Women in Agriculture - Making a Strong Case for Investing in Women
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This document summarizes the key findings of the 2010-11 edition of The State of Food and Agriculture report published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The report focuses on closing the gender gap in agriculture to promote development. It finds that women make significant contributions to agriculture but face constraints that reduce their productivity, such as unequal access to land, livestock, education and financial services compared to men. Closing the gender gap could increase agricultural output by 2.5-4% and reduce the number of undernourished people by 12-17%, or 100-150 million people. The report argues for policies and programs to ensure equal access to resources and opportunities for women farmers.
![W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t
41
Women in Ghana were found to be of lower quality or higher price (Timothy and
as efficient as men in maize and cassava Adeoti, 2006).
production, but they achieved lower yields Additional studies in sub-Saharan Africa
and earned lower profits because they from Cameroon (Kumase, Bisseleua and
could not maintain the fertility of their land Klasen, 2008), Benin (Kinkingninhoun-
(Goldstein and Udry, 2008). People who are Mêdagbé et al., 2010), Côte d’Ivoire (Adesina
disadvantaged in the social and political and Djato, 1997) and Zimbabwe (Horrell and
networks of their villages – like many female Krishnan, 2009) also overwhelmingly support
household heads – are more likely to have the conclusion that differences in farm
their land expropriated if they allow it to yields between men and women are caused
remain fallow, so they tend to keep their primarily by differences in access to resources
land under cultivation continuously, eroding and extension services.12
soil fertility (Goldstein and Udry, 2008). Evidence from other regions is relatively
Several studies from Ghana also confirm rare because farming operations are less
that male and female cocoa producers have likely to be segregated by gender than is
the same yields when input use is the same the case in Africa, but the available studies
(Quisumbing and Otsuka, 2001b; Hill and generally support the finding that female
Vigneri, 2009). farmers are at least as efficient as their
Men producing maize, beans and cowpeas male counterparts. For example, female-
in Kenya achieve higher gross value of managed farms in Nepal produce less value
output per hectare than women, but the per hectare than male-managed farms, but
difference is accounted for by differences in the differences are nearly all accounted for
input use (Saito, Mekonnen and Spurling, by lower input use (Thapa, 2008). Female-
1994). In western Kenya, female-headed managed farms in China are at least as
households were found to have 23 percent profitable as those run by men, according to
lower yields than male-headed households, data from the China National Rural Survey
but the difference was caused by less-secure (Zhang, De Brauw and Rozelle, 2004).
access to land and lower education levels Some studies compare labour productivity
(Alene et al., 2008). An earlier study of rather than yields, but the results are
smallholder farmers in western Kenya found consistent with the finding that yield
that women’s maize yields were 16 percent differences are caused by differences in input
lower than men’s, largely because they used use. The labour productivity of female farm
substantially less fertilizer (Ongaro, 1990). workers in Bangladesh is at least as high as
A nationally representative study in that of male workers when input use is the
Malawi found that maize yields were same (Rahman, 2010). Labour productivity
12–19 percent higher on men’s plots, but studies for oil palm in Indonesia (Hasnah,
when women were given the same level of Fleming and Coelli, 2004), for rice in Nepal
fertilizer for use on experimental plots, they (Aly and Shields, 2010) and for vegetables in
achieved the same yields (Gilbert, Sakala and Turkey (Bozoglu and Ceyhan, 2007) all show
Benson, 2002). that female labour is at least as productive
Considerable evidence is available from as male labour when differences in irrigation
Nigeria from several states and for a wide and seed type are considered.
variety of crops. In Oyo State, male and
female farmers growing maize, yam, cassava,
vegetables and legumes were found to be Production gains from closing the
equally productive (Adeleke et al., 2008). In gender gap
Osun State, female rice producers achieved
66 percent lower yields than male farmers If gender-specific differences in input use
but the difference was attributable to could be overcome and female farmers could
differences in input use (Oladeebo and achieve the same yields as male farmers, the
Fajuyigbe, 2007). Similarly, in Ondo and
Ogun States, female small-scale cassava 12
Some studies could not fully account for yield differences
between male and female farmers because they did not
farmers achieved lower yields and lower
consider all the resource gaps women face (Zavale, Mabaye
returns than their male counterparts because and Christy [2006], Uaiene and Channing [2009], and Lilja,
they used fewer inputs and purchased inputs Randolph and Diallo [1998]).](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/i2050e-120504150814-phpapp02/85/Women-in-Agriculture-Making-a-Strong-Case-for-Investing-in-Women-53-320.jpg)
![W o r ld food a n d a g r icul t u r e i n r e v iew
67
(16 percent), Latin America and the Although international food commodity
Caribbean (9 percent) and the Near East and prices fell in 2009, they remained high
North Africa (7 percent), it varies greatly relative to prior years, and data through to
by subregion and by country within these October 2010 indicate an increase in the FPI
regions. from 2009 to 2010. Moreover, high domestic
prices have persisted in many countries, as
Vulnerability of global food security the decline in international prices was slow
to shocks in being transmitted to domestic markets.
The events of the past few years have While food prices remained above their
highlighted the vulnerability of global pre-crisis level, reduced incomes caused by
food security to major shocks – both in the financial crisis had a detrimental effect
the global agricultural markets and in the on access to food, leading to a further
world economy. The food price crisis and sharp increase in global undernourishment
the ensuing economic crisis reduced the levels. According to estimates of growth
purchasing power of large segments of the in per capita GDP (approximated using
population in many developing countries, International Monetary Fund [IMF]
severely curtailing their access to food and estimates of growth in total GDP minus
thus undermining their food security. population growth rates), the global GDP
The rise in global undernourishment per capita contracted in 2009, with the
numbers in 2008 was a result of the spike advanced economies affected more than
in food prices from 2007 to 2008. From a the economies of the developing world
historical perspective, the price developments (Figure 21). However, per capita GDP
in this period are not unprecedented, with declined or stagnated in all developing
markets exhibiting a comparable spike regions, with the exception of developing
during the “world food crisis” of 1973–75 Asia – where per capita GDP growth
(Figure 20). Even so, FAO’s Food Price Index slowed to 5.8 percent, compared with
(FPI) declined in real terms (using the United more than 10 percent in 2007 (IMF, 2010a;
States GDP deflator) over the period 1961– IMF, 2010b). The economic recession had a
2010. severe negative impact on export revenues,
Since the early 2000s, however, the foreign direct investments and foreign
downward trend appears to have been migrant remittances received by developing
reversed, or at least interrupted, with food countries (FAO, 2009b). By 2010, the
prices increasing significantly in real terms, burgeoning recovery of the world economy
culminating in the price spike of 2007–08. and the significant increases in economic
FIGURE 19
Number of undernourished people in 2010, by region (millions)
37 19
53 578 Asia and the Pacific
239 Sub-Saharan Africa
Latin America and the Caribbean
Near East and North Africa
Developed regions
Total: 925 million
Source: FAO, 2010g.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/i2050e-120504150814-phpapp02/85/Women-in-Agriculture-Making-a-Strong-Case-for-Investing-in-Women-79-320.jpg)
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Women in Agriculture - Making a Strong Case for Investing in Women
- 1. ISSN 0081-4539 2010-11 THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE Closing the gender gap for development
- 2. Photos on front cover and page 3: All photos are from the FAO Mediabase. Copies of FAO publications can be requested from: SALES AND MARKETING GROUP E-mail: [email protected] Office of Knowledge Exchange, Research and Extension Fax: (+39) 06 57053360 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Web site: http://www.fao.org/catalog/inter-e.htm Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 00153 Rome, Italy
- 3. ISSN 0081-4539 2010-11 THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 2011
- 4. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. The designations employed and the presentation of material in the map does not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of FAO concerning the legal or constitutional status of any country, territory or sea area, or concerning the delimitation of frontiers. ISBN 978-92-5-106768-0 All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of material in this information product for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without written permission of the copyright holders. Applications for such permission should be addressed to: Chief Electronic Publishing Policy and Support Branch Office of Knowledge Exchange, Research and Extension FAO Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy or by e-mail to: [email protected] © FAO 2011
- 5. iii Contents Foreword vi Acknowledgements viii Abbreviations and acronyms x Part I Women in agriculture: closing the gender gap for development 1 1. The gender gap in agriculture 3 Structure of the report and key messages 5 Key messages of the report 5 2. Women’s work 7 Women in agriculture 7 Women in rural labour markets 16 Key messages 22 3. Documenting the gender gap in agriculture 23 Land 23 Livestock 24 Farm labour 26 Education 28 Information and extension 32 Financial services 33 Technology 34 Key messages 36 4. Gains from closing the gender gap 39 Productivity of male and female farmers 40 Production gains from closing the gender gap 41 Other social and economic benefits of closing the gender gap 43 Key messages 45 5. Closing the gender gap in agriculture and rural employment 46 Closing the gap in access to land 46 Closing the gap in rural labour markets 49 Closing the financial services gap 51 Closing the gap in social capital through women’s groups 53 Closing the technology gap 56 Key messages 58 6. Closing the gender gap for development 61 Part II World food and agriculture in review 63 Trends in undernourishment 65 Food production, consumption and trade during the crises 68 Recent trends in agricultural prices: a higher price plateau, and greater price volatility 76 Conclusions 81
- 6. iv PART III Statistical annex 83 Notes on the Annex tables 85 TABLE A1 Total population, female share of population and rural share of population in 1980, 1995 and 2010 90 TABLE A2 Female share of national, rural and urban population aged 15–49, most recent and earliest observations 97 TABLE A3 Economically active population, female share of economically active population and agricultural share of economically active women in 1980, 1995 and 2010 104 TABLE A4 Economically active population, agricultural share of economically active population and female share of economically active in agriculture in 1980, 1995 and 2010 111 TABLE A5 Share of households in rural areas that are female-headed, most recent and earliest observations, and total agricultural holders and female share of agricultural holders, most recent observations 118 Table A6 Share of adult population with chronic energy deficiency (CED – body mass index less than 18.5) by sex and share of children underweight by sex, residence and household wealth quintile, most recent observations 125 References 135 Special chapters of The State of Food and Agriculture 146 TABLES 1. Employment in selected high-value agro-industries 21 2. Selected examples of health insurance products targeted towards women 52 BOXES 1. Sex versus gender 4 2. Frequently asked questions about women in agriculture 8 3. Women and unpaid household responsibilities 14 4. Female farmers, household heads and data limitations 24 5. Labour productivity and hunger, nutrition and health 27 6. Women in agricultural higher education and research in Africa 30 7. Smallholder coffee production and marketing in Uganda 37 8. Targeting transfer payments to women for social benefits 44 9. Mama Lus Frut: working together for change 47 10. India’s Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) 54 11. Women in a sustainable rural livelihoods programme in Uganda 59 12. Food emergencies 70 13. Implied volatility as a measure of uncertainty 79 14. Price volatility and FAO’s Intergovernmental Groups on Grains and Rice 81
