BASICS OF INTERNET

UNIT-4

THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL

This model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) as a first step toward international standardization of the protocols used in the various layers. The model is called the ISO-OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with connecting open systemsthat is, systems that are open for communication with other systems.

PHYSICAL LAYER
It defines the mechanical, electrical, and timing interfaces to the network. The physical is the lowest layer in the OSI Reference Model. This layer gets data packets from the data-link layer above it, and converts the contents of these packets into a series of electrical signals that represent 0 and 1 values in a digital transmission. Physical layer converts the electrical signals into a series of bit values. These values are grouped into packets and passed up to the data-link layer.

DATA-LINK LAYER
The data-link layer is responsible for creating, transmitting, and receiving data packets. The datalink layer provides services for the various protocols at the network layer, and uses the physical layer to transmit or receive material. The data-link layer creates packets appropriate for the network architecture being used. Requests and data from the network layer are part of the data in these packets (or frames, as they are often called at this layer). These packets are passed down to the physical layer; from there, the data is transmitted to the physical layer on the destination machine.

NETWORK LAYER

The network layer (also known as the packet layer) is the third lowest layer, or the uppermost subnet layer. It is responsible for the following tasks: Determining addresses or translating from hardware to network addresses. These addresses may be on a local network or they may refer to networks located elsewhere on an internetwork. One of the functions of the network layer is, in fact, to provide capabilities needed to communicate on an internetwork. Finding a route between a source and a destination node or between two intermediate devices. Establishing and maintaining a logical connection between these two nodes, to establish either a connectionless or a connection-oriented communication.

TRANSPORT LAYER
In the OSI Reference Model, the transport layer is responsible for providing data transfer at an agreed-upon level of quality, such as at specified transmission speeds and error rates. To ensure delivery, outgoing packets are assigned numbers in sequence. The numbers are included in the packets that are transmitted by lower layers. The transport layer at the receiving end checks the packet numbers to make sure all have been delivered and to put the packet contents into the proper sequence for the recipient.

SESSION LAYER

The session layer is responsible for synchronizing and sequencing the dialog and packets in a network connection. This layer is also responsible for making sure that the connection is maintained until the transmission is complete, and ensuring that appropriate security measures are taken during a session (that is, a connection). Functions defined at the session layer include those for network gateway communications.

PRESENTATION LAYER

The presentation layer is responsible for presenting information in a manner suitable for the applications or users dealing with the information. Functions such as data conversion from EBCDIC to ASCII (or vice versa), use of special graphics or character sets, data compression or expansion, and data encryption or decryption are carried out at this layer.

APPLICATION LAYER

The application layer is the topmost layer in the OSI Reference Model. This layer is responsible for giving applications access to the network. Examples of application-layer tasks include file transfer, electronic mail (e-mail) services, and network management.

TCP/IP MODEL
The TCP/IP model is a description framework for computer network protocols created in the 1970s by DARPA, an agency of the United States Department of Defense. The TCP/IP model, or Internet Protocol Suite, describes a set of general design guidelines and implementations of specific networking protocols to enable computers to communicate over anetwork. TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination. Protocols exist for a variety of different types of communication services between computers.

OSI AND TCP/IP MODEL

LINK LAYER/NETWORK INTERFACE

This is the lowest component layer of the Internet protocols, as TCP/IP is designed to be hardware independent. The Link Layer is used to move packets between the Internet Layer interfaces of two different hosts on the same link. The processes of transmitting and receiving packets. The Link Layer is also the layer where packets may be selected to be sent.

INTERNET LAYER
The Internet Layer solves the problem of sending packets across one or more networks. Internetworking requires sending data from the source network to the destination network. This process is called routing. Host addressing and identification: This is accomplished with a hierarchical addressing system (IP address). Packet routing: This is the basic task of getting packets of data (datagrams) from source to destination by sending them to the next network node (router) closer to the final destination.

TRANSPORT LAYER

The Transport Layer's responsibilities include endto-end message transfer capabilities independent of the underlying network, along with error control, segmentation, flow control, congestion control, and application addressing (port numbers). End to end message transmission or connecting applications at the transport layer can be categorized as either connection-oriented, implemented in Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), or connectionless, implemented in User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

APPLICATION LAYER

The Application Layer refers to the higher-level protocols used by most applications for network communication. Examples of application layer protocols include the File Transfer Protocol(FTP) and the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). Data coded according to application layer protocols are then encapsulated into one or (occasionally) more transport layer protocols (such as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or User Datagram Protocol (UDP)), which in turn use lower layer protocols to effect actual data transfer.

ROUTING
Routing is the process of moving packets through an internetwork, such as the Internet. Routing is usually performed by a dedicated device called a router. Routing is a key feature of the Internet because it enables messages to pass from one computer to another and eventually reach the target machine. Part of this process involves analysing a routing table to determine the best path. Routing table take care of any topological map change.

STATIC VS. DYNAMIC ROUTING

Routing can be accomplished by manually entering the information necessary for packets to reach any part of the internetwork into each router. This is called static routing.
Static routing works reasonably well for very small networks, but does not scale well. When using static routing, the routing tables on each router must be updated each time the network topology changes -such as when a network link fails.. In most networks, routing is managed automatically through the use of dynamic routing. In dynamic routing, routing protocols create and maintain the routing tables automatically. Dynamic routing responds much more quickly to network changes (and network failures) than static routing.

FLOW CONTROL

Flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving acknowledgement It is one of the most important functions of data link layer. Flow control is a set of procedures that tells the sender how much data it can transmit before it must wait for an acknowledgement from the receiver. Receiver has a limited speed at which it can process incoming data and a limited amount of memory in which to store incoming data. Receiver must inform the sender before the limits are reached and request that the transmitter to send fewer frames or stop temporarily. Since the rate of processing is often slower than the rate of transmission, receiver has a block of memory (buffer) for storing incoming data until they are processed.

FLOW CONTROL MECHANISM

Stop-and-Wait Go-Back-N ARQ Selective-Repeat ARQ

ISP
ISP stands for Internet Service Provider Also sometimes referred to as an Internet access provider (IAP), is a company that offers its customers access to the internet. The ISP connects to its customers using a data transmission technology appropriate for delivering internet protocol datagrams, such as dial-up, DSL, cable modem, wireless or dedicated high-speed interconnects. ISPs may provide Internet e-mail accounts to users which allow them to communicate with one another by sending and receiving electronic messages through their ISP's servers.

WORLD WIDE WEB

The World Wide Web, abbreviated as WWW and W3 and commonly known as The Web, is a system of interlinked hypertext documents contained on the internet. With a web browser, one can view web pages that may contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia and navigate between them using hyperlinks. Using HTTP protocols HTML, XML etc. language

SEARCH ENGINE

A search engine/web search engine is a tool designed to search for information on the World Wide Web. The search results are usually presented in a list of results and are commonly called hits. The information may consist of web pages, images, information and other types of files. Some search engines also mine data available in databases or open directories. Unlike Web directories, which are maintained by human editors, search engines operates algorithmically or are a mixture of algorithmic and human input.

TELNET
Telnet (teletype network) is a network protocol used on the internet or LAN to provide a bidirectional interactive communications facility. Typically, telnet provides access to a command-line interface on a remote host via a virtual terminal connection which consists of an 8-bit byte oriented data connection over the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). User data is interspersed in-band with TELNET control information. Telnet client applications are available for virtually all computer platforms.

FTP
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to exchange and manipulate files over a TCP/IP based network, such as the internet. FTP is built on a client-server architecture and utilizes separate control and data connections between the client and server applications. FTP can be used with user-based password authentication or with anonymous user access. To promote sharing of files To encourage indirect or implicit use of remote computers. To shield a user from variations in file storage systems among different hosts. To transfer data reliably, and efficiently.