Phasor representation

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 Phasor

Phasor Representation:

A sinusoidal alternating voltage or current may be represented

by a line of definite length rotating in anticlockwise direction, at
a constant angular velocity.

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CONTINUED…….

• Each instantaneous values of an ac signal can be represented as

a phasor.
• In the above fig phasor OA represents instantaneous value at an
angle ɵ
1. Phasor - A phasor is a vector that has an arrow head at one
end whose length represents the maximum value of the vector
quantity ( V or I ) and one end of the vector is fixed that rotates
in anticlockwise direction.
2. Phase – The fraction of the time period that elapses in achieving
certain instantaneous value is known as phase of that alternating
quantity.
3. Phase angle- It is the angle made by the conductor axis with the
reference axis.
Phase difference - Phase difference is angular displacement between
waveforms of same frequency.
Phase Difference Equation

Where: Am - is the amplitude of the waveform.

ωt - is the angular frequency of the waveform in radian/sec.
Φ (phi) - is the phase angle in degrees or radians that the waveform
has shifted either left or right from the reference point.
Phase Relationship of a Sinusoidal Waveform
• Leading phase difference – A leading alternating quantity is one
which attains its zero or maximum value earlier as compared with the
other quantity.
• Waveform:
Equations:

Phasor Diagram:

Im

Vm
• Lagging phase differance – A lagging alternating quantity is one
which attains its zero or maximum value after the other quantity.
• Waveform:
• Equations:

• Phasor diagram:

Vm

Im
 Types of power in ac circuits.
Active, Reactive, and Apparent Power.
1. Active power (True Power or Real power or Watt-full Power, Useful
Power)(P)-
True power is the average power consumed by the given circuit.
Active - or real or true - power is the power that is used to do work on the
load.
Active power is measured in watts (W) and is the power drawn by the
electrical resistance of a system doing useful work.
P = VI Cosθ (Watt)
2. Reactive Power

Reactive Power (Use-less Power, Watt less Power, Imaginary power):

(Q)
• The powers that continuously bounce back and forth between source
and load is known as reactive Power (Q)
• Reactive power represent that the energy is first stored and then
released in the form of magnetic field or electrostatic field in case of
inductor and capacitor respectively.
• Reactive power is given by Q = V I Sinθ
which can be positive (+ve) for inductive, negative (-ve) for capacitive
load.
• The unit of reactive power is Volt-Ampere reactive. I.e. VAR
3.Apparent power
• Apparent power (Total power)(S) – It is the total power supplied by the
source to a circuit and it is equal to the vector sum of real power(P) and
imaginary power(Q).
• Apparent power formulas:
S = V I (VA)
Unit is volt-ampere(VA)
Apparent Power = √ (True power2 + Reactive Power2)
 Power triangle
• Power Triangle –
Power triangle is the right angled triangle in which base represents
the active power, altitude represents the reactive power and
hypotenuse represents apparent power.
Inductive Reactance:
• Inductive reactance (XL )- Inductive reactance is defined as the
opposition offered by the pure inductor to the flow of current.
• It is represented as,

• Inductive reactance X L is proportional to the sinusoidal

signal frequency (f ) and the inductance (L) (measured in
HENRY), which depends on the physical shape of the inductor.
• Inductive reactance has unit as ohm (Ω)
Capacitive Reactance

• Capacitive reactance ( Xc ) - Capacitive reactance is defined as

the opposition offered by the pure capacitor to the flow of
current.
• Capacitive Reactance is measured in ohm (Ω)
• It is represented as,

Where:
Xc = Capacitive Reactance in Ohms, (Ω)
π (pi) = 3.142 (decimal) or 22÷7 (fraction)
ƒ = Frequency in Hertz, (Hz)
C = Capacitance in Farads, (F)
Impedance
Impedance : Impedance is the combination of a resistance,
inductive reactance and capacitive reactance.
• It is also defined as the total opposition offered by resistor,
inductor and capacitor in an ac circuit. Unit is ohm.
• It is also represenred as
• Z = lZl tan¯¹ (X/R) = IZI Ѳ
• Where ,
Impedance Triangle
• Impedance triangle- Impedance triangle is the right angled triangle
whose base represents resistance, altitude represents resultant
reactance and hypogenous represents impedance.
1. A capacitor of 8 µF takes a current on 1 A when the applied voltage
is 230V.
a) Frequency of applied voltage
b) Resistor that needs to be added in series to capacitor for reducing
current to 0.5 A.( same frequency)
c) Phase angle of resulting circuit.