- 7. v FIGURES 1. Female share of the agricultural labour force 10 2. Proportion of labour in all agricultural activities that is supplied by women 11 3. Proportion of labour for selected crops that is supplied by women 12 4. Employment by sector 17 5. Participation in rural wage employment, by gender 18 6. Conditions of employment in rural wage employment, by gender 19 7. Wage gap between men and women in urban and rural areas 20 8. Share of male and female agricultural holders in main developing regions 25 9. Rural household assets: farm size 25 10. Household livestock assets, in male- and female-headed households 26 11. Education of male and female rural household heads 28 12. Gender differences in rural primary education attendance rates 29 13. Credit use by female- and male-headed households in rural areas 33 14. Fertilizer use by female- and male-headed households 35 15. Mechanical equipment use by female- and male-headed households 36 16. Cereal yield and gender inequality 39 17. Number of undernourished people in the world, 1969–71 to 2010 66 18. Proportion of population that is undernourished in developing regions, 1969–71 to 2010 66 19. Number of undernourished people in 2010, by region 67 20. FAO Food Price Index in real terms, 1961–2010 68 21. Average annual percentage change in GDP per capita at constant prices, 2005–2010 69 22. Annual growth in global food production, consumption and trade, 2006–2010 72 23. Indices of per capita food consumption by geographic region, 2000–10 72 24. Indices of food production by economic group 73 25. Indices of food production by region, 2000–10 74 26. Indices of food export volumes by geographic region, 2000–10 75 27. Indices of food import volumes by geographic region, 2000–10 75 28. FAO Food Price Index and indices of other commodities (fruits, beverages and raw materials), October 2000–October 2010 76 29. Indices of prices of commodities included in the FAO Food Price Index (cereals, oils, dairy, meat and sugar), October 2000–October 2010 77 30. Historic annualized volatility of international grain prices 78 31. Co-movement of energy production costs: ethanol from maize versus petrol from crude oil, October 2006–October 2010 80
- 8. vi Foreword This edition of The State of Food and The obstacles that confront women Agriculture addresses Women in agriculture: farmers mean that they achieve lower yields closing the gender gap for development. than their male counterparts. Yet women are The agriculture sector is underperforming in as good at farming as men. Solid empirical many developing countries, and one of the evidence shows that if women farmers used key reasons is that women do not have equal the same level of resources as men on the access to the resources and opportunities land they farm, they would achieve the same they need to be more productive. This yield levels. The yield gap between men and report clearly confirms that the Millennium women averages around 20–30 percent, Development Goals on gender equality and most research finds that the gap is due (MDG 3) and poverty and food security to differences in resource use. Bringing (MDG 1) are mutually reinforcing. We must yields on the land farmed by women promote gender equality and empower up to the levels achieved by men would women in agriculture to win, sustainably, the increase agricultural output in developing fight against hunger and extreme poverty. countries between 2.5 and 4 percent. I firmly believe that achieving MDG 3 can Increasing production by this amount could help us achieve MDG 1. reduce the number of undernourished Women make crucial contributions in people in the world in the order of agriculture and rural enterprises in all 12–17 percent. According to FAO’s latest developing country regions, as farmers, estimates, 925 million people are currently workers and entrepreneurs. Their roles vary undernourished. Closing the gender gap in across regions but, everywhere, women face agricultural yields could bring that number gender-specific constraints that reduce their down by as much as 100–150 million people. productivity and limit their contributions These direct improvements in agricultural to agricultural production, economic output and food security are just one part of growth and the well-being of their families, the significant gains that could be achieved communities and countries. by ensuring that women have equal access Women face a serious gender gap in to resources and opportunities. Closing access to productive resources. Women the gender gap in agriculture would put control less land than men and the land more resources in the hands of women and they control is often of poorer quality and strengthen their voice within the household their tenure is insecure. Women own fewer – a proven strategy for enhancing the food of the working animals needed in farming. security, nutrition, education and health of They also frequently do not control the children. And better fed, healthier children income from the typically small animals they learn better and become more productive manage. Women farmers are less likely than citizens. The benefits would span generations men to use modern inputs such as improved and pay large dividends in the future. seeds, fertilizers, pest control measures and The gender gap is manifest in other ways. mechanical tools. They also use less credit and Gender relations are social phenomena often do not control the credit they obtain. and it is impossible to separate women’s Finally, women have less education and less economic spheres from their household access to extension services, which make it activities. Preparing food and collecting more difficult to gain access to and use some firewood and water are time-consuming and of the other resources, such as land, credit binding constraints that must be addressed and fertilizer. These factors also prevent if women are to be able to spend their time women from adopting new technologies as in more rewarding and more productive readily as men do. The constraints women ways. Interventions must consider women face are often interrelated and need to be within their family and community contexts. addressed holistically. Making rural labour markets function better,
- 9. vii providing labour-saving technologies and would be significant. The basic principles public goods and services, would enable are clear. We must eliminate all forms of women to contribute more effectively to, discrimination against women under the and benefit more fully from, the economic law, ensure that access to resources is more opportunities offered by agricultural equal and that agricultural policies and growth. programmes are gender-aware, and make There exists no blueprint for closing the women’s voices heard in decision-making gender gap in agriculture, as a wide range at all levels. Women must be seen as equal of inputs, assets, services and markets are partners in sustainable development. involved and the related constraints are Achieving gender equality and empowering interlinked. But with appropriate policies women is not only the right thing to do; it is based on accurate information and analysis, also crucial for agricultural development and progress can be made and the benefits food security. Jacques Diouf FAO DIRECTOR-GENERAL
- 10. viii Acknowledgements The State of Food and Agriculture 2010–11 Ruth Vargas Hill, Ephraim Nkonya, Amber was prepared by members of the Economic Peterman, Esteban J. Quiñones and Agnes and Social Development Department of Quisumbing, (IFPRI); Christopher Coles, Priya FAO under the overall leadership of Hafez Deshingkar, Rebecca Holmes, Nicola Jones, Ghanem, Assistant Director-General, and Jonathan Mitchell and Marcella Vigneri Kostas Stamoulis, Director of the Agricultural (ODI); Diana Fletschner (Rural Development Development Economics Division (ESA). Institute) and Lisa Kenney (University of Additional guidance was provided by Marcela Washington); Christine Okali (University Villarreal, Director, and Eve Crowley, Principal of East Anglia); Jan Lundius (independent Adviser, of the Gender, Equity and Rural consultant); and Holger Seebens (KfW Employment Division (ESW); Pietro Gennari, Entwicklungsbank). Additional background Director, Statistics Division (ESS); David papers were prepared by the following FAO Hallam, Director, Trade and Markets Division staff members: Gustavo Anríquez, Yasmeen (EST); and Keith Wiebe, Principal Officer, ESA. Khwaja, Lucia Palombi (FAO Emergency The research and writing team for Part I Operations and Rehabilitation Division) and was led by Terri Raney, André Croppenstedt Paola Termine (ESW). The report also drew and Gustavo Anríquez and included Sarah on papers prepared for the FAO-IFAD-ILO Lowder, Ira Matuschke and Jakob Skoet Workshop on Gender and Rural Employment (ESA). Additional inputs were provided and synthesized by Soline de Villard and by Luisa Cruz, Ana Paula de la O Campos, Jennie Dey de Pryck. The report benefited Stefano Gerosa, Yasmeen Khwaja, Faith from two expert consultations, partially Nilsson and Panagiotis Karfakis (ESA); funded by the World Bank. In addition to Francesca Dalla Valle, Soline de Villard, many of those mentioned above, external Caroline Dookie, John Curry, Zoraida Garcia, participants included Isatou Jallow (WFP), Denis Herbel, Regina Laub, Maria Lee, Johannes Jütting (OECD), Patricia Biermayr- Yianna Lambrou, Marta Osorio, Hajnalka Jenzano (CIAT), Markus Goldstein and Petrics, Gabriel Rugalema, Libor Stloukal, Eija Pehu (World Bank), Maria Hartl and Sophie Treinen and Peter Wobst (ESW); Annina Lubbock (IFAD), Jemima Njuki (ILRI), Magdalena Blum (FAO Office of Knowledge Thelma Paris (IRRI), Patrick Webb (Tufts Exchange, Research and Extension); Holger University), and Manfred Zeller (University of Matthey (EST); Anni McLeod and Frauke Hohenheim). Hela Kochbati (Afard), Robert Kramer (FAO Animal Production and Health Mazur (Iowa State University) and others Division); Helga Josupeit, Rebecca Metzner made valuable contributions to the Global and Stefania Vannuccini (FAO Fisheries Forum on Food Security and Nutrition (FSN and Aquaculture Policy and Economic Forum) on Women in Agriculture, organized Division); Robert Mayo (ESS) and Diana by Max Blanck and Renata Mirulla (ESA). Tempelman (FAO Regional Office for Africa). We are grateful for many useful comments Ines Smyth (Oxfam), Cathy Farnworth (on received at a mini-symposium organized at behalf of IFAD), Elisenda Estruch (ESW) the International Association of Agricultural and Julian Thomas and Frank Mischler Economists Triennial Conference. (ESA) provided valuable comments. We are In addition, the final draft report was also grateful to Amy Heyman who read, reviewed by Patrick Webb (Tufts University), commented and edited the first draft of Diana Fletschner (Rural Development the report. The report was prepared in Institute), Thomas P. Thompson (IFDC), close collaboration with Agnes Quisumbing Maria Hartl (IFAD), Carmen Diana Deere and Ruth Meinzen-Dick of IFPRI and Cheryl (UCLA), Susana Lastarria-Corhiel (University Doss of Yale University. Background papers, of Wisconsin), Jo Swinnen (University of partially funded by ESW, were prepared by Leuven), Patricia Biermayr-Jenzano, Joanne Cheryl Doss; Julia Behrman, Andrew Dillon, Sandler and colleagues (UNIFEM), Barbara
- 11. ix Stocking (Oxfam GB), Paul Munro-Faure Ramasawmy, Mukesh Srivastava, and Franco and Paul Mathieu (FAO Climate, Energy and Stefanelli (ESS); Diana Tempelman; Maria Tenure Division), Ruth Meinzen-Dick (IFPRI), Adelaide D’Arcangelo, Zoraida Garcia and Agnes Quisumbing (IFPRI), and Cheryl Doss Clara Park (ESW), and Barbara Burlingame (Yale University). The writing team is most and Marie-Claude Dop (FAO Nutrition and grateful to the workshop participants and Consumer Protection Division). other internal and external reviewers of The publication was greatly enhanced various drafts of the manuscript. by Michelle Kendrick (ESA) who provided Part II of the report was jointly authored English editorial and project management by Sarah Lowder (ESA) and Holger Matthey support. Liliana Maldonado and Paola and Merritt Cluff (EST), under the guidance di Santo (ESA) provided excellent of Jakob Skoet. Additional inputs were administrative support throughout the provided by Joshua Dewbre and Kisan Gunjal process. Translations and printing services (EST). were provided by the Meeting Programming Part III of the report was prepared by and Documentation Service of the FAO Sarah Lowder, with assistance from Brian Corporate Services, Human Resources and Carisma and Stefano Gerosa, under the Finance Department. Graphic, layout and guidance of Terri Raney. Helpful comments proofing services were provided by Flora were provided by Naman Keita, Seevalingum Dicarlo and Visiontime.
- 12. x Abbreviations and acronyms CED chronic energy deficiency CIAT International Centre for Tropical Agriculture FFS Farmer field school FPI Food Price Index (FAO) ICTs information and communication technologies IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IFDC International Fertilizer Development Center IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute ILRI International Livestock Research Institute IMF International Monetary Fund LSMS Living Standards Measurement Study MDG Millennium Development Goal NGOs non-governmental organizations NREGA National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (India) ODI Overseas Development Institute (United Kingdom) OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development RIGA Rural Income Generating Activities SIGI Social Institutions and Gender Inequality UCLA University of California, Los Angeles (United States of America) UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women WFP World Food Programme
- 13. Part I WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE Closing the gender gap for development
- 14. Part I
- 15. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 3 1. The gender gap in agriculture Agriculture is underperforming in many As a result, it is often assumed that developing countries for a number of interventions in areas such as technology, reasons. Among these is the fact that women infrastructure and market access have the lack the resources and opportunities they same impacts on men and women, when in need to make the most productive use of fact they may not. their time. Women are farmers, workers At the same time, building a gender and entrepreneurs, but almost everywhere perspective into agricultural policies and they face more severe constraints than projects has been made to seem more men in accessing productive resources, difficult and complex than it need be. markets and services. This “gender gap” Clarification of what is meant by gender is a hinders their productivity and reduces their good place to start (Box 1). contributions to the agriculture sector and to The last sentence in Box 1 also gives room the achievement of broader economic and for hope: gender roles can change. It is the social development goals. Closing the gender goal of this report that it will contribute to gap in agriculture would produce significant improving understanding so that appropriate gains for society by increasing agricultural policies can help foster gender equality, productivity, reducing poverty and hunger even as agriculture itself is changing. and promoting economic growth. The agriculture sector is becoming more Governments, donors and development technologically sophisticated, commercially practitioners now recognize that agriculture oriented and globally integrated; at the is central to economic growth and food same time, migration patterns and climate security – particularly in countries where a variability are changing the rural landscape significant share of the population depends across the developing world. These forces on the sector – but their commitment to pose challenges and present opportunities for gender equality in agriculture is less robust. all agricultural producers, but women face Gender issues are now mentioned in most additional legal and social barriers that limit national and regional agricultural and their ability to adapt to and benefit from food-security policy plans, but they are change. Governments and donors have made usually relegated to separate chapters on major commitments aimed at revitalizing women rather than treated as an integral agriculture in developing regions, but their part of policy and programming. Many efforts in agriculture will yield better results agricultural policy and project documents more quickly if they maximize the productive still fail to consider basic questions about the potential of women by promoting gender differences in the resources available to men equality. and women, their roles and the constraints Women, like men, can be considered they face – and how these differences might “productive resources”, but they are also be relevant to the proposed intervention. citizens who have an equal claim with men
- 16. 4 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 BOX 1 Sex versus gender The concepts of “sex” and “gender” men and women (Moser, 1989). Being can be confusing, not least because socially determined, however, this even the experts sometimes use them distribution can be changed through inconsistently. Sex refers to the innate conscious social action, including public biological categories of male or female. policy. Every society is marked by gender Gender refers to the social roles and differences, but these vary widely by identities associated with what it means culture and can change dramatically over to be a man or a woman. Gender roles are time. Sex is biology. Gender is sociology. shaped by ideological, religious, ethnic, Sex is fixed. Gender roles change. economic and cultural factors and are a key determinant of the distribution of responsibilities and resources between Source: Quisumbing, 1996. on the protections, opportunities and empirical evidence from many different services provided by their governments countries shows that female farmers are just and the international community. Gender as efficient as their male counterparts, but equality is a Millennium Development Goal they have less land and use fewer inputs, so (MDG) in its own right, and it is directly they produce less. The potential gains that related to the achievement of the MDG could be achieved by closing the gender targets on reducing extreme poverty and gap in input use are estimated in this report hunger. Clear synergies exist between the in terms of agricultural yields, agricultural gender-equality and hunger-reduction goals. production, food security and broader Agricultural policy-makers and development aspects of economic and social welfare. practitioners have an obligation to ensure Because many of the constraints faced by that women are able to participate fully in, women are socially determined, they can and benefit from, the process of agricultural change. What is more, external pressures development. At the same time, promoting often serve as a catalyst for women to take gender equality in agriculture can help on new roles and responsibilities that can reduce extreme poverty and hunger. Equality improve their productivity and raise their for women would be good for agricultural status within households and communities. development, and agricultural development For example, the growth of modern supply should also be good for women. chains for high-value agricultural products The roles and status of women in is creating significant opportunities – and agriculture and rural areas vary widely challenges – for women in on-farm and off- by region, age, ethnicity and social class farm employment. Other forces for social and are changing rapidly in some parts and economic change can also translate into of the world. Policy-makers, donors and opportunities for women. development practitioners need information Gender-aware policy support and well- and analysis that reflect the diversity of the designed development projects can help contributions women make and the specific close the gender gap. Given existing challenges they are confronted with in order inequities, it is not enough that policies be to make gender-aware decisions about the gender-neutral; overcoming the constraints sector. faced by women requires much more. Despite the diversity in the roles and Reforms aimed at eliminating discrimination status of women in agriculture, the evidence and promoting equal access to productive and analysis presented in this report confirm resources can help ensure that women – and that women face a surprisingly consistent men – are equally prepared to cope with gender gap in access to productive assets, the challenges and to take advantage of inputs and services. A large body of the opportunities arising from the changes
- 17. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 5 shaping the rural economy. Closing the farmers and estimates the gains that could gender gap in agriculture will benefit be achieved by closing the gender gap in women, the agriculture and rural sectors, agricultural input use. Potential gains in and society as a whole. The gains will vary agricultural yields, agricultural production, widely according to local circumstances, but food security and broader aspects of they are likely to be greater where women economic and social welfare are assessed. are more involved in agriculture and face the Chapter 5 advances specific policies and most severe constraints. programmes that can help close the gender While it seems obvious that closing the gap in agriculture and rural employment. gender gap would be beneficial, evidence The focus is on interventions that alleviate to substantiate this potential has been constraints on agricultural productivity and lacking. This edition of The State of Food rural development. and Agriculture has several goals: to bring Chapter 6 provides broader the best available empirical evidence to recommendations for closing the gender gap bear on the contributions women make and for development. the constraints they face in agricultural and rural enterprises in different regions of the world; to demonstrate how the gender gap Key messages of the report limits agricultural productivity, economic development and human well-being; to • Women make essential contributions to evaluate critically interventions aimed at agriculture in developing countries, but reducing the gender gap and to recommend their roles differ significantly by region practical steps that national governments and are changing rapidly in some areas. and the international community can take Women comprise, on average, 43 percent to promote agricultural development by of the agricultural labour force in empowering women. developing countries, ranging from 20 percent in Latin America to 50 percent in Eastern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Structure of the report and key Their contribution to agricultural work messages varies even more widely depending on the specific crop and activity. Chapter 2 provides a survey of the roles • Women in agriculture and rural areas and status of women in agriculture and have one thing in common across rural areas in different parts of the world. regions: they have less access than It brings the best, most comprehensive men to productive resources and available evidence to bear on a number opportunities. The gender gap is found of controversial questions that are both for many assets, inputs and services conceptually and empirically challenging. – land, livestock, labour, education, It focuses on women’s contributions extension and financial services, and as farmers and agricultural workers technology – and it imposes costs on the and examines their status in terms of agriculture sector, the broader economy poverty, hunger and nutrition, and rural and society as well as on women demographics. It also looks at the ways in themselves. which the transformation of agriculture and • Closing the gender gap in agriculture the emergence of high-value marketing would generate significant gains for chains are creating challenges and the agriculture sector and for society. opportunities for women. If women had the same access to Chapter 3 documents the constraints productive resources as men, they facing women in agriculture across a range could increase yields on their farms by of assets: land, livestock, farm labour, 20–30 percent. This could raise total education, extension services, financial agricultural output in developing services and technology. countries by 2.5–4 percent, which could Chapter 4 surveys the economic evidence in turn reduce the number of hungry on the productivity of male and female people in the world by 12–17 percent.
- 18. 6 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 The potential gains would vary by region resources, education, extension and depending on how many women are financial services, and labour markets; currently engaged in agriculture, how -- investing in labour-saving and much production or land they control, productivity-enhancing technologies and how wide a gender gap they face. and infrastructure to free women’s • Policy interventions can help close the time for more productive activities; gender gap in agriculture and rural labour and markets. Priority areas for reform include: -- facilitating the participation of women -- eliminating discrimination against in flexible, efficient and fair rural women in access to agricultural labour markets.
- 19. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 7 2. Women’s work Women make essential contributions to participation in the labour force has a agriculture and rural economic activities in positive impact on economic growth (Klasen all developing country regions.1 Their roles and Lamanna, 2009). vary considerably among and within regions and are changing rapidly in many parts of the world where economic and social Women in agriculture forces are transforming the agriculture sector. The emergence of contract farming Women work in agriculture as farmers on and modern supply chains for high-value their own account, as unpaid workers on agricultural products, for example, present family farms and as paid or unpaid labourers different opportunities and challenges on other farms and agricultural enterprises. for women than they do for men. These They are involved in both crop and livestock differences derive from the different roles production at subsistence and commercial and responsibilities of women and the levels. They produce food and cash crops and constraints that they face. manage mixed agricultural operations often Rural women often manage complex involving crops, livestock and fish farming. households and pursue multiple livelihood All of these women are considered part of strategies. Their activities typically include the agricultural labour force.2 producing agricultural crops, tending Based on the latest internationally animals, processing and preparing food, comparable data, women comprise an working for wages in agricultural or other average of 43 percent of the agricultural rural enterprises, collecting fuel and water, labour force of developing countries. The engaging in trade and marketing, caring female share of the agricultural labour for family members and maintaining their force ranges from about 20 percent in Latin homes (see Box 2 for some of the frequently America to almost 50 percent in Eastern and asked questions on the roles and status Southeastern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa of women in agriculture). Many of these (Figure 1). The regional averages in Figure activities are not defined as “economically 1 mask wide variations within and among active employment” in national accounts countries (see Annex tables A3 and A4). but they are all essential to the well-being Women in sub-Saharan Africa have of rural households (see Box 3, page 14, relatively high overall labour-force for a discussion of women’s household participation rates and the highest average responsibilities). agricultural labour-force participation Women often face gender-specific rates in the world. Cultural norms in the challenges to full participation in the region have long encouraged women to be labour force, which may require policy economically self-reliant and traditionally interventions beyond those aimed at give women substantial responsibility for promoting economic growth and the agricultural production in their own right. efficiency of rural labour markets. Policies Regional data for sub-Saharan Africa conceal can influence the economic incentives wide differences among countries. The share and social norms that determine whether of women in the agricultural labour force women work, the types of work they perform and whether it is considered an 2 The agricultural labour force includes people who are economic activity, the stock of human working or looking for work in formal or informal jobs and capital they accumulate and the levels in paid or unpaid employment in agriculture. That includes self-employed women as well as women working on family of pay they receive. Increasing female farms. It does not include domestic chores such as fetching water and firewood, preparing food and caring for children 1 The material in this chapter is based on FAO (2010a). and other family members.
- 20. 8 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 BOX 2 Frequently asked questions about women in agriculture Question 1: How much of the agricultural Question 3: Do women have less access labour in the developing world is than men to agricultural resources and performed by women? inputs? Answer: Women comprise 43 percent Answer: Yes, this is one generalization of the agricultural labour force, on about women in agriculture that holds average, in developing countries; this true across countries and contexts: figure ranges from around 20 percent in compared with their male counterparts, Latin America to 50 percent in parts of female farmers in all regions control less Africa and Asia, but it exceeds 60 percent land and livestock, make far less use of in only a few countries (FAO, 2010a). improved seed varieties and purchased Critics argue that labour force statistics inputs such as fertilizers, are much less underestimate the contribution of women likely to use credit or insurance, have to agricultural work because women lower education levels and are less likely are less likely to declare themselves as to have access to extension services (see employed in agriculture and they work Chapter 3). longer hours than men (Beneria, 1981), but evidence from time-use surveys does Question 4: Do women and girls comprise not suggest that women perform most of the majority of the world’s poor people? the agricultural labour in the developing Answer: Poverty is normally measured world (see Chapter 2). in terms of income or consumption at the household level, not for individuals, Question 2: What share of the world’s so separate poverty rates for men and food is produced by women? women cannot be calculated. Females Answer: This question cannot be answered could be overrepresented among the in any empirically rigorous way because poor if female-headed households are of conceptual ambiguities and data poorer than male-headed households limitations. Different definitions of “food” (see Question 6) or if significant anti- and “production” would yield different female bias exists within households (see answers to the question and, more Question 7). Females may be poorer than importantly, food production requires males if broader measures of poverty are many resources – land, labour, capital – considered, such as access to productive controlled by men and women who work resources (see Question 3). cooperatively in most developing countries, so separating food production by gender is Question 5: Do women face discrimination not very meaningful (Doss, 2010). in rural labour markets? ranges from 36 percent in Côte d’Ivoire and where the female share of the agricultural the Niger to over 60 percent in Lesotho, labour force has increased slightly since 1980 Mozambique and Sierra Leone. A number of to almost 48 percent. The share of women countries have seen substantial increases in in the agricultural labour force in most the female share of the agricultural labour other countries in the region has remained force in recent decades due to a number fairly steady at between 40 and 50 percent, of reasons, including conflict, HIV/AIDS and although it is substantially lower and migration. declining in some countries such as Malaysia Women in Eastern and Southeastern Asia and the Philippines. also make very substantial contributions to The Southern Asian average is dominated the agricultural labour force, almost as high by India, where the share of women in the on average as in sub-Saharan Africa. The agricultural labour force has remained steady regional average is dominated by China, at just over 30 percent. This masks changes
- 21. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 9 Answer: In most countries and in keeping Question 7: Are women and girls with global figures, women in rural areas more likely than men and boys to be who work for wages are more likely than undernourished? men to hold seasonal, part-time and low- Answer: A positive answer to this wage jobs and (controlling for education, statement is not supported by available age and industry) women receive lower evidence, and generalizations are difficult wages for the same work (see Chapter 2). to make. The limited evidence available suggests that this may be true in Asia, Question 6: Are female-headed while it is not true in Africa. More sex- households the poorest of the poor? disaggregated data of better quality on Answer: Data from 35 nationally anthropometric and other indicators of representative surveys for 20 countries malnutrition are needed to arrive at clear analysed by FAO show that female- conclusions. There is, however, evidence headed households are more likely to be that girls are much more vulnerable to poor than male-headed households in transitory income shocks than boys (Baird, some countries but the opposite is true Friedman and Schady, 2007). in other countries – so it is not possible to generalize. Data limitations also make it Question 8: Are women more likely than impossible to distinguish systematically men to spend additional income on their between households headed by women children? who are single, widowed or divorced (de Answer: A very large body of research jure female heads) and those who are from many countries around the world associated with an adult male who supports confirms that putting more income in the family through remittances and social the hands of women yields beneficial networks (de facto female heads). It is results for child nutrition, health and likely that the former are more likely to education. Other measures – such as be poor than the latter (Anríquez, 2010). improving education – that increase There is also evidence to suggest that rural women’s influence within the household female-headed households were more are also associated with better outcomes vulnerable than males during the food price for children. Exceptions exist, of course, shock of 2008 because they spend a larger but empowering women is a well-proven proportion of household income on food strategy for improving children’s well- and because they were less able to respond being (see Chapter 4). by increasing food production (Zezza et al., 2008). Again, these results vary by country. in other countries where the female share participation in the region are found in of the agricultural labour force appears to Jordan, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and the have increased dramatically, such as Pakistan Syrian Arab Republic. where it has almost tripled since 1980, to The countries of Latin America have high 30 percent, and Bangladesh where women overall female labour-force participation now exceed 50 percent of the agricultural rates, but much lower participation in labour force. agriculture than those in other developing The female share of the agricultural labour country regions. This pattern reflects force in the Near East and North Africa relatively high female education levels appears to have risen substantially, from (see Chapter 4), economic growth and 30 percent in 1980 to almost 45 percent. diversification, and cultural norms that Some of the highest and fastest-growing support female migration to service jobs rates of female agricultural labour force in urban areas. Just over 20 percent of the
- 22. 10 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 FIGURE 1 Female share of the agricultural labour force Percentage 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 Eastern and Southeastern Asia Latin America and the Caribbean Near East and North Africa Southern Asia Sub-Saharan Africa Note: The female share of the agricultural labour force is calculated as the total number of women economically active in agriculture divided by the total population economically active in agriculture. Regional averages are weighted by population. Source: FAO, 2010b. See Annex table A4. agricultural labour force in Latin America Time-use surveys attempt to provide a was female in 2010, slightly higher than complete account of how men and women in 1980. The South American countries of allocate their time.3 Such studies generally the Plurinational State of Bolivia, Brazil, are not nationally representative and are Colombia, Ecuador and Peru dominate both not directly comparable because they usually the average and the rising trend, while cover small samples, report on different many countries in Central America and the types of activities (that are not always clearly Caribbean have seen declining shares of specified) and use different methodologies. women in the agricultural labour force. Despite these caveats, a summary of the Although in some countries sex- evidence from studies that specify time use disaggregated data collection has improved by agricultural activity suggests interesting over recent decades, some researchers patterns. have raised concerns as to the validity of Time-use surveys that cover all agricultural agricultural labour-force statistics as a activities (Figure 2) reveal considerable measure of women’s work in agriculture variation across countries, and sometimes (Beneria, 1981; Deere, 2005). Women’s within countries, but the data are broadly participation in the agricultural labour force similar to the labour force statistics discussed may underestimate the amount of work above. In Africa, estimates of the time women do because women are less likely contribution of women to agricultural than men to define their activities as work, they are less likely to report themselves 3 It is commonly claimed that women perform as being engaged in agriculture and they 60–80 percent of the agricultural labour in developing work, on average, longer hours than men countries (UNECA, 1972; World Bank, FAO and IFAD, 2009). The evidence from time-use surveys and agricultural – so even if fewer women are involved labour-force statistics does not support this general they may contribute more total time to the statement, although women do comprise over 60 percent sector. of the agricultural labour force in some countries.
- 23. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 11 FIGURE 2 Proportion of labour in all agricultural activities that is supplied by women Gambia United Republic of Tanzania Burkina Faso Nigeria Zambia (1) Zambia (2) Cameroon (Centre–South) Cameroon (Yassa of Campo, Southwest) Cameroon (Mvae of Campo, Southwest) Niger Togo Ghana India/West Bengal India India/Rajasthan Nepal China Peru (1) Peru (2) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Percentage of labour supplied by women Africa Asia Latin America Note: Only the survey for India is nationally representative. Sources (from top to bottom): Gambia: von Braun and Webb, 1989; United Republic of Tanzania: Fontana and Natali, 2008; Burkina Faso: Saito, Mekonnen and Spurling, 1994; Nigeria: Rahji and Falusi, 2005; Zambia (1): Saito, Mekonnen and Spurling, 1994; Zambia (2): Kumar, 1994; Cameroon, Centre–South: Leplaideur, 1978, cited by Charmes, 2006: Cameroon (Yasssa of Campo, Southwest): Charmes, 2006, based on Pasquet and Koppert, 1993 and 1996; Cameroon (Mvae of Campo, Southwest): Charmes, 2006, based on Pasquet and Koppert, 1993 and 1996; Niger: Baanante, Thompson and Acheampong, 1999; Togo: Baanante, Thompson and Acheampong, 1999; Ghana: Baananate, Thompson and Acheampong, 1999; India (West Bengal): Jain, 1996; India: Singh and Sengupta, 2009; India (Rajasthan): Jain, 1996; Nepal: Joshi, 2000; China: de Brauw et al., 2008; Peru (1): Deere, 1982; Peru (2): Jacoby, 1992.
- 24. 12 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 activities ranges from about 30 percent in is a predominantly female activity, but the Gambia to 60–80 percent in different women are typically involved to some extent parts of Cameroon. In Asia, estimates range in all activities except ploughing. from 32 percent in India to over 50 percent Studies from Indonesia reveal greater in China. The range is lower in Latin America, involvement of women in upland rice but exceeds 30 percent in some parts of Peru. production than that of wet rice and in the A striking degree of within-country variation management of young plantation crops is shown by the study for India. While this such as cinnamon and rubber rather than nationally representative study indicates that the same crops at maturity. As noted above, the national average for women’s share of the data for India hide wide variations total time-use in agriculture is 32 percent, between West Bengal and Rajasthan, but the share ranges from less than 10 percent in both areas, younger women contribute in West Bengal to more than 40 percent in a higher share of the total time provided Rajasthan. in agriculture by their age group than These studies also reveal that female time- older women do in theirs. In Rajasthan, use in agriculture varies widely depending for example, girls aged between 14 and 19 on the crop and the phase of the production contribute up to 60 percent of the total time cycle, the age and ethnic group of the spent on agriculture by their age group (Jain, women in question, the type of activity and 1996). Two separate studies are reported a number of other factors (Figure 3). Planting each for Peru and Zambia, and differences FIGURE 3 Proportion of labour for selected crops that is supplied by women Young rubber Mature rubber Young cinnamon Mature cinnamon Wet rice Upland rice Rice Rice Rice Tomatoes 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Percentage of labour supplied by women Indonesia Bangladesh Philippines Viet Nam Dominican Republic Sources (from top to bottom): Indonesia (young rubber): Quisumbing and Otsuka, 2001a; Indonesia (mature rubber): Quisumbing and Otsuka, 2001a; Indonesia (young cinnamon): Quisumbing and Otsuka, 2001a; Indonesia (mature cinnamon): Quisumbing and Otsuka, 2001a; Indonesia (wet rice): Quisumbing and Otsuka, 2001a; Indonesia (upland rice): Quisumbing and Otsuka, 2001a; Bangladesh: Thompson and Sanabria, 2010; Philippines: Estudillo, Quisumbing and Otsuka, 2001; Viet Nam: Paris and Chi, 2005; Dominican Republic: Raynolds, 2002.
- 25. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 13 reflect different time periods and locations Evidence shows, however, that female within the countries. farmers are largely excluded from modern Time-use studies permit a rich analysis contract-farming arrangements because they of what men and women do in agriculture lack secure control over land, family labour and how their roles may differ by crop, and other resources required to guarantee location, management structure, age and delivery of a reliable flow of produce. For ethnic group. They offer policy-relevant example, women comprise fewer than information about where, when and how 10 percent of the farmers involved in to target interventions aimed at women smallholder contract-farming schemes in and how to bring men into the process the Kenyan fresh fruit and vegetable export constructively. Given the variation in gender sector (Dolan, 2001), and only 1 of a sample roles in agriculture, generalizations about of 59 farmers contracted in Senegal to time use from one region to another are produce French beans for the export sector not appropriate. Studies that consider the was a woman (Maertens and Swinnen, 2009). gender roles within their specific geographic While men control the contracts, however, and cultural context can provide practical much of the farm work done on contracted guidance for policy-makers and practitioners plots is performed by women as family involved in technology investments, labourers. For example, in 70 percent of the extension services, post-harvest activities and cases of sugar contract-farming in South marketing interventions. Africa, the principal farmer on the sugar- One generalization that does hold is cane plots is a woman (Porter and Philips- that women usually allocate time to food Horward, 1997). Women work longer hours preparation, child care and other household than men in vegetable contract-farming responsibilities in addition to the time schemes controlled by male farmers in they spend in agriculture (see Box 3). In the Indian Punjab (Singh, 2003). In a large most societies, household responsibilities contract-farming scheme involving thousands are divided along gender lines, although of farmers in China, women – while excluded these norms differ by culture and over time. from signing contracts themselves – perform Depending on the household structure and the bulk of the work related to contract size, these tasks may be extremely time- farming (Eaton and Shepherd, 2001). Women intensive. Across regions, time allocation may not be well compensated as unpaid studies have shown that women work family labour in contract-farming schemes significantly more than men if care-giving is (Maertens and Swinnen, 2009). included in the calculations (Ilahi, 2000). The Evidence is mixed regarding whether combination of commitments often means contract farming increases overall household that women are more time-constrained than incomes or creates conflicts between the men (Blackden and Wodon, 2006). production of cash crops and food crops. For example, Dolan (2001) argues that the Women in modern contract-farming4 growth of high-value horticulture supply One noteworthy feature of modern chains has been detrimental for rural agricultural value chains is the growth of women in Kenya because land and labour contract farming or out-grower schemes for resources that were traditionally used by high-value produce through which large- women to cultivate vegetables for home scale agroprocessing firms seek to ensure consumption and sale in local markets a steady supply of quality produce. Such have been appropriated by men for export schemes can help small-scale farmers and vegetable production under contract. On livestock producers overcome the technical the other hand, although their results are barriers and transaction costs involved in not gender-specific, Minten, Randrianarison meeting the increasingly stringent demands and Swinnen (2009), find that high-value of urban consumers in domestic and vegetable contract-farming in Madagascar international markets. leads to improved productivity for food (rice) production through technology spillovers, 4 The material in this section is based on Maertens and thereby improving the availability of food Swinnen (2009). in the household and shortening the lean
- 26. 14 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 BOX 3 Women and unpaid household responsibilities Women have primary responsibilities for Because of the gender-specific household and child-rearing activities assignment of tasks, any change affecting in most societies, although norms differ the family or the environment may by culture and are changing over time. have different implications for men and Time-use surveys across a wide range of women. HIV/AIDS, for example, has caused countries estimate that women provide a significant increase in the time needed 85–90 percent of the time spent on to care for sick family members or the household food preparation and that orphaned children of relatives (Addati they are also usually responsible for child and Cassirer, 2008). Deforestation leads care and other household chores. The women to travel increasing distances from combined time burden of household the homestead to collect firewood (Kumar chores and farm work is particularly severe and Hotchkiss, 1988; Nankhuni, 2004). for women in Africa (Ilahi, 2000). Poor infrastructure and limited provision Ghanaian women carry a much heavier of public services require Tanzanian burden for household chores despite women in rural areas to spend long working outside the home almost as much hours on water and fuel collection, food as men (Brown, 1994). In Uganda, women preparation and other domestic and cite the time they spend looking after child-care activities. Improving public their families, working in their husbands’ infrastructure for water and fuel collection gardens and producing food for their and food preparation (e.g. grain-milling households as reasons for their inability to facilities) could free women in the United expand production for the market (Ellis, Republic of Tanzania from a burden that Manuel and Blackden, 2006). Women and represents 8 billion hours of unpaid work girls in Ghana, the United Republic of per year, which is equivalent to the hours Tanzania and Zambia are responsible for required for 4.6 million full-time jobs. The about 65 percent of all transport activities same improvements would save time for in rural households, such as collecting men also, but less: the time-equivalent of firewood and water and carrying grain to 200 000 full-time jobs (Fontana and Natali, the grinding mill (Malmberg-Calvo, 1994). 2008). period or “hunger season”. Maertens and engaged in the sector. An estimated two- Swinnen (2009) do not find evidence of thirds of poor livestock keepers, totalling gender conflict over resources in the French approximately 400 million people, are bean export sector in Senegal because women (Thornton et al., 2002). They share households only allocate part of their land responsibility with men and children for the and labour resources to bean production, care of animals, and particular species and which occurs during the off-season and does types of activity are more associated with not coincide with the main rainy season women than men. For example, women when staple food crops and other subsistence often have a prominent role in managing crops are cultivated. poultry (FAO, 1998; Guèye, 2000; Tung, 2005) and dairy animals (Okali and Mims, Women as livestock keepers5 1998; Tangka, Jabbar and Shapiro, 2000) Within pastoralist and mixed farming and in caring for other animals that are systems, livestock play an important role in housed and fed within the homestead. supporting women and in improving their When tasks are divided, men are more financial situation, and women are heavily likely to be involved in constructing housing and the herding of grazing animals, and in marketing products if women’s mobility 5 The material in this section was prepared by FAO’s Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department, Animal is constrained. The influence of women is Production and Health Division. strong in the use of eggs, milk and poultry
- 27. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 15 meat for home consumption and they out of business. This is particularly evident often have control over marketing these for pig and poultry owners (Rola et al., 2006) products and the income derived from but is not confined to those species. Given them. Perhaps for this reason, poultry and the more limited ability of women to start small-scale dairy projects have been popular their own businesses, this implies that they investments for development projects that will tend to become employees rather than aim to improve the lot of rural women. In self-employed. In specialized activities such some countries, small-scale pig production is as the production of day-old chicks, and in also dominated by women. Female-headed slaughtering, processing and retail, women households are as successful as male-headed are visible wherever painstaking semi-skilled households in generating income from their work is to be done, but very little research animals, although they tend to own smaller data are available about the extent of their numbers of animals, probably because of involvement compared with that of men, or labour constraints. Livestock ownership is their control over resources. particularly attractive to women in societies where access to land is restricted to men Women in fisheries and aquaculture6 (Bravo-Baumann, 2000). In 2008, nearly 45 million people worldwide While the role of women in small-scale were directly engaged, full time or part time, livestock production is well recognized, much in the fishery primary sector.7 In addition, an less has been documented about women’s estimated 135 million people are employed engagement in intensive production and in the secondary sector, including post- the market chains associated with large harvest activities. While comprehensive data commercial enterprises. Demand for livestock are not available on a sex-disaggregated products, fuelled by rising incomes, has basis, case studies suggest that women grown much faster than the demand for crop may comprise up to 30 percent of the total staples during the past 40 years – particularly employment in fisheries, including primary in Asia and Latin America – and this trend is and secondary activities. expected to continue. While pastoralist and Information provided to FAO from 86 small-scale mixed-farming systems continue countries indicates that in 2008, 5.4 million to be important in meeting the needs of women worked as fishers and fish farmers rural consumers, the demands of growing in the primary sector. This represents urban populations are increasingly supplied 12 percent of the total. In two major with meat, milk and eggs from intensive producing countries, China and India, commercial systems. This has implications women represented a share of 21 percent for the engagement of women in the and 24 percent, respectively, of all fishers and livestock sector because of the different fish farmers. roles, responsibilities and access to resources Women have rarely engaged in commercial that are evident within different scales of offshore and long-distance capture production system and at different points on fisheries because of the vigorous work the production and marketing chain. involved but also because of their domestic The available evidence suggests that the responsibilities and/or social norms. They role of women in meeting these changing are more commonly occupied in subsistence demands may diminish, for two reasons. and commercial fishing from small boats and The first is that when livestock enterprises canoes in coastal or inland waters. Women scale up, the control over decisions and also contribute as entrepreneurs and provide income, and sometimes the entire enterprise, labour before, during and after the catch often shifts to men. This is not a universal in both artisanal and commercial fisheries. phenomenon – in Viet Nam, for example, For example, in West Africa, the so called many medium-sized duck-breeding “Fish Mamas” play a major role: they usually enterprises are managed by women – but it is common and can be explained by women’s 6 The material in this section was prepared by FAO’s limited access to land and credit. The second Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. 7 FAO’s Fisheries and Aquaculture Department regularly important factor is that all smallholders collects employment statistics in fisheries and aquaculture face challenges when the livestock sector related to the primary sector only. The data therefore intensifies and concentrates and many go exclude post-harvest activities.
- 28. 16 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 own capital and are directly and vigorously IFAD, 2009). Studies conducted by FAO in involved in the coordination of the fisheries Africa and Europe indicate that women do chain, from production to the sale of fish. not hold senior or policy-making positions Studies of women in aquaculture, in the sector. Rather, they are primarily especially in Asia where aquaculture employed in administrative and support has a long tradition, indicate that the roles, with professional women foresters contribution of women in labour is often tending to have specialist roles (e.g. research) greater than men’s, although macro-level or first-line junior management positions. sex-disaggregated data on this topic is There is limited information on the numbers almost non-existent. Women are reported and roles of women in contracting or self- to constitute 33 percent of the rural employed forestry work (FAO, 2006a, 2007). aquaculture workforce in China, 42 percent The studies indicate that even though women in Indonesia and 80 percent in Viet Nam are still underrepresented in the industry, (Kusabe and Kelker, 2001). examples of good practice are emerging, The most significant role played by women especially in Europe (FAO, 2006a). This shows in both artisanal and industrial fisheries is that concerted and sustained commitment at the processing and marketing stages, and planning at senior organizational levels where they are very active in all regions. can result in quantifiable improvements in In some countries, women have become the number of professional women foresters significant entrepreneurs in fish processing; employed and the level of seniority they can in fact, most fish processing is performed by attain. women, either in their own household-level industries or as wage labourers in the large- scale processing industry. Women in rural labour markets Women in forestry About 70 percent of men and 40 percent Women contribute to both the formal and of women in developing countries are informal forestry sectors in many significant employed (Figure 4A). Male employment ways. They play roles in agroforestry, rates range from more than 60 percent in watershed management, tree improvement, the Near East and North Africa to almost and forest protection and conservation. 80 percent in sub-Saharan African. Female Forests also often represent an important employment rates vary more widely across source of employment for women, especially regions, from about 15 percent in the Near in rural areas. From nurseries to plantations, East and North Africa to over 60 percent in and from logging to wood processing, sub-Saharan Africa. women make up a notable proportion of the In Asia and in sub-Saharan Africa, women labour force in forest industries throughout who are employed are more likely to be the world. However, although women employed in agriculture than in other contribute substantially to the forestry sectors (Figure 4B). Almost 70 percent of sector, their roles are not fully recognized employed women in Southern Asia and and documented, their wages are not more than 60 percent of employed women equal to those of men and their working in sub-Saharan Africa work in agriculture. conditions tend to be poor (World Bank, FAO Furthermore, in most developing country and IFAD, 2009). regions, women who are employed are just The Global Forest Resources Assessment as likely, or even more likely, than men to 2010 reports that the forestry sector be in agriculture. The major exception is worldwide employed approximately Latin America, where agriculture provides a 11 million people in 2005; however, sex- relatively small source of female employment disaggregated data on the number of and women are less likely than men to work women employed by the sector are not in the sector. available on a comprehensive basis (FAO, In most developing countries, a relatively 2010c). Evidence from developing countries small share of the population works for a suggests that women are often employed in wage, and women are less likely to do so menial jobs in sawmills, plantation nurseries than men (World Bank, 2007a). For rural and logging camps (World Bank, FAO and areas, data collected by the Rural Income
- 29. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 17 FIGURE 4 Employment by sector A - Employed population as a share of total adult population, by sex and sector Percentage of total male and female population, respectively 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Developing Eastern and Latin America Near East and Southern Asia Sub-Saharan countries Southeastern and the North Africa Africa Asia Caribbean B - Distribution of male and female employment, by sector Percentage of male and female employment, respectively 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Developing Eastern and Latin America Near East and Southern Asia Sub-Saharan countries Southeastern and the North Africa Africa Asia Caribbean Agriculture Industry Services Note: The data cover only a subset of the countries in each region. Definitions of adult labour force differ by country, but usually refer to the population aged 15 and above. Source: ILO, 2009. Generating Activities (RIGA) project show For example, almost 15 percent of men that the gender gap in formal and informal but fewer than 4 percent of women are wage employment is large (Figure 5).8 employed for wages in Ghana. The gap is even wider in some other countries, such as 8 Rural Income Generating Activities (RIGA) is a FAO project Bangladesh, where 24 percent of rural men that has created an internationally comparable database of and only 3 percent of rural women work in rural household income sources from existing household living wage employment. A similar pattern holds in standards surveys for more than 27 countries (FAO, 2010d). Latin America also; for example, in Ecuador Most of the surveys used by the RIGA project were developed by national statistical offices in conjunction the World Bank as almost 30 percent of rural men and only part of its Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS). 9 percent of rural women receive a wage.
- 30. 18 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 FIGURE 5 Participation in rural wage employment, by gender Ecuador Guatemala Nicaragua Panama Bangladesh Indonesia Nepal Tajikistan Viet Nam Ghana Malawi Nigeria 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Percentage of adult population working for a wage Women Men Source: FAO, 2010d. Even when rural women are in wage Differences in male and female employment, they are more likely to be employment and wage patterns may have in part-time, seasonal and/or low-paying multiple causes. Because women in many jobs. In Malawi, for example, 90 percent of countries have less education and work women and 66 percent of men work part- experience than men, they may earn a lower time (Figure 6A). In Nepal, 70 percent of wage. Furthermore, having less education women and 45 percent of men work part- and experience reduces their bargaining time. This pattern is less pronounced in Latin power so they may be more likely to accept America than in other regions. low wages and irregular working conditions Rural wage employment is characterized (Kantor, 2008). Evidence from a number of by a high prevalence of seasonal jobs studies confirms that women, on average, for both men and women, but in most are paid less than men even for equivalent countries women are more likely than men jobs and comparable levels of education to be employed seasonally (Figure 6B). For and experience (Ahmed and Maitra, 2010; example, in Ecuador, almost 50 percent of Fontana, 2009). At the same time, because women but fewer than 40 percent of men women face significant time constraints hold seasonal jobs. because of family obligations, they may prefer Similarly, rural wage-earning women are part-time or seasonal jobs that are typically more likely than men to hold low-wage jobs lower paid. Social norms that confine women (Figure 6C), defined as paying less than the to certain sectors or phases of the supply median agricultural wage. In Malawi, more chain can further limit their opportunities for than 60 percent of women are in low-wage career growth and reinforce these sectors as jobs compared with fewer than 40 percent low-pay and low-status occupations. of men. The gap is even wider in Bangladesh, Average male wages are higher than where 80 percent of women and 40 percent of average female wages in rural and urban men have low-wage jobs. The only exception areas of the countries covered by the to this pattern was found in Panama. RIGA dataset (Figure 7). For example, in
- 31. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 19 FIGURE 6 Conditions of employment in rural wage employment, by gender A - Prevalence of part-time work Ecuador Guatemala Nicaragua Panama Bangladesh Indonesia Nepal Tajikistan Viet Nam Ghana Malawi Nigeria 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Percentage B - Prevalence of seasonal work1 Ecuador Guatemala Nicaragua Panama Bangladesh Indonesia Nepal Tajikistan Viet Nam Malawi 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Percentage C - Prevalence of low-wage work Ecuador Guatemala Nicaragua Panama Bangladesh Indonesia Nepal Tajikistan Viet Nam Ghana Malawi Nigeria 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Percentage Women Men 1 Data are not available for Ghana and Nigeria. Source: FAO, 2010d.
- 32. 20 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 Ghana, men’s wages are 31 percent higher developments for female employment over than women’s wages in urban areas and the past few decades (Deere, 2005). 58 percent higher in rural areas. Women earn Women are clearly an important part less than men everywhere except in rural of the agricultural labour force, but areas of Panama. The gap between male and agriculture and agricultural value chains female wages is wider in rural areas in some are equally important to women as a countries, but not everywhere. Women in source of employment. Commercial value most RIGA countries typically earn less than chains for high-value products such as fresh men with the same qualifications, partly as fruit, vegetables, flowers and livestock a consequence of occupational segregation products are growing rapidly to supply and discrimination (Hertz et al., 2009). urban supermarkets and export markets. While women continue to face The growth of modern value chains and occupational segregation and discrimination the broader structural transformation of in rural labour markets, new forms of the agriculture sector in many developing organization in supply chains for export- countries have major implications for oriented crops and agroprocessing have women’s employment, but the impact created better-paying employment of these trends for women has received opportunities for women than had existed relatively little analytical attention (Maertens before. Wages are typically higher and and Swinnen, 2009). working conditions better than in traditional Women dominate employment in many agricultural employment. The large-scale of the high-value agricultural commodity incorporation of women in the packing stage chains in Africa and Latin America (Table 1). of non-traditional agro-export production Although new jobs in export-oriented agro- may be one of the most important industries may not employ men and women FIGURE 7 Wage gap between men and women in urban and rural areas Ecuador Guatemala Nicaragua Panama Bangladesh Indonesia Nepal Tajikistan Viet Nam Ghana Malawi Nigeria -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Percentage Rural Urban Note: The wage gap is calculated as the difference between average daily male and female wages as a percentage of the average male wage. A positive wage gap means men are paid more than women. The rural wage gap includes farm and non-farm employment. Source: Hertz et al. 2009.
