Alexander-Sadiku

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

Chapter 4
Circuit Theorems

1
 Circuit Theorems - Chapter 4

4.1 Motivation
4.2 Linearity Property
4.3 Superposition
4.4 Source Transformation
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem
4.6 Norton’s Theorem
4.7 Maximum Power Transfer
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 4.1 Motivation (1)
If you are given the following circuit, are there any
other alternative(s) to determine the voltage across
2 resistor?

without tampering with its original configuration.

To handle the complexity, engineers over the years have
developed some theorems to simplify circuit analysis
Applicable to linear
What are they? And how? 3
Can you work it out by inspection?
 4.2 Linearity Property (1)
It is the property of an element describing a linear relationship between
cause and effect.
A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly
proportional) to its input.

Homogeneity (scaling) property

v=iR → kv=kiR

Additive property

v1 = i1 R and v2 = i2 R

→ v = (i1 + i2) R = v1 + v2 4
 4.2 Linearity Property (2)
Example 1
By assume Io = 1 A, use linearity to find the
actual value of Io in the circuit shown below.

6
 4.3 Superposition Theorem (1)

It states that the voltage across (or current through) an

element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the
voltage across (or currents through) that element due to
EACH independent source acting alone.

The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear

circuit with more than one independent source by
calculating the contribution of each independent source
separately.

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 4.3 Superposition Theorem (2)

We consider the effects of 8A and 20V one by

one, then add the two effects together for final v o.

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 4.3 Superposition Theorem (3)

Steps to apply superposition principle

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source.

Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active
source using nodal or mesh analysis.

2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent

sources.

3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the

contributions due to the independent sources.

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 4.3 Superposition Theorem (4)

Two things have to be keep in mind:

1. When we say turn off all other independent sources:

 Independent voltage sources are replaced by 0 V
(short circuit) and
 Independent current sources are replaced by 0 A
(open circuit).

2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are

controlled by circuit variables.

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 4.3 Superposition Theorem (5)
Example 2

Use the superposition theorem to find v in

the circuit shown below.

3A is discarded by
open-circuit

6V is discarded
by short-circuit

*Refer to text book, answer v = 10V 11

Revision - Source Transformation (1)

• An equivalent circuit is one whose v-i

characteristics are identical with the original
circuit.
• It is the process of replacing a voltage source vS
in series with a resistor R by a current source iS
in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.

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Source Transformation (2)

+ + •The arrow of the

current source is
directed toward
the positive
-
(a) Independent source transform
- terminal of the voltage
source.

+ + •The source
transformation is
not possible when
R = 0 for voltage
- - source and R = ∞
(b) Dependent source transform for current source.

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4.4 Source Transformation (3)
Example 4

Find io in the circuit shown below using source transformation.

*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook, answer io = 1.78A 21

 4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem (1)

It states that a linear two-terminal circuit

(Fig. a) can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit (Fig. b) consisting of a voltage
source VTH in series with a resistor RTH,

where

• VTH is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals.

• RTH is the input or equivalent resistance at the

terminals when the independent sources are
turned off.

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4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem (2)
Example 5
6 6
Using Thevenin’s theorem, find
the equivalent circuit to the left
4
of the terminals in the circuit RTh

shown below. Hence find i.

(a)

6

+
2A 6 4 VTh
2A


(b)

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*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook, answer VTH = 6V, RTH = 3, i = 1.5A
Thévenin’s theorem (4)
• Thévenin’s theorem allows even the most
complicated circuit to be reduced to a single
voltage source and a single resistance.
• The importance of such a theorem becomes
evident when we try to analyze a circuit as
shown in Figure 9–8
• If we wanted to find the current through the
variable load resistor when RL= 0, RL = 2 k,
and RL = 5 k using existing methods, we
would need to analyze the entire circuit three
separate times.
• However, if we could reduce the entire circuit
external to the load resistor to a single voltage
source in series with a resistor, the solution
becomes very easy.
Any linear bilateral network may be reduced to a simplified
two-terminal circuit consisting of a single voltage source in
series with a single resistor as shown in Figure.

