Centre for Conflict

Management
Gako, 31 July- 4 August 2023

By Dr Liberata Gahongayire
Emails: [email protected]
Tel: 0788504076
Module: Military History

By Dr Liberata Gahongayire
Emails: [email protected]
Tel: 0788504076
 Module: Military History

Lecture 3. Mongol Empire

By Dr Liberata Gahongayire
Emails: [email protected]
Tel: 0788504076
Outline

1. Origin of Mongol empire

2. The Mongol army
3. Rise and expansion
4. Tactics
5.. Mongol army and its impact
1. Origin of the Mongol empire

The Mongol Empire, founded by Genghis Khan in

1206 in central Asia, spanned from the Pacific
Ocean to the Danube River and Persian Gulf. Its
growth was rapid through conquest, with armies
attacking China, Korea, Turkistan, Samarkand, and
Russia. After Genghis Khan's death, the empire
was divided into four khanates, each with its own
interests and objectives. The empire's peak
covered 9 million square miles.
 The Mongol Empire (Morgan 1982)

All sorts and conditions of men were inevitably conscripted by the

conquering Mongols to lend a hand in administering their newly-
acquired possessions, and there is plenty of evidence, especially
from Persia and China, purporting to illustrate how this worked.

Very few Mongolian sources for the history of the Mongol Empire
have survived.

Essentially, the history of the empire has to be reconstructed from

sources deriving from the conquered peoples; and much of it from
the administrative classes of those peoples.

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Greenwood Dictionary of World History, 2006:

Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire in

the 13th century, a group of steppe nomads
from Mongolia. He unified the Mongols and
expanded the empire, conquering Russia,
Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, Iran, Iraq, China,
and Korea. However, they faced setbacks,
including defeating the Mamluks in 1260 and
moving the capital to Khanbalikh. The Mongols
eventually became independent, and their
unity ended.

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In 1368 the Mongols were driven out of China, and in 1372 a Chinese army
burned Karakoram.

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 2. The Mongol army

The Mongol Army (Martin 1943)

Chinghiz Khan's conquest of Khwarazm in 1162-1227
involved a large army of 700,000 men, while his grand
son, Batu, overcame Eussia and Central Europe with a
500,000-strong army. However, medieval historians
argued that Mongol victories were due to numerical
superiority. Recent examinations reveal that Mongols'
triumphs were due to their organization, discipline, and
leadership, rather than great numbers. Robert of Spoleto,
a contemporary of the Mongol invasion, praised their skill
in warfare.how to overcome an adversary in the open by
skill in warfare."

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.

2. The Mongol army (cont’d)

Mongol forces were often outnumbered

by their enemies. In 1211, Chinghiz Khan
marched against the Chin, with 110,000
men, about one-sixth of his opponent's
forces. In 1219, he mobilized 150,000 for
the Khwarazm Shah, but his army was
smaller and less organized than the
Chin's. In 1216, 20,000 Mongols, led by
generals Sübötai and Toguchar, were
attacked by a Khwarazmian army of
60,000 men in Turgai province. The
Mongols refused to fight, but the Shah
forced an engagement.
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 2. The Mongol army (cont’d)
The Mongols nearly won an indecisive battle
against Chinghiz Khan's troops, despite being
outnumbered. As the Empire expanded, non-
Mongol troops were enrolled, but the largest field
force in 1275 was not more than 200,000. The
strength of the Mongol Empire's zenith is
uncertain, but the Mongol army was more than
doubled by Ögödai's throne in 1229. The Mongol
army included troops from Solang, Öngüt, Khitan,
Jürchät, Qirghiz, Tangut, and Chinese, as well as
nomad tribes from Qara Khitay and Khwarazm.

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 2. The Mongol army (cont’d)

Mongol armies, ranging from 300,000 to 400,000

men, were small for controlling vast empires like
Chinghiz Khan's. Although larger than Medieval
Christendom, they were initially numerically
inferior to major powers in Asia. Some modern
writers view the Mongol army as unique in war
history, as it demonstrated that cavalry needed
not rest on a stable infantry base. Mongol
warriors were strong in enduring hunger and bad
life conditions, and had a great sense of
direction.

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2. The Mongol army (cont’d)

The Mongol horse, which weighs 13–14

hands, is renowned for its endurance and
capacity for long journeys. Due to the fact
that a single pony can travel 600 miles in
nine days, it helped the Mongols in their
conquests. Mongol troops made unmatched
marches in the 13th century, like Chinghiz
Khan's march from Bamian to Ghazni, without
stopping for food preparation in 1221.

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2. The Mongol army (cont’d)

In 1241, Chinghiz Khan's army invaded

Hungary, crossing the high and rough terrain
of Afghanistan. The vanguard marched 180
miles across the Ruska pass in the
Carpathians between 12th and 15th March,
demonstrating remarkable endurance.
Mongol horsemanship and archery made the
armies of Chinghiz Khan and his successors
almost invincible. Taught to ride at three, the
young Mongol was given his first bow and
arrows at four or five, and spent most of his
time hunting on horseback. His weapons
included arrows, bow, sabre, mace, cap
helmet, and armour.
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 2. The Mongol army (cont’d)
Mongols were better equipped during their war with
the Chin due to their supplies of iron and weapons.
Mêng Hung states that before the Chin, there was an
embargo on the sale of iron and weapons to the
north, but these were exported in large quantities.
Every able-bodied Mongol from 16 to 61 years of age
was liable to military service, and all those called
upon to participate in the annual winter hunt were
obliged to appear. These hunts were both military
exercise and meat supply, taking the form of a
campaign.