- 33. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 21 TABLE 1 Employment in selected high-value agro-industries Year of Number of employees Share of female Country Commodity survey in the agro-industry employees (%) Cameroon Banana 2003 10 000 .. Côte d’lvoire Banana and pineapple 2002 35 000 .. Kenya Flowers 2002 40 000–70 000 75 French beans 2005 12 000 90 Senegal Cherry tomatoes 2006 3 000 60 Uganda Flowers 1998 3 300 75 South Africa Deciduous fruit 1994 283 000 53 Vegetables 2002/3 7 500 65 Zambia Flowers 2002/3 2 500 35 Chile Fruits 1990s 300 000 circa 46 Colombia Flowers mid-90s 75 000 60–80 Fruits, vegetables, Dominican Republic flowers, plants 1989–90 16 955 circa 41 Mexico Vegetables 1990s 950 000 90 Sources: For Africa: Maertens and Swinnen, 2009, Table 1, based on several sources; for South America: Deere, 2005, Appendix II, based on several sources. on equal terms, they often provide better in some surprising ways (Newman, 2002). The opportunities for women than exist within total time spent by women in paid and unpaid the confines of traditional agriculture and work did not increase, contrary to a frequent can also be instruments of change with criticism of agricultural export development positive implications for women and rural that maintains that women are unduly development (Maertens and Swinnen, 2009; burdened by work in the industry. Indeed, the Deere, 2005). most compelling evidence of the industry’s The flower industry in Latin America impact was on men’s increased participation in provides an interesting case of contrasting housework. In Cotocachi, Ecuador, in contrast, points of view. In Colombia, for example, women were not prepared to move or even Friedemann-Sanchez (2006) finds that commute to work in the flower industry 64 percent of the workforce directly growing despite the higher wages offered there. fresh-cut flowers for export are women and The women did not view flower industry considers this type of agro-industrial work employment as an option, indicating either skilled, while others consider it unskilled that their husbands would not allow them to (e.g. Meier, 1999). While women do have work or that the work would be detrimental supervisory jobs among those directly to family relations (Newman, 2002). involved in cultivation activities, they In Senegal, the growth of modern have a much lower share of managerial or horticulture supply chains has been professional jobs in other aspects of the associated with direct beneficial effects sector (Friedemann-Sanchez, 2006). Similarly, for rural women and reduced gender Fontana (2003) finds that in sectors producing inequalities in rural areas (Maertens and primarily for the export market, women tend Swinnen, 2009). The study also finds that to be replaced by males as profits increase. women benefit more from employment The arrival of the flower industry in the in large-scale estate production and agro- Ecuadorian town of Cayambe in the late 1980s industrial processing than from high-value (in combination with other household and smallholder contract-farming in which they individual factors) affected time-use patterns often provide unpaid family labour.
- 34. 22 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 • Agriculture is the most important source Key messages of employment for women in rural areas in most developing country regions, but • Women comprise 43 percent of the this varies widely by region. Women are agricultural labour force in developing more likely than men to hold low-wage, countries, on average, ranging from part-time, seasonal employment and about 20 percent in Latin America they tend to be paid less even when their to almost 50 percent in Eastern and qualifications are higher than men’s, but Southeastern Asia and sub-Saharan new jobs in high-value, export-oriented Africa. The share is higher in some agro-industries offer much better countries and is changing rapidly in some opportunities for women than traditional parts of the world. agricultural work.
- 35. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 23 3. Documenting the gender gap in agriculture9 Access to productive resources such as land, less likely to own or operate land; they are modern inputs, technology, education and less likely to have access to rented land, and financial services is a critical determinant the land they do have access to is often of of agricultural productivity. Agriculture poorer quality and in smaller plots. is important to women, but female The most comprehensive data on women’s farmers (Box 4) have less access to the access to land come from the FAO Gender productive resources and services required and Land Rights Database (FAO, 2010f), and by agricultural producers. Women are less were collected from different data sources, likely than men to own land or livestock, including household surveys, agricultural adopt new technologies, use credit or other censuses and the academic literature. The financial services, or receive education or database provides information on the shares extension advice. In some cases, women do of “agricultural holders” who are male and not even control the use of their own time. female. An agricultural holder is defined as While the size of the gender gap differs the person or group of persons who exercise by resource and location, the underlying management control over an agricultural causes for the gender asset gap are repeated holding. The holding may be owned, across regions: social norms systematically rented or allocated from common property limit the options available to women. resources and may be operated on a share- Regardless of cause or magnitude, however, cropped basis. the gender asset gap reduces the agricultural Stark gender disparities in land holdings productivity of women and thus involves are apparent in all regions (Figure 8). broader economic and social costs. Women represent fewer than 5 percent of all agricultural holders in the countries in North Africa and West Asia for which Land data are available. The sub-Saharan African average of 15 percent masks wide variations, Land is the most important household asset from fewer than 5 percent in Mali to over for households that depend on agriculture 30 percent in countries such as Botswana, for their livelihoods. Access to land is a basic Cape Verde and Malawi. Latin America requirement for farming and control over has the highest regional average share of land is synonymous with wealth, status female agricultural holders, which exceeds and power in many areas. Strengthening 25 percent in Chile, Ecuador and Panama. women’s access to, and control over, land In addition to being more likely to hold is an important means of raising their land, men also typically control larger land status and influence within households and holdings than women. Representative and communities. Improving women’s access comparable data for 20 countries from the to land and security of tenure has direct RIGA database of household surveys show impacts on farm productivity, and can also that male-headed households operate larger have far-reaching implications for improving agricultural land holdings, on average, than household welfare. Strengthening land female-headed households in all countries ownership by women in Nepal, for example, (Figure 9). Inequality in access to land is more is linked with better health outcomes for acute in Bangladesh, Ecuador and Pakistan, children (Allendorf, 2007). where average land holdings of male-headed The evidence illustrating gender inequalities households are more than twice the size of in access to land is overwhelming. Women across all developing regions are consistently 9 The material in this chapter is based on FAO (2010e).
- 36. 24 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 BOX 4 Female farmers, household heads and data limitations Data on female farmers are limited. Most A distinction should be made between women engaged in farming do so within two types of female-headed households: a household production unit, and their (i) de facto, i.e. those in which an adult activities are not usually separable from male partner is working away from the those of the household as a whole. Most of household but remains involved through the data available on female farmers derives remittances and other economic and from household surveys and pertains to the social ties and (ii) de jure, i.e. those which activities of female-headed households, who have no male partner, such as women comprise a minority of female farmers in who are widowed, divorced or never most countries. Some data are available for married. Comprehensive data are not female-operated plots within male-headed usually available to distinguish between households, primarily in Africa where men these types of households, but for the and women often operate separate plots. few cases for which we have data most The unit of observation used in this chapter female-headed households are de jure. (individuals, households, farms or plots) In Malawi, Panama and Uganda about varies depending on the resource being 70, 63 and 83 percent, respectively, of discussed and the availability of data. all female-headed households are de The prevalence of female-headed jure (Chipande, 1987; Appleton, 1996; households is generally higher in sub- and Fuwa, 2000). Also in Cambodia and Saharan Africa than in other regions the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, (Annex table A5), but this hides most are de jure (FAO/GSO/MoP, 2010, considerable variation within the region. and FAO/MAF, 2010). Studies that are In fact, the countries having the highest able to disaggregate by type of female- (Swaziland) and the lowest (Burkina Faso) headed household mostly find that de prevalence of female-headed households jure households are more likely to suffer in developing regions are both found in from a range of economic and social sub-Saharan Africa. disadvantages (Seebens, 2010). those of female-headed households. The to systematic gender inequalities. Male- RIGA results confirm the findings of studies headed households have larger livestock in Latin America (Deere and León, 2003) holdings, on average, than female-headed and Africa (FAO, 1997) showing that male- households (Figure 10). Inequality in livestock controlled land holdings are generally larger holdings appears to be particularly acute in than female-controlled holdings. Bangladesh, Ghana and Nigeria, where male holdings are more than three times larger than those of female-headed households. In Livestock Indonesia and Pakistan, for which the RIGA database contains information on incomes Livestock is another key asset in rural areas from livestock but not livestock holdings, (FAO, 2009a). In many countries, livestock net incomes from livestock are significantly is one of the most valuable agricultural higher in male-headed households than in assets and represents a source of income female-headed households. and wealth accumulation as well as an The RIGA database provides information important source of resistance to shocks. by household according to the sex of the Draught animals are also the main source household head, so data do not reflect of power for ploughing, land clearing and intra-household differences in control over transportation in many regions. livestock. These vary by culture and context As was the case for access to land, the but, in general, men are responsible for evidence for livestock holdings points keeping and marketing large animals, such
- 37. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 25 FIGURE 8 Share of male and female agricultural holders in main developing regions Latin America and the Caribbean Sub-Saharan Africa Southern Asia and Southeastern Asia North Africa and West Asia Oceania 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Percentage Female Male Note: Regional aggregates do not include all countries due to lack of data. Country-level data are provided in Annex table A5. Source: FAO, 2010f. FIGURE 9 Rural household assets: farm size Bolivia Ecuador Guatemala Nicaragua Panama Bangladesh Indonesia Nepal Pakistan Tajikistan Viet Nam Ghana Madagascar Malawi 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Average farm size (ha) Female-headed households Male-headed households Note: Differences between male and female-headed households are statistically significant at the 95 percent confidence level for all countries, except for Bolivia, Indonesia, Madagascar, Nicaragua and Tajikistan. Sources: FAO, 2010d, and Anríquez, 2010.
- 38. 26 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 FIGURE 10 Household livestock assets, in male- and female-headed households Bolivia Ecuador Guatemala Nicaragua Panama Bangladesh Nepal Ghana Madagascar Malawi Nigeria 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 Average tropical livestock unit (TLU) Female-headed households Male-headed households Notes: Calculations made using nationally representative household surveys. The number of livestock is computed using the tropical livestock unit (TLU), which is equivalent to a 250 kg animal. The scale varies by region. For example, in South America, the scale is: 1 bovine = 0.7 TLU, 1 pig = 0.2, 1 sheep = 0.1 and 1 chicken = 0.01. Differences between male- and female-headed households are statistically significant at the 95 percent confidence level for all countries except for Guatemala. Sources: FAO, RIGA team, and Anríquez, 2010. as cattle, horses and camels, while women the form of large animals such as cows and tend to control smaller animals, such as bulls while women are more likely to hold goats, sheep, pigs and poultry (FAO, 2009a). assets in the form of small animals, household In Nicaragua, for example, women own durable goods and jewellery. Women tend around 10 percent of work animals and to draw down assets more quickly than men cattle but 55–65 percent of pigs and poultry in response to crises and as they get older (Deere, Alvarado and Twyman, 2009). Even (Dillon and Quiñones, 2010). when women jointly own large animals, they do not necessarily have access to the services they provide, as was found for Indian women Farm labour and the use of oxen (Chen, 2000). The RIGA data measure livestock in physical Labour availability depends on the amount terms – tropical livestock units – but the of family labour that a household can results are consistent with other studies that mobilize and the amount of labour that can evaluate the value of livestock holdings. Data be hired in local labour markets. Labour from northern Nigeria, for example, indicate constraints can be more acute for both that the value of men’s livestock holdings women and female-headed households is about twice that of women’s (Dillon and than for men and male-headed households Quiñones, 2010). The same study finds that for several reasons. Women generally face men and women use livestock differently gender-specific constraints as agricultural as a store of wealth and as a buffer against labourers and in hiring-in labour. Low levels shocks. Men are more likely to hold assets in of human capital – education, health and
- 39. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 27 nutrition – are a constraint on women’s that female-headed households typically labour productivity in agriculture and other farm smaller plots may not compensate for sectors (Behrman, Alderman and Hoddinott, the lower availability of family labour. For 2004) (Box 5). Some nutrition issues, such example, among small-scale maize farmers as iron deficiency, which directly affects in Malawi, females own less land but still labour productivity and is widespread, are use about 10 percent less total labour per especially relevant to women (Quisumbing hectare than their male counterparts and and Pandolfelli, 2010). Often there is a much of that labour is supplied by children, pronounced gender division of labour for who must work to make up the shortfall particular agricultural tasks, with the result caused by their mothers’ other duties that male and female labour cannot be easily (Takane, 2008). substituted. Moreover, women are time- Household and community responsibilities constrained by domestic tasks such as care- and gender-specific labour requirements giving and collecting firewood and water mean that women farmers cannot farm (McGuire and Popkin, 1970; Quisumbing and as productively as men and make it more Pandolfelli, 2010). difficult for them to respond when crop Female-headed households face more prices rise. Depending on cultural norms, severe labour constraints than male-headed some farming activities, such as ploughing households because they typically have and spraying, rely on access to male labour fewer members but more dependants. In without which women farmers face delays some areas, male out-migration adds to that may lead to losses in output. For the constraint already imposed by gender- example, women maize farmers in Malawi specific farming tasks (Peters, 1986). Female- require male labour for ploughing, but headed households may receive help from female-headed households often lack male male relatives, but only after the men have family members who can do the work and taken care of their own plots. The fact they may not have the cash needed to hire BOX 5 Labour productivity and hunger, nutrition and health Hunger, nutrition and health are strong whereas the opposite is true in sub- determining factors on a person’s ability Saharan Africa. to work, their productivity and their While in some locations women are cognitive development. With regard to disadvantaged with regard to hunger and nutrition, only 37 developing countries nutrition, this is not generally the case. collect data on chronic energy deficiency However, there are certain health and (CED) for both men and women (Annex nutritional issues that are sex-specific. For table A6) (WHO, 2010). In 17 countries the example, women’s energy and nutritional difference between the share of men and needs increase during menstruation, women with CED is one or less percentage pregnancy and lactation and their points. Of the remaining 20 countries, nutritional status has an impact on their 13 show a higher share of women with offspring. There is also evidence that women CED. Based on these few observations, have higher morbidity than men – not only it appears that in sub-Saharan Africa because they live longer – and that they are women are less likely than men to suffer less likely to access health services (Buvinic CED while in South America and Asia, et al., 2006). Thus, gender differences in particularly Southeastern Asia, women are nutrition and health could have important more likely than men to suffer from CED. policy implications for society. The reported data for adults are consistent Policy interventions that address the with that available for underweight specific health and nutrition issues of children (under 5 years of age). For women are important, but their nature example, in Asia and the Pacific, a larger and scope should always reflect the share of girls than boys are underweight, specific context and location.
- 40. 28 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 male labour. As a result, women cultivate The level of human capital available in smaller plots and achieve lower yields a household (usually measured as the (Gilbert, Sakala and Benson, 2002). This web education of the head of household or the of constraints means that women in Malawi average education of working-age adults in have difficulty growing cash crops such as the household) is strongly correlated with tobacco or improved maize that require measures such as agricultural productivity, purchased inputs, because they cannot household income and nutritional outcomes generate the income necessary to obtain – all of which ultimately affect household credit and guarantee repayment. Such labour welfare and economic growth at the national constraints in some cases may prevent female- level (World Bank, 2007a). headed households from even applying for Gender differences in education are credit (Chipande, 1987). Female-headed significant and widespread (Figure 11). households in Ethiopia, where cultural norms Female heads have less education than require that ploughing be undertaken by their male counterparts in all countries men, also achieve lower yields because they in the sample except Panama, where the have limited access to male labour (Holden, difference is not statistically significant. The Shiferaw and Pender, 2001). data suggest that female household heads in rural areas are disadvantaged with respect to human capital accumulation in most Education developing countries, regardless of region or level of economic development. Human capital is a major factor in This evidence reflects a history of bias determining the opportunities available to against girls in education. Despite this bias, individuals in society and is closely linked human capital accumulation is one asset to the productive capacity of households category for which the gender gap has and their economic and social well-being. clearly narrowed in recent decades. Although FIGURE 11 Education of male and female rural household heads Bolivia Ecuador Guatemala Nicaragua Panama Bangladesh Indonesia Nepal Pakistan Tajikistan Viet Nam Ghana Madagascar Malawi Nigeria 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Average years of education of household head Female-headed households Male-headed households Sources: FAO, 2010d, and Anríquez, 2010.
- 41. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 29 FIGURE 12 Gender differences in rural primary education attendance rates Ecuador Guatemala Nicaragua Panama Bangladesh Indonesia Nepal Pakistan Viet Nam Ghana Madagascar Malawi Nigeria 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Net primary attendance rates (percentage) Female Male Note: Attendance rates are defined as the number of children in primary school age who attend primary school, expressed as a percentage of the total number of children in official primary school age. Only Ghana, Guatemala, Nepal and Pakistan are statistically significantly different from 0 at the 95 percent level. Source: FAO, RIGA team. progress has been uneven across regions science and technology is particularly and important gaps persist, significant gains relevant in regions where women comprise have been made in primary school enrolment a large part of the agriculture sector. The rates for girls, and difference between boys number of women working in science and girls has narrowed. Of the 106 countries and technology research in industrialized committed to MDG 3 on gender parity in and developing countries has increased access to education, 83 had met the target substantially in recent decades, but remains by 2005 (World Bank, 2007b). Most of the low in most countries. There is an urgent countries in the RIGA database have achieved need for a greater representation of women gender parity in primary school attendance in agricultural research, particularly in sub- (defined as no statistically significant Saharan Africa, where women participate difference between male and female heavily in the agricultural workforce. Women attendance rates) (Figure 12). One of the scientists, research managers, lecturers and most significant advances for women in Latin professors can provide different insights America has been in the area of primary and perspectives and help research agencies and secondary education, yet a significant to address more effectively the unique and gender gap persists among indigenous pressing challenges that African farmers groups in many Latin American countries. face. They may also serve as role models to The education gender gap – both in levels of students and other women in agriculture. enrolment and attainment – remains widest Significant progress has been made in in Southern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. increasing the share of female professional Beyond general educational attainment, staff in agricultural higher education and higher education for women in agricultural research institutions in Africa (Box 6).
- 42. 30 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 BOX 6 Women in agricultural higher education and research in Africa1 During 2008, the Agricultural Science the Niger (10 percent) and Burkina Faso and Technology Indicators (ASTI) and the (12 percent). Compared with other African Woman in Agricultural Research countries in the region, female professional and Development (AWARD) programmes staff members were relatively more conducted a survey to obtain sex- educated in Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa disaggregated capacity indicators covering and Uganda, where more than one-quarter 125 agricultural research and higher of the total held PhD degrees. education agencies in 15 sub-Saharan Future trends in female participation in African countries.2 The study found that the agricultural research will be influenced by pool of female professional staff increased current student enrolment and graduation by 50 percent between 2000/01 and levels. An increasing number of women 2007/08 and 4 (Botswana, Nigeria, Senegal, have been enrolling in higher education, and Zambia) of the 15 countries saw their not only in sub-Saharan Africa, but also female staff double. In relative terms, the in other regions in the world (UIS, 2006; share of women in total professional staff UNESCO, 2004). This also appears to increased from 18 percent to 24 percent be the case in agricultural sciences, but over the period. This increase occurred unfortunately no sex-disaggregated trend across all three degree levels (BSc, MSc, data are available. Most female students and PhD), but varied considerably across in agricultural sciences, however, are the 15 countries (Figures A and B). Female enrolled in BSc programmes. This is also participation in agricultural research and true for male students and reflects the higher education was particularly high in reality that many agricultural faculties and South Africa (41 percent), Mozambique schools in sub-Saharan Africa have only (35 percent) and Botswana (32 percent). small MSc and PhD programmes. In contrast, only a small proportion of the The growing shares of professional agricultural professional staff were women women employed in agriculture and in Ethiopia (6 percent), Togo (9 percent), female students enrolled in agricultural FIGURE A Change in average female shares in professional staff of agricultural and higher education institutions in 14 African countries, by degree level, 2000/01 to 2007/08 Percentage 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 BSc MSc PhD Total Degree level 2000/01 2007/08 Note: Excludes Mozambique owing to lack of available data for 2000/01. Source: Beintema and Di Marcantonio, 2009, based on ASTI datasets.
- 43. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 31 FIGURE B Change in female shares in professional staff, by headcount, 2000/01 to 2007/08 Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Ethiopia Ghana Kenya Malawi Mozambique Niger Nigeria Senegal South Africa Togo Uganda Zambia Total (15) Total (14) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Percentage 2000/01 2007/08 Note: Excludes Mozambique owing to lack of available data for 2000/01. Source: Beintema and Di Marcantonio, 2009, based on ASTI datasets. sciences indicate that the gender gap ladder. Only 14 percent of management in African agricultural sciences may positions were held by women, which is be narrowing, especially in southern considerably lower than the overall share Africa. But the increase in the number of of female professional staff employed women, as well as men, that enter African in agriculture. Women are, therefore, agricultural research and higher education less represented in high-level research, are mostly young staff with lower level management and decision-making of degrees and at the beginning of the positions compared with their male career ladder. On average, more than colleagues. half of the female professional staff in the 15-country sample were younger 1 This section was prepared by Nienke Beintema than 41 years compared with 42 percent and is based on Agricultural Science and Technology Indicators (ASTI) datasets (www.asti. of the total male professional staff. On cgiar.org), Beintema (2006), and Beintema and average, 31 percent of total female staff Di Marcantonio (2009). ASTI is managed by the and 27 percent of total male staff held BSc International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI); AWARD is managed by the Consultative Group on degrees. These 15-country averages, again, International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) Gender mask a wide variation across countries (see and Diversity (G&D) Program. Beintema and Di Marcantonio, 2009). 2 Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, the Niger, The share of women disproportionately Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Uganda and declines on the higher rungs of the career Zambia.
- 44. 32 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 Mekonnen and Spurling, 1994). Extension Information and extension service agents tend to approach male farmers more often than female farmers because Good and timely information on new of the general misperception that women technologies and techniques is essential do not farm and that extension advice will for farmers when deciding whether or not eventually “trickle down” from the male to adopt an innovation. Although private household head to all other household extension services are playing an increasing members. Extension services are often role in some countries, such as Brazil, China directed towards farmers who are more likely and India, public extension services remain to adopt modern innovations, for example the key source of information on new farmers with sufficient resources in well- technologies for farmers in most developing established areas. As discussed above, women countries. Extension services encompass the are less likely to access resources and may wide range of services provided by experts therefore be bypassed by extension service in the areas of agriculture, agribusiness, providers (Meinzen-Dick et al., 2010). health and others and are designed to Finally, the way in which extension services improve productivity and the overall well- are delivered can constrain women farmers being of rural populations. The provision of in receiving information on innovations. agricultural extension can lead to significant Women tend to have lower levels of yield increases. Yet, extension provision education than men, which may limit their in developing economies remains low for active participation in training that uses a both women and men, and women tend to lot of written material. Time constraints and make less use than men of extension services cultural reservations may hinder women from (Meinzen-Dick et al., 2010). According participating in extension activities, such to a 1988–89 FAO survey of extension as field days, outside their village or within organizations covering 97 countries with sex- mixed groups (Meinzen-Dick et al. 2010). disaggregated data (the most comprehensive Several new and participatory extension study available) only 5 percent of all approaches have been developed and extension resources were directed at women. tested in the past decade in an effort to Moreover, only 15 percent of the extension move away from a top-down model of personnel were female (FAO, 1993). extension service provision to more farmer- In social contexts where meetings between driven services. These approaches can target women and men from outside the family women effectively and increase their uptake nucleus are restricted, a lack of female of innovations (Davis et al., 2009) and will extension agents effectively bars women be discussed in Chapter 5. Participatory from participating. The preference for female approaches that encourage communication extension agents varies by country and marital between farmers and researchers can also status. In Ghana, for example, male and lead to positive feedback loops that allow female farmers in male-headed households researchers to adjust innovations to local have equal contact with extension agents but needs. female farmers in female-headed households Modern information and communication have much less contact, although they are technologies (ICTs) such as radio, mobile willing to speak to agents of either sex (Doss phones, computers and Internet services can and Morris, 2001). In the United Republic of also play an important role in transferring Tanzania, on the other hand, many female information. ICTs offer opportunities for farmers prefer to talk to a female extension accessing and sharing information faster, officer and, by 1997, one-third of extension networking, the mobilization of resources officers were women, up from almost none 15 and educational purposes. Mobile phone years prior (Due, Magayane and Temu, 1997). subscriptions in developing countries have However, even when women have access doubled since 2005. To date, 57 out of 100 to extension services, the benefits may not be inhabitants (up from 23 in 2005) in developing obvious. In Kenya, contact with the extension countries have a mobile phone subscription agent contributed significantly and positively (ITU, 2010). These technologies may be to output on male-managed plots, but not beneficial for rural women whose ability necessarily on female-managed plots (Saito, to travel to distant markets is restricted.
- 45. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 33 Rural women may face barriers in accessing costs associated with the innovations and ICTs because of their limited education and investment necessary to enhance their financial and time constraints. Locations that productivity, income and well-being. are convenient and appropriate for women Evidence shows that credit markets are not to visit can help improve women’s access (Best gender-neutral. Legal barriers and cultural and Maier, 2007). norms sometimes bar women from holding bank accounts or entering into financial contracts in their own right. Women generally Financial services have less control over the types of fixed assets that are usually necessary as collateral for Financial services such as savings, credit loans. Institutional discrimination by private and insurance provide opportunities for and public lending institutions often either improving agricultural output, food security ration women out of the market or grant and economic vitality at the household, women loans that are smaller than those community and national levels. Many studies granted to men for similar activities (Fletschner, have shown that improving women’s direct 2009; World Bank, FAO and IFAD, 2009). access to financial resources leads to higher In seven out of nine countries in the RIGA investments in human capital in the form of dataset, rural female-headed households children’s health, nutrition and education. are less likely than male-headed households Producers who are unable to cover to use credit (Figure 13). In Madagascar, their short-term expenses or who want for example, the share of female-headed to purchase more productive but more households that use credit is 9 percentage expensive technologies must rely on either points smaller than the share of male-headed credit markets or other credit sources. households who do so. The cases of Ghana Without access to credit, producers may and Panama are noteworthy in that no be unable to bear the risks and up-front gender gap is apparent in the use of credit. FIGURE 13 Credit use by female- and male-headed households in rural areas Ecuador Guatemala Panama Indonesia Nepal Viet Nam Ghana Madagascar Malawi 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Percentage of households using credit Female-headed households Male-headed households Note: Calculations made using nationally representative household surveys. The gender gap is calculated as the difference between the percentages of male- and female-headed households that use credit. Sources: FAO, RIGA team, and Anríquez, 2010.
- 46. 34 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 The gender gap in access to credit is also households typically receive loans only from confirmed by other evidence. In Nigeria, credit cooperatives as opposed to the state for example, 14 percent of males but only banks or wholesalers. Her findings show that 5 percent of females obtain formal credit, women are less likely to use credit than men while in Kenya the percentages are 14 and under equivalent socio-economic conditions 4 for males and females, respectively (Saito, and that they are not always able to rely on Mekonnen and Spurling, 1994). In Uganda, their husbands to help them overcome credit women entrepreneurs receive just 1 percent constraints. These constraints on women’s of available credit in rural areas (Dolan, access to capital have a measurable negative 2004). Also in Uganda, nearly all female- impact on their production capabilities. For headed households reported a desire to example, in addition to the efficiency loss expand agricultural activities but lacked the associated with the husband’s credit constraints, money to purchase land and inputs such as when women are unable to meet their credit seeds, fertilizer and pesticides, and/or to needs their households experience an additional hire-in labour. They cited the lack of access to 11 percent drop in efficiency (Fletschner, 2008). credit as one of the most prominent barriers to livelihood diversification (Ellis, Manuel and Blackden, 2006). Technology In Bangladesh, women received about 5 percent of loans disbursed by financial Access to new technology is crucial in institutions to rural areas in 1980 and only maintaining and improving agricultural slightly more than 5 percent in 1990, despite productivity. Gender gaps exist for a wide the emergence of special credit programmes range of agricultural technologies, including for women in Bangladesh during the machines and tools, improved plant varieties research period (Goetz and Gupta 1996). and animal breeds, fertilizers, pest control Further evidence from Bangladesh suggests measures and management techniques. A that even when programmes succeed in number of constraints, including the gender improving the access of women to credit, gaps described above, lead to gender they may not retain control over the assets: inequalities in access to and adoption of White (1991) found that about 50 percent of new technologies, as well as in the use of loans taken by women were used for men’s purchased inputs and existing technologies. productive activities; Goetz and Gupta (1996) The use of purchased inputs depends on the reported that, on average, women retained availability of complementary assets such as full or significant control over loan use in land, credit, education and labour, all of which only 37 percent of all cases; while Chowdhury tend to be more constrained for female-headed (2009) reported that credit to women from households than for male-headed households. the Grameen Bank was positively and The adoption of improved technologies is significantly correlated with the performance positively correlated with education but is also of male-managed micro-enterprises but not dependent on time constraints (Blackden et al., those managed by females. 2006). In an activity with long turnaround In Eastern Asia, the evidence regarding periods, such as agriculture, working capital bias in credit access is mixed. In China, de is required for purchasing inputs such as Brauw et al. (2008) found that households fertilizers and improved seeds; however, as in which women manage their own farms discussed above, women face more obstacles appear to have almost identical access to relative to men in their access to credit. land and credit relative to male-headed Adoption of improved technologies and inputs households. On the other hand, a joint study may also be constrained by women’s lower by FAO and the United Nations Development ability to absorb risk. Programme (FAO/UNDP, 2002) carried out The evidence points to significant gender in Viet Nam indicates that female-headed differences in the adoption of improved households borrow less, have less access to technologies and the use of purchased inputs formal credit and pay higher interest on across regions (see Peterman, Quisumbing loans than dual-headed households. and Behrman, 2010, for a comprehensive For Latin America, Fletschner (2009) literature review). For example, male- reports that in Paraguay women in farm headed households show much wider use of
- 47. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 35 fertilizers than their female counterparts in In Burkina Faso, women use less fertilizer per all countries covered (Figure 14). While the hectare than men (Udry et al., 1995). direction of the difference is unambiguous Studies that disaggregate mechanization across technologies and regions, the degree – tools and other farming equipment – by of inequality shows notable variations, gender are rare. This may, in part, be because appearing much more pronounced in modern farming equipment such as tractors Southern Asia (Bangladesh and Pakistan) and and tillers are not commonly available to any in West Africa (Ghana and Nigeria). farmer, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. The Detailed country studies provide deeper share of farmers using mechanical equipment insights. In Ghana, for example, Doss and and tools is quite low in all countries, but it Morris (2001) found that only 39 percent is significantly lower for farmers in female- of female farmers adopted improved crop headed households, sometimes by very wide varieties (compared with 59 percent of male margins (Figure 15). farmers) because they had less access to land, A few studies from the late 1980s and family labour and extension services. Several early 1990s point to gender differences studies from Kenya show that female-headed in ownership of, or access to, tools. In a households have much lower adoption rates Gambian irrigated rice scheme, none of for improved seeds and fertilizers. These the women owned a plough and fewer differences are explained by reduced access than 1 percent owned a weeder, seeder or to land and labour, lower education levels multipurpose cultivation implement; the and limited access to credit markets (Kumar, proportions of men owning these tools 1994; Saito, Mekonnen and Spurling, 1994; were 8, 12, 27 and 18 percent, respectively Ouma, De Groote and Owur, 2006). Credit (von Braun, Hotchkiss and Immink, 1989). constraints also limit the access of female- According to data from a household survey headed households to fertilizers in Benin and across three Kenyan districts, the value of Malawi (Minot, Kherallah and Berry, 2000). farm tools owned by women amounted to FIGURE 14 Fertilizer use by female- and male-headed households Bolivia Ecuador Guatemala Nicaragua Panama Bangladesh Nepal Pakistan Tajikistan Viet Nam Ghana Madagascar Malawi Nigeria 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Percentage of households using fertilizers Female-headed households Male-headed households Note: Calculations made using nationally representative household surveys. Differences between female- and male-headed households are significant at the 95 percent confidence level for all countries. Sources: FAO, RIGA team, and Anríquez, 2010.
- 48. 36 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 FIGURE 15 Mechanical equipment use by female- and male-headed households Ecuador Guatemala Nicaragua Panama Bangladesh Indonesia Nepal Tajikistan Viet Nam Ghana Madagascar Malawi Nigeria 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Percentage of households using mechanization Female-headed households Male-headed households Note: Calculations made using nationally representative household surveys. Differences between female- and male-headed households are significant at the 95 percent confidence level for all countries. Sources: FAO, RIGA team, and Anríquez, 2010. only 18 percent of the tools and equipment It is important to note that not all types owned by male farmers (Saito, Mekonnen of female-headed households are equally and Spurling, 1994). constrained in their access to technology. On In a more recent study of productivity small farms in Kenya, households headed by differences by gender in a rice irrigation single, divorced or widowed women are the scheme in Central Benin, researchers noted least likely to use animal traction. In contrast, that equipment such as motor cultivators female-headed households in which the used for ploughing and transport were husband lives elsewhere are more likely to managed by groups, but women’s groups use animal traction and hired labour, because were unable to start ploughing until the they still benefit from their husband’s drivers had completed work on men’s fields. name and social network and often receive As a consequence of the delays in ploughing remittances from him (Wanjiku et al., 2007). and planting, women faced yield losses and could not participate in a second cropping season (Kinkingninhoun-Mêdagbé et al. Key messages 2010). Gender differences in the use of farm equipment may have further implications. • Across diverse regions and contexts, Quisumbing (1995), for example, concludes women engaged in agriculture face that farmers with more land and tools are gender-specific constraints that limit more likely to adopt other technologies, thus their access to productive inputs, highlighting the complementarities among assets and services. Gender gaps are agricultural inputs. observed for land, livestock, farm labour, Furthermore, lack of access to education, extension services, financial transportation technology often limits the services and technology. mobility of women and their capacity to • For those developing countries for which transport crops to market centres (Box 7). data are available, between 10 percent
- 49. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 37 BOX 7 Smallholder coffee production and marketing in Uganda Coffee is Uganda’s largest export, much smaller scale, women sold smaller providing employment (directly and amounts than men (only 47 kg, on average, indirectly) to an estimated 5 million people compared with 151 kg for men). (Bank of Uganda, 2001; Kempaka, 2001). Most smallholders sold their coffee in Smallholders’ coffee is usually intercropped the form of dry cherries locally known with staples such as banana, plantain, as kiboko, which would then be milled beans, sweet potatoes and maize. Simple by the traders who bought the coffee. farming methods are normally used to Some farmers transported their coffee to produce coffee; purchased inputs such as market, which allowed them to sell it at fertilizer or pesticides are used minimally a higher price. Members of male-headed and irrigation is rare. households were more likely than those A study by Hill and Vigneri (2009) of female-headed households to travel to draws on a sample of 300 coffee-farming market to sell their coffee. Fifteen percent households that were surveyed in 1999 of the transactions made by male-headed and 2003. Twenty-three percent of the households took place in the nearby coffee households were headed by females market, compared with only 7 percent (mainly widows, but also unmarried, of transactions by women. This may be separated and divorced women). Female- because men were more likely to own a headed households had less labour, bicycle and could therefore travel to the land and coffee trees than male-headed market more easily than women. Farmers households; they also had lower levels of received a higher price for their coffee if wealth and education. Women household they chose to mill it at the market before heads tended to be older; many were selling it. Only 3 percent of transactions wives who had taken over when their were for milled coffee, all of which were husband had died. As a result of these made by male-headed households. basic differences in scale, liquidity and The study concludes that gender human capital, we may expect crop choice, differences in marketing are largely production methods and access to markets explained by the fact that women market to be quite different for male- and smaller quantities of coffee and do not female-headed households. own bicycles. It also finds that a major The share of labour allocated to coffee constraint facing women is their relative production and the proportion of trees difficulty in accessing marketing channels harvested were comparable between male- that allow added value. By engaging in and female-headed households, as was the marketing channels in which they add yield per producing tree. However, because value, male-headed households received female-headed households farmed on a 7 percent more per kilogram of coffee. and 20 percent of all land holders are half to two-thirds the size of farms women, although this masks significant operated by male-headed households. differences among countries even • The livestock holdings of female farmers within the same region. The developing are much smaller than those of men in countries having both the lowest and all countries for which data are available, highest shares of female land holders are and women earn less than men from in Africa. their livestock holdings. Women are • Among smallholders, farms operated by much less likely to own large animals, female-headed households are smaller such as cattle and oxen, that are useful as in almost all countries for which data are draught animals. available. The gap is negligible in some • Farms run by female-headed households countries, but in others farms operated have less labour available for farm work by female-headed households are only because these households are typically
- 50. 38 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 smaller and have fewer working-age adult • Smallholders everywhere face constraints members and because women have heavy in accessing credit and other financial and unpaid household duties that take services, but in most countries the share them away from more productive activities. of female smallholders who can access • Education has seen improvements in credit is 5–10 percentage points lower gender parity at the national level, than for male smallholders. Access to with females even exceeding male credit and insurance are important for attainment levels in some countries, but accumulating and retaining other assets. in most regions women and girls still lag • Women are much less likely to use behind. The gender gap in education is purchased inputs such as fertilizers particularly acute in rural areas, where and improved seeds or to make use of female household heads sometimes have mechanical tools and equipment. In less than half the years of education of many countries women are only half as their male counterparts. likely as men to use fertilizers.
- 51. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 39 4. Gains from closing the gender gap Many studies show that yields on plots based discrimination. Countries with lower managed by women are lower than those levels of gender inequality tend to achieve managed by men. This is not because higher average cereal yields than countries women are worse farmers than men. Indeed, with higher levels of inequality (Figure extensive evidence shows that women are 16). Of course, the relationship shows only just as efficient as men. They simply do not correlation, not causation, and the direction have access to the same inputs. If they did, of causality could run in either direction (or their yields would be the same as men’s, they in both directions). In other words, more would produce more and overall agricultural equal societies tend to have more productive production would increase. agriculture, but more productive agriculture The relationship between gender can help reduce gender inequality. equality and agricultural productivity can Research surveyed below confirms that be explored using OECD’s index of Social closing the gender gap in agriculture can Institutions and Gender Inequality (SIGI) improve agricultural productivity, with (OECD, 2010). The SIGI index reflects social important additional benefits through and legal norms such as property rights, raising the incomes of female farmers, marital practices and civil liberties that increasing the availability of food and affect women’s economic development. A reducing food prices, and raising women’s lower SIGI indicates lower levels of gender- employment and real wages. FIGURE 16 Cereal yield and gender inequality Cereal yield (tonnes/ha) 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th SIGI group: 1st = least gender inequality to 10th = greatest gender inequality Notes: Gender inequality is a measure used by the Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI), a composite measure of gender discrimination based on social institutions, constructed by the OECD Development Centre. Sources: Cereal yield: FAO, 2010b; SIGI group: OECD, 2010.
- 52. 40 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 labour, the plots controlled by women used Productivity of male and female less of all other inputs: men’s and children’s farmers labour, draught animal labour and organic and chemical fertilizers. Women’s yields Many studies have attempted to assess were lower than men’s for a variety of whether female farmers are as productive crops – 20 percent lower for vegetables and as male farmers. These studies measure 40 percent lower for sorghum – but the productivity in a variety of ways, but the difference was explained entirely by their most