• A linear network (operates in the same manner

regardless of the direction of current in the
network),
Steps to converts any circuit into its
Thévenin equivalent
1. Remove the load from the circuit.
2. Label the resulting two terminals. We will label them as ‘a’ and
‘b’, although any notation may be used.
3. Set all sources in the circuit to zero.
4. Determine the Thévenin equivalent resistance, RTh, by
calculating the resistance “seen” between terminals ‘a’ and ‘b’.
It may be necessary to redraw the circuit to simplify this step.
5. Replace the sources removed in Step 3, and determine the
open-circuit voltage between the terminals. If the circuit has
more than one source, it may be necessary to use the
Superposition Theorem. In that case, it will be necessary to
determine the open-circuit voltage due to each source
separately and then determine the combined effect. The
resulting open-circuit voltage will be the value of the Thévenin
voltage, ETh.
6. Draw the Thévenin equivalent circuit using the resistance
determined in Step 4 and the voltage calculated in Step 5. As
part of the resulting circuit, include that portion of the network
removed in Step 1
 4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem (3)
5 Ix 3 a
Example 6
+
i2
Find the Thevenin equivalent 6V
+
 i1
VTh
4 
circuit of the circuit shown below 1.5Ix
to the left of the terminals. i1 i2

o
b
(a)

0.5Ix 3 Ix a
i

5 1.5Ix 4 + 1V


(b)
b
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*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook, answer VTH = 5.33V, RTH = 3
 4.6 Norton’s Theorem (1)
It states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit of a current
source IN in parallel with a resistor RN,

Where

• IN is the short circuit current through

the terminals.

• RN is the input or equivalent resistance

at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.

The Thevenin’s and Norton equivalent circuits are related

by a source transformation. 35
 Norton’s theorem
• Norton’s theorem is a circuit analysis technique
which is similar to Thévenin’s theorem. By using
this theorem the circuit is reduced to a single
current source and one parallel resistor.

• In summary, Norton’s theorem may be

simplified as follows:

Any linear bilateral network may be reduced to a simplified

two-terminal circuit consisting of a single current source and a

single shunt resistor

 Steps to convert cct in to Norten’s
equivalent
1. Remove the load from the circuit.

2. Label the resulting two terminals. We will label them as a and b.

3. Set all sources to zero !

4. Determine the Norton equivalent resistance, RN. It may be necessary to

redraw the circuit to simplify this step.

5. Replace the sources removed in Step 3, and determine the current which
would occur in a short if the short were connected between terminals a
and b. If the original circuit has more than one source, it may be
necessary to use the Superposition Theorem.

6. Sketch the Norton equivalent circuit using the resistance determined in

Step 4 and the current calculated in Step 5. As part of the resulting
circuit, include that portion of the network removed in Step 1.
a
b

9-37
 9-39

9-40
 9-41 (a)

9-41 (b)
Thevenin equivalent is a simple voltage divider!
 4.7 Maximum Power Transfer (1)
If the entire circuit is replaced by its
Thevenin equivalent except for the
load, the power delivered to the load is:

2
 VTh 
P  i 2 RL    RL
 RTh  RL 

For maximum power dissipated in

RL, Pmax, for a given RTH,
and VTH,
2
V
RL  RTH  Pmax  Th
4 RL The power transfer profile with different R L
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The maximum power transfer theorem states
the following:

A load resistance will receive maximum power

from a circuit when the resistance of the load
is exactly the same as the Thévenin (Norton)
resistance looking back at the circuit.

From Figure 9–45 we see that once the network has been
simplified using either Thévenin’s or Norton’s theorem,
maximum power will occur when

9-45
Obtain Thevenin
and Norton
equivalent ccts
Find the value of for maximum power transfer in the circuit
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig, to the left
of the terminals a-b. Then find the current through RL = 6, 16 and 36 ohms
OTW / Self Assignment !
Practice Bridge networks