Z= V/I
XC= V/I= 230/1= 230Ω = 230/0.5= 460Ω

XC= 1/cω = 1/ C.2∏ F Z2= R2+XC2

F= 86.5 Hz R= 398Ω

tan ɸ = XC/R
= 300
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Types of AC series circuit -
1. Purely resistive circuit –
Circuit diagram –

• Let the alternating voltage applied across the circuit be

given by the equation
• The instantaneous value of voltage across the resistance is given
by

•Then the instantaneous value of current flowing

through the resistor shown in the figure below will be
• Phase Angle and Waveform of Resistive Circuit
From equation (1) and (3), it is clear that there is no phase
difference between applied voltage and current flowing
through a pure resistive circuit, i.e. phase angle between
voltage and current is zero.hence, in an AC circuit
containing pure resistance, current is in phase with the
voltage as shown in the waveform figure below.
Waveform Phasor diagram
Example Problem

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2. Purely inductive circuit
Circuit Diagram -

Equations :
• Waveform Phasor diagram

The current in the pure inductive AC circuit lag the

voltage by 90 degrees
Example Problem
3. Pure capacitive circuit
• Circuit Diagram

• Equations :
• Waveform Phasor Diagram

In the pure Capacitor circuit, the current flowing through the

capacitor(IC) leads the voltage(VC) by an angle of 90 degrees.
Example Problem
Power factor
1. The Cosine of angle between Current and Voltage is called
Power Factor.
2. The ratio between Active Power and Apparent Power is called
power factor.

Active power P = VI Cosθ

3.The ratio between resistance and Impedance is

Called Power Factor.
Cosθ = R/Z
Importance of power factor
• Power factor play an important role in AC circuits and power dissipation
depends on this factor. For instant, we know that;
• Power in a Single Phase AC Circuits = P = V x I CosФ
• And Current in a Three phase AC Circuits = I = P / (V x CosФ)
• I ∝ 1/CosФ……… (2)
• It is clear from both equations (1) an (2) that Current “I” is inversely
proportional to CosФ i.e. Power Factor. In other words, When Power
Factor increases, Current Decreases, and when Power Factor
decreases, Current Increases.
• Now, In case of Low Power Factor, Current will be increased, and this
high current will cause to the following disadvantages.
Disadvantage of low power factor -
Large Line Losses (Copper Losses):
1.)

We know that Line Losses is directly proportional to the squire of Current

“I2”
Power Loss = I2xR i.e., the larger the current, the greater the line losses i.e.
I>>Line Losses
2.) Large kVA rating and Size of Electrical Equipments:
we know , CosФ = kW / kVA
Therefore, The Lower the Power factor, the larger the kVA rating of
Machines also, the larger the kVA rating of Machines, The larger the Size
of Machines and The Larger the size of Machines, The Larger the Cost of
machines.
3.) Greater Conductor Size and Cost:
In case of low power factor, current will be increased, thus, to transmit this
high current, we need the larger size of conductor. Also, the cost of large
size of conductor will be increased.
4.) Poor Voltage Regulation and Large Voltage Drop:
Voltage Drop = V = IZ.
Now in case of Low Power factor, Current will be increased. So the Larger
the current, the Larger the Voltage Drop.
Continued…………
5.) Low Efficiency:
In case of low Power Factor, there would be large voltage drop and large
line losses and this will cause the system or equipments efficiency too
low.
6.) Penalty from Electric Power Supply Company on Low Power
factor
Electrical Power supply Company imposes a penalty of power factor
below 0.95 lagging in Electric power bill. So you must improve Pf above
0.95.
Following are the causes of low Power factor:

1. Single phase and three phase induction Motors

2. Varying Load in Power System)
3. Industrial heating furnaces
4. Electrical discharge lamps (High intensity discharge lighting) Arc
lamps (operate at a very low power factor)
5. Transformers
6. Harmonic Currents
Advantages of Power factor improvement and
Correction:
• Increase in efficiency of system and devices
• Low Voltage Drop
• Reduction in size of a conductor and cable which reduces cost of the
Cooper
• An Increase in available power
• Line Losses (Copper Losses) I2R is reduced
• Appropriate Size of Electrical Machines (Transformer, Generators etc)
• Eliminate the penalty of low power factor from the Electric Supply
Company
• Low kWh (Kilo Watt per hour)Saving in the power bill
• Better usage of power system, lines and generators etc
• Saving in energy as well as rating and the cost of the electrical
devices and equipment is reduced.