philippines

6. Statistics is any estimate of statistical

attributes taken from a sample.

Example: The GPA of this class

 Methods of Collecting Data
1. Interview. This method is referred to
as the direct method of gathering data.
this requires a face-to-face inquiry with
the respondent.

2. Questionnaire. This is an indirect

method of gathering data. This makes use
of written questions to be answered by
the respondent.
3. Observation. This makes use of the
different human senses in gathering
information.

4. Registration or Census. This method

requires the enactment of law to take
effect because it needs the participation
of a large, if not, the entire population.

5. Experimentation. This is usually

conducted in laboratories where
specimen are subjected to some aspects
of control to find out cause and effect
 Measurement of Scales
1. Nominal scales are used as measures of identity.
This is characterized by data that consists of
names, labels, or categories.
Examples of this are classification of individuals
into categories like gender - male and female; yes and
no answer; dwelling place - rural and urban; religion
- Muslims and Christians

2. Ordinal scale is used in measurement like ranking

of individuals or objects. This involves data that may
be arranged in some order.
Example: responses like Strongly Agree, Agree,
No Opinion, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree
3. Interval scales are numbers that reflect
differences among items.
Examples are scores in a test,
grades of students, ages, blood pressures

4. Ratio scale is the highest type of scale.

This is an interval level modified to
include the inherent zero starting point.
The difference and ratios of data are
meaningful.
Examples are the measures of
length, weight, loudness, width
 Slovin's Formula

N
n 2
1 Ne

where N = Number of Population

n = number of samples
e = margin of error
Example
What is the sample size if the population
is 3000 and the margin of error is set at:
a. 5% b. 3%

Solution:
3000
a. n 2
1(3000)(0.05)

n = 352.94 or 353
b.
3000
n 2
1(3000)(0.03)
n = 810.81 or 811
 Sampling Techniques
1. Probability Sampling. It is a sampling
procedure where every element of a population is
given an equal chance of being selected as a
member of the sample.

a. Random sampling. This can be done by

using chance methods or random numbers. This
can also be done by lottery or with the aid of a
table of random numbers, or the random function
of a scientific calculator.
 Sampling Techniques

b. Systematic sampling. This is an

alternative to simple random sampling. Random
starting point is selected from the list of
population. The samples are determined by
choosing every nth element on the list until the
desired number of samples are drawn.
 c. Stratified random sampling. This is
done by creating different classes or strata
within the population. The grouping may be
done based on grade level, income groupings,
gender, among others.

d. Cluster sampling. If the population is

too big, a sampling method maybe employed to
smaller area. The population maybe divided
geographically into regions, divisions or
districts.
2.Nonprobability sampling. This is a sampling
procedure in which not every element of the
population is given an equal chance of being
selected as sample. The drawing of samples is
based purely on the researchers' objectives.

a. Convenience sampling. The

researchers' convenience is the primary concern
in using this method.
b. Quota sampling. This is similar to stratified
sampling but the drawing of samples in quota
sampling is not done randomly. If the desired
quota is reached, the drawing of samples is
terminated.

c. Purposive sampling. This is used when the

specific objective under study requires a
particular sample which may not cover the
entire population.