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2. The Mongol army (cont’d)
The Mongol army was divided into three main
forces: the Left wing, the Eight wing, and the
Imperial Ordu. The organization was on a
decimal basis, with the strongest unit being
the Tümen, which could constitute an army
corps. Clans and tribes were grouped to
gather units of 1,000 to 10,000 men quickly.
The commander of an army was given a great
drum as a sign of authority. The guard
constituted the crack force of the Mongol
army, with 70 men selected for the day-guard
and 80 for the night-guard.

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The Mongol army consisted of 400 archers, a
personal guard of 1,000 braves, and a court
guard. In 1206, Chinghiz Khan assumed supreme
power, increasing the guard's strength to 10,000
men. These men were chosen from nobles or
freemen and were well-built, agile, and hardy.
The guard enjoyed privileges and unbounded
confidence from Chinghiz Khan. Studying the
Mongol army's strategy and tactics is crucial for
its success. Most accounts show that Chinghiz
Khan and his successors carefully considered the
political, economic, and military situation before
declaring hostilities.

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The Mongol army consisted of 400 archers, a
personal guard of 1,000 braves, and a court
guard. In 1206, Chinghiz Khan assumed
supreme power, increasing the guard's
strength to 10,000 men. These men were
chosen from nobles or freemen and were well-
built, agile, and hardy. The guard enjoyed
privileges and unbounded confidence from
Chinghiz Khan. Studying the Mongol army's
strategy and tactics is crucial for its success.
Most accounts show that Chinghiz Khan and
his successors carefully considered the
political, economic, and military situation
before declaring hostilities.

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In 1258, the Mongols invaded Ssu-ch'uan
province, led by Great Khan Möngke. With
40,000 men, they were advertised as 100,000
strong. The Mongols exploited enemy
dissension and conducted a review of their
army before advancing. They entered
countries in separated columns, allowing them
to unite quickly and secure cities. Their
superior mobility and speed made them a
formidable force in battle.

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Chinghiz Khan's march to Bukhara was
considered hazardous due to the potential attack
by Samarkand's numerically superior forces.
However, the Mongols took precautions,
including a scouting screen two days ahead and
similar screens on the flanks and rear. Sieges
were tedious for the Mongols, who had limited
manpower and technical knowledge. The walls of
Chung Tu, constructed of stamped clay and brick
battlements, measured 54 li in circumference
and reached a height of 40 feet. The modern
Peiking walls are larger and have a width of at
least 50 feet.

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Mongols relied on conquered Chinese soldiers
for siege expertise, employing captives to
work and head assaults to minimize losses.
They used large numbers of weapons and
employed captives to work, making their
losses negligible. In mountainous countries
like Afghanistan and the Elburz, forts were
perched on heights that blockading forces
could not reach. When a Mongol army made
contact with an enemy, they extended their
front to outflank the hostile force.

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Mongols relied on the siege tactics of Chinese
warriors they had subjugated, putting captives to
work and using head assaults to cut down on
casualties. They lost very little because they
utilized many weapons and put prisoners to work.
Forts were built in mountainous nations like
Afghanistan and the Elburz on peaks that were
inaccessible to blockading armies. A Mongol army
would expand its front upon coming into touch
with an adversary in order to outflank them.

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Mongols used feigned retreats to defeat their
adversaries by extending their wings behind
clouds or valleys, or by drawing an attack on
their center and retiring until the enemy was
encircled. This strategy was used by Hannibal
to destroy the Roman army at Cannae. In 1241,
Prince Henry of Silesia, along with 20,000
Germans and Poles, fell into a trap near Lignitz
and was killed with 10,000 men. The Mongols'
ruses, including feigned retreats, have
attracted greater attention and have proven
successful even after becoming well-known.

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The Mongol pursuit of beaten armies was a
significant event in history, as it demonstrated the
importance of following up victory through
relentless pursuit. The Hungarians faced a
disastrous battle on the River Sajo, resulting in a
nearly destroyed army of 50,000 to 60,000 men.
The Mongols never failed to follow up on their
victories, and unless heavy losses or horse wear
led to resistance, they continued their relentless
pursuit. Discipline was severe, but to maintain
social and cultural solidarity, rigorous
punishments, particularly in the army, were
essential.
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In active service, officers had to inspect their
troops and armament before battle, providing
necessary supplies. If a soldier lacked necessary
equipment, the officer was punished. During
battle, if a pack or baggage fell, the man behind
them had to alight and return it to its owner. In
action, flight before retirement, plundering before
the word of command, and comrade desertion
were punished by death. The obedience of Mongol
soldiers often amazed their contemporaries, and
they were treated justly and better than most
armies until very modern times. Loot was
distributed among the Khans, with a special
portion allocated to those doing garrison work,
holding lines of communication, or acting as home
guards. 25
Chinghiz Khan demonstrated trust and loyalty to
his subordinates, earning their loyalty and
devotion. The Mongols, considered invincible by
the vanquished, believed in their military power.
With the advancement of firearms, the bow
became obsolete, and the Mongols' campaigns
exemplified principles of war. Chinghiz Khan's
military feats are considered superhuman among
the common people of Asia, and his conquests
are considered a demi-god by the Mongols.

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