CISSP Prep: Ch 4. Security Engineering (Part 2)
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The document covers key concepts in information security, particularly focusing on cryptographic principles and practices. It discusses various encryption methods, types of cryptography, cryptographic attacks, and essential protocols like SSL/TLS, emphasizing the importance of key management and secure communication. Additionally, the text outlines protective measures in physical security and perimeter defenses to safeguard sensitive information.
CISSP Prep: Ch 4. Security Engineering (Part 2)
- 1. CNIT 125: Information Security Professional (CISSP Preparation) Ch 4. Security Engineering (Part 2)
- 3. Key Terms • Cryptology • The science of secure communications • Cryptography • Secret writing • Cryptanalysis • Breaking encrypted messages
- 4. Key Terms • Cipher • A cryptographic algorithm • Plaintext • An unencrypted message • Encryption turns plaintext into cipher text • Decryption turns cipher text into plaintext
- 5. Confidentiality and Integrity • Confidentiality • Secrets remain secret • Integrity • Data is not altered by unauthorized subjects
- 6. Authentication and Nonrepudiation • Authentication • Verifies the identity of a user • Nonrepudiation • Assurance that audit records are accurate • So subjects cannot deny what they did later
- 7. Confusion and Diffusion • Confusion • No relationship between plaintext and ciphertext • Diffusion • Plaintext should be dispersed throughout the ciphertext
- 8. Substitution and Permutation • Substitution • Replacing one character with another • Provides confusion • Permutation • Rearranging letters • Provides diffusion
- 9. Cryptographic Strength • Strong encryption • Very difficult or impossible to decrypt without the key • Work factor • How long it will take to break a cryptosystem • Secrecy of the system does not provide strength • Stupid proprietary systems are weaker than well-known strong systems
- 10. Monoalphabetic and Polyalphabetic Ciphers • Monoalphabetic • One plaintext letter changes to one ciphertext letter • Can be broken by frequency analysis • Most common letter is E • Polyalphabetic Ciphers • Use multiple substitutions for each letter • Resists frequency analysis
- 11. Modular Math • Numbers are on a ring • The "modulus" specifies how many numbers are used • A clock is modulus 12 • 12 + 1 = 1 (mod 12) • 7 + 7 = 2 (mod 12) • 1 - 2 = 11 (mod 12)
- 12. Exclusive OR • 0 XOR 0 = 0 • 0 XOR 1 = 1 • 1 XOR 0 = 1 • 1 XOR 1 = 0
- 14. Data at Rest and Data in Motion • Data at Rest • Whole-disk encryption (if power is off) • Data in Motion • End-to-end encryption • Attackers in the middle won't have the key • VPNs provide this protection
- 15. Protocol Governance • Selecting appropriate encryption methods • Must weigh considerations: • Speed • Strength • Cost • Complexity • And others
- 17. Spartan Scytale • Wrap parchment around a rod • Letters are rearranged • Transposition
- 18. Caesar Cipher • Substitution cipher • ROT-13 is still used by Microsoft
- 19. Vigenere Square Polyalphabetic Substitution Cipher
- 22. Book Cipher • Ciphertext is a series of numbers • 158.9.25 115.9.12 ... • Page 158, paragraph 9, word 25 • Page 115, paragraph 9, word 12 • Recipient must have the same book as sender
- 23. Running-Key Cipher • Agree to use a phrase or document as the key • Such as the Constitution
- 24. Codebooks • Assign code words for important people, locations, and terms • The US Secret Service uses code names for the First Family • Hillary Clinton is "Evergreen" • Barack Obama is 'Renegade" • Link Ch 4e
- 25. One-Time Pad • Sender and recipient must have a pad with pages full of random letters • Each page is used only once • Mathematically unbreakable • The only way to break it is to steal or copy the pad • Key distribution is burdensome: distributing the pads • Vernam was the first to use it, in 1917
- 26. Project VERONA • KGB used one-time pads in the 1940s • US and UK cryptanalysts broke it • Because the KGB cheated and re-used the pads
- 27. Hebern Machines • Look like large manual typewriters • Encrypt and decrypt data • Enigma used by the Nazis • SIGBABA used by the USA into the 1950s • Purple used by the Japanese in WW II
- 28. Cryptography Laws • COCOM (Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls) • In effect from 1947 - 1994 • Applied to US, some European countries, Japan, AU, and more • To control export to Iron Curtain countries • Wassenaar Arrangement • Created in 1996 • Relaxed many restrictions on cryptography
- 30. Three Types of Cryptography • Symmetric encryption • Provides confidentiality • Uses one key • Asymmetric encryption • Provides confidentiality • Each user has two keys • Hashing • No key at all • Provides integrity, not confidentiality
- 31. Symmetric Encryption • Same key used to encrypt and decrypt • Also called "secret key" • Key Distribution • Secret key must be securely transmitted to recipient
- 32. Stream and Block Ciphers • Stream • Encrypts one bit at a time • Ex: RC4 (used in WEP) • Block • Encrypts one block of data at a time • DES used a 64-bit block size • AES uses 128-bit blocks
- 33. Initialization Vector (IV) & Chaining • IV is a random value added to the plaintext before encryption • To ensure that two identical plaintext messages don't encrypt to the same ciphertext • Chaining • Uses the result of one block to determine a "seed" to add to the next block
- 34. DES (Data Encryption Standard) • Describes DEA (Data Encryption Algorithm) • Based on IBM's Lucifer algorithm • Lucifer used a 128-bit key • DES used 56-bit key
- 35. Modes of DES • Electronic Code Book (ECB) • Cipher Block Chaining (CBC) • Cipher Feedback (CFB) • Output Feedback (OFB) • Counter Mode (CTR)
- 36. Electronic Code Book (ECB) • Simplest and weakest form of DES • No initialization vector or chaining • Two messages with identical plaintexts result in identical ciphertexts • Some patterns are therefore preserved in ciphertext (see next slide)
- 37. ECB Mode • Identical regions in original image remain identical in ciphertext • Encryption is not hiding all the information in the plaintext
- 38. CBC Mode • All patterns are obscured • Similar results for • CBC • CFB • OFB • CTR
- 39. Single DES • The original implementation of DES • Uses a single 56-bit key • Broken by brute force in 1997 • No longer considered secure
- 40. Triple DES • Three rounds of DES encryption • Using two or three different 56-bit keys • Effective key length is 112 bits or more • Considered secure, but slower to compute than AES
- 41. International Data Encryption Algorithm • Symmetric block cipher • International replacement forDES • Patented in many countries • 128-bit key; 64-bit block size • Considered secure • Drawbacks: encumbered by patents, and slower to compute than AES
- 42. Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) • Current US recommended standard • Three key lengths: 128, 192, and 256-bits • Open algorithm, patent-free • Uses the Rindjael algorithm
- 44. Pretty Rindjael Animation • Link Ch 4f
- 45. Blowfish and Twofish • Symmetric block ciphers • Developed by Bruce Schneider • Open algorithms, unpatented, and freely available • Blowfish key sizes: 32 - 448 bit • Two fish key sizes: 128 - 256 bits
- 46. RC5 and RC6 • Block ciphers by RSA Laboratories • RC5 uses 32-bit, 64-bit, or 128-bit blocks • Key site: 0 - 2040 bit • RC6 • Stronger than RC5 • 128-bit block sizes • Key sizes: 128, 192, or 256 bits
- 47. Asymmetric Encryption • Based on Diffie-Hellman key exchange • First form was RSA algorithm (1977) • Each user makes two keys • Public key is shared with the world • Private key is kept secret • Anyone can send you secrets using your public key • Only you can open them, with your private key
- 48. One-Way Functions • It must be way to calculate a public key from the private key • But impossible to deduce the private key from the public key' • Using a mathematical function that's easy to compute but hard to reverse
- 49. One-Way Functions • Factoring a Large Number • Into its component primes • Used by RSA algorithm • Discrete Logarithm • Used by Diffie-Hellman and ElGamal asymmetric algorithms • Elliptic Curve Cryptography • Faster to compute than RSA • Popular on mobile devices
- 50. Asymmetric v. Symmetric Encryption • Symmetric algorithms use shorter keys and are faster • In RSA, asymmetric crypto is used to send a symmetric session key
- 51. Hash Functions • All the bytes in an input file are combined to form a fixed-length "hash" or "fingerprint" • MD5: 128 bits long (insecure) • SHA-1: 160 bits (No longer trusted) • SHA-2: 224 bits or longer (secure) • SHA-3: too new for the CISSP exam • HAVAL (Hash of Variable Length) • 128 bits or longer
- 52. Collisions • A hash should be unique in practice • No two different files should have the same hash (a "collision") • MD5 has known collisions • SHA-1 collisions are expected to be found this year (2016) • Everyone is moving to SHA-2 now
- 54. Brute Force • Try every possible key • In principle, will always work • Except against the one-time pad • Impossible in practice if key is long enough • 128 bits for a symmetric key • 2048 bits for an RSA key
- 55. Social Engineering • Trick subject into revealing the key
- 56. Rainbow Tables • Pre-computed table of passwords and hashes • Time-memory tradeoff • Not very practical for modern hash algorithms • Very effective against Windows XP's LANMAN hashes
- 57. Known Plaintext • If plaintext is known or can be guessed, some mathematical attacks get easier • Some WEP cracks use this message • Portions of ARP packets can be guessed
- 58. Chosen Plaintext Attack • Choosing plaintext that must be padded to fill the block size • Can reveal information about the key • "Padding Oracle" attacks • BEAST, CRIME, other attacks
- 59. Meet-in-the-Middle Attack • Do half the encryption steps from plaintext • Do half the decryption steps from the ciphertext • Can make the calculation MUCH faster • Effectively halving the key size • This is why people use 3DES, not 2DES
- 60. Known Key • Attacker may have some knowledge about the key • Ex: key is based on a dictionary word, or contains only uppercase characters
- 61. Differential Cryptanalysis • Encrypt two plaintexts that differ by only a few bits • Statistical analysis of ciphertext reveals information about the key
- 62. Side-Channel Attacks • Monitor some physical data that reveals information about then key • Timing of calculation • Power consumption
- 63. Implementation Attacks • Exploit a vulnerability in the actual system used to perform the math • System may leave plaintext in RAM or temporary files • Key may be left on the hard drive
- 64. Birthday Attack • A room with 23 people has 23x22/2 pairs of people • So there are usually two people with the same birthday • Hash collisions are found at half the hash size • MD5 (128 bits) will have a collision after 2^64 calculations
- 66. Digital Signatures • Calculate hash of document • Encrypt it with your private key • Anyone can verify it with your public key • Provides authentication, integrity, and nonrepudiation, but not confidentiality
- 67. Verifying a Digital Signature
- 68. Message Authentication Code (MAC) • Verifies authenticity of a message using hashing and a shared secret key • Provides integrity and authenticity • CBC-MAC uses CBC mode of DES
- 69. HMAC • Hashed Message Authentication Code • A type of MAC • Uses a shared secret and a hashing algorithm • HMAC-MD5 • HMAC-SHA-1
- 70. Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) • Manages digital certificates • A public key signed with a digital signature • Server-based • On an HTTPS server • Client-based • Bound to a person • Mutual authentication • Authenticates server and client
- 71. Five Components of PKI • Certificate Authorities • Issue and revoke certificates • Organizational Registration Authorities • Authenticate users and issue certificates to them • Certificate holders (can sign documents) • Clients that validate signatures • Repositories that hold certificates and Certificate Revocation Lists • Online Certificate Status Protocol is a newer system to replace CRLs
- 72. Key Management Issues • Private keys must be protected, like passwords • Backing up a private key may use key escrow • Copy of a key (or part of a key) held by a trusted third party
- 73. SSL & TLS • Secure Sockets Layer was the first system • Now replaced by Transaction Layer Security
- 74. SSL Handshake
- 75. IPSec • Two primary protocols • Authentication Header (AH) • Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) • Supporting protocols • Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol (ISAKMP) • Internet Key Exchange (IKE)
- 76. Authentication Header (AH) • Provides authentication and integrity for each packet • No confidentiality • Acts as a digital signature for data • Prevents replay attacks
- 77. Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) • Encrypts packet data • Provides confidentiality • Optionally also provides authentication and integrity
- 78. Security Association (SA) • A one-way connection • May be used to negotiate ESP and/or AH parameters • If using ESP only, two SAs required • One for each direction • If using AH and ES, four SAs are required
- 79. Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol (ISAKMP) • Manages the SA creation process • Security Parameter Index (SPI) • 32-bit identifier for a SA
- 80. Tunnel and Transport Mode • Tunnel Mode • Used by security gateways • Which provide point-to-point IPSec tunnels • ESP Tunnel Mode encrypts the entire packet, including headers • ESP Transport Mode encrypts data, but not headers
- 81. Internet Key Exchange (IKE) • Can use a variety of algorithms • MD5 or SHA-1 for integrity • 3DES or AES for confidentiality
- 82. Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) • Asymmetric encryption for everyone • Posted to Usenet in 1991 by Phil Zimmerman • Serious legal threats until prosecutors dropped the case in 1996 • Uses Web of Trust instead of CAs • Users vouch for other users • "Friend of a friend"
- 83. S/MIME • MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) • Allows attachments and foreign character sets in email • S/MIME (Secure MIME) • Uses PKI to encrypt and authenticate MIME-encoded email
- 84. Escrowed Encryption • Third-party organization holds a copy of a public/private key pair • Private key can be broken into two or more parts • And held by different escrow agencies • This provides separation of duties • This can allow law enforcement some access to the key, while preserving some privacy
- 85. Clipper Chip • Technology used in Escrowed Encryption Standard (EES) • Announced by US Gov't in 1993 • For telecommunication devices • Controversial, abandoned in 1996 • Used Skipjack symmetric cipher • 80-bit keys, secret algorithm
- 86. Steganography • Hiding data inside a file • The existence of the message is secret • Digital Watermarks • Encode a fingerprint into a file to identify the owner • Can be used to prosecute copyright violators
- 88. Fences • 3 foot • A deterrent • 8 foot with barbed wire on top • Preventive
- 89. Gates • Ornamental (Class I) • Deterrent • Crash Gate (Class IV) • Stops a car
- 90. Bollards • Posts designed to stop a car
- 91. Lights • Can be detective or deterrent • Rated in lumens
- 92. CCTV • Closed Circuit Television • Detective control • Infrared cameras can see in the dark • Old "tube cameras" were analog • Modern CCD (Charged Couple Discharge) cameras are digital • Issues • Depth of field, field of view, pan and tilt
- 93. Locks • Key locks • Code is sometimes printed on the key • Can be deduced from a photo of the key
- 94. Lock picking
- 95. Bump Keys • Key is shaved down to the lowest position • Key is bumped to move the pins
- 96. Master and Core Keys • Master key • Opens all locks in a security zone • Core key • Removes the lock core • In interchangeable core locks
- 97. Combination Locks • Weak control • Button or keypad locks are also weak • Because, over time, the key wear down, revealing the most- used keys • Vulnerable to brute- force and shoulder- surfing attacks
- 98. Smart Cards and Magnetic Stripe Cards • Smart Card • Contains a computer chip • Also called "Integrated Circuit Card (ICC)" • May be "Contact" or "Contactless" • Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) card is contactless • Magstripe Card • Has data stored on a stripe of magnetic material
- 100. Tailgating or Piggybacking • Following a person through a secure door • Countermeasures • Policy forbidding it • Security awareness training • Mantraps • Chamber with two doors • Intruders are trapped inside • Turnstiles • Must allow safe egress in emergencies
- 101. Contraband Checks • Identify forbidden objects • Such as weapons • Very hard to detect small storage devices like SD cards
- 102. Motion Detectors • Ultrasonic and Microwave Motion Detectors • Work like Doppler Radar • Send out a signal, measure the reflected signals • Photoelectric motion sensor • Sends a beam across a monitored space • Detects when the bean is broken
- 103. Other Perimeter Alarms • Magnetic door and window alarms • Circuit breaks when door or window is opened
- 104. Doors • Hinges should face inward • Or be otherwise protected • Motion sensors can be triggered by inserting objects under the door or through gaps • Or shaking the door violently • That can trigger the emergency egress system , causing the door to open
- 105. Windows • Glass is weak • Easily shattered • Bulletproof glass • Wire mesh or security film • Lexan or Plexiglas windows • Stronger, shatter-resistant • Used in racecars and airplanes
- 106. Walls, Floors, and Ceilings • Walls should go "slab to slab" • No gaps at bottom or top • Railed floors and drop ceilings can obscure where the walls stop • Sheetrock can easily be cut • Walls need appropriate fire rating
- 107. Guards • Professional guards • Advanced training • Amateur guards • "Mall cops" • Orders should be complete nd clear • Often attacked via social engineering
- 108. Dogs • Deterrent and detective controls • Legal liability • Sometimes people panic and run • Dogs can kill them
- 109. Restricted Work Areas and Escorts • Visitor badges can be saved and re-used • Countermeasure: time-based visitor badge control • Electronic badges that expire • Printed time and date on badge • Different badge color for each weekday
- 110. Site Selection, Design, and Configuration
- 111. Topography • Hills, valley, trees, etc. • Can be altered with landscaping • Utility Reliability and Crime • Depend on the location
- 112. Site Design and Configuration Issues • Site Marking • Data centers are not externally marked • Shared Tenancy and Adjacent Buildings • Their poor security measures may weaken yours • Wireless networks may overlap
- 113. Wiring Closets • Must be physically secured • Shared Demarc • Where ISP's responsibility ends • Shared by all tenants in the building • Server Rooms • Require physical access control • Also environmental controls
- 114. Media Storage Facilities • Offline storage • For backup or disaster recovery • Or legal proceedings • Or regulatory compliance • Must be protected from unauthorized access • Some environmental controls may be needed
- 115. System Defenses
- 116. One of the Last Lines of Defense • In a defense-in-depth strategy • An attacker has physical access to a device or media with sensitive information • Asset Tracking • Use serial #s to identify devices • Port Controls • Restrict USB ports, physically or logically
- 118. Electrical Faults
- 119. Surge Protectors, UPSs, & Generators • Surge Protector • Stop voltage spikes • Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPSs) • Provide temporary power during an outage • May also clean spikes from power lines • Generators • Provide power for long outages • Require fuel storage
- 120. EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) • Crosstalk • Signals from one wire entering another • Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable is most susceptible to EMI • Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) or coaxial cable is less susceptible to EMI • Fiber optic cable is immune to EMI
- 121. HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) • Positive Pressure and Drains • Air and water should be expelled from the building • Data center • Humidity should be 40-55% • Temperature should be 68-77°F
- 122. Static and Corrosion • Static electricity • Builds up if humidity is low • Countermeasures • Ground circuits • Antistatic wrist straps • Corrosion • Caused by high humidity
- 123. Airborne Contaminants • Dust can cause overheating and static buildup, or impede fans • Other contaminants can cause corrosion
- 124. Heat, Flame and Smoke Detectors • Heat detectors are thermometers • Smoke detectors • Use ionization or photoelectric detection • Flame detectors • Detect infrared or ultraviolet light • Requires line-of-sight
- 125. Personnel Safety, Training and Awareness • Evacuation routes • Evacuation Roles and Procedures • Safety warden ensures that all personnel safely leave the building • Meeting point leader ensures that all personnel are accounted for • Handicapped people require special care • Don't use elevators
- 126. Duress Warning Systems • Emergency warning systems • Severe weather • Threat of violence • Chemical contamination
- 127. ABCD Fires
- 128. Fire Suppression Agents • Four methods • Reduce the temperature • Reduce supply of oxygen • Reduce supply of fuel • Interfere with chemical reaction of fire
- 129. Fire Suppression Agents • Water • Good for paper or wood • Cut power before using water on electrical circuits (electrocution risk) • Soda Acid • Dry powder • For flammable metal fires • Wet chemical • For kitchen fires
- 130. Fire Suppression Agents • CO2 • Dangerous; can suffocate people • Halon and Halon Substitutes • Suppresses fire without suffocating people • Halon depletes the ozone, so now systems use argon, FM-200, FE-13, or Inregen
- 131. Count-Down Timer • Audible and visible countdown before deploying CO2, Halon, or Halon substitutes • Allows personnel to evacuate • Also allows personnel to stop the release in case of a false alarm
- 132. Sprinkler Systems • Wet pipe • When heat opens the sprinkler head, water flows • Dry pipe • Filled with compressed air • Used in cold places where water may freeze • Deluge • Large flow of water when valve opens • Pre-Action • Require two triggers: fire alarm and heat at sprinkler head • Used in museums to prevent accidental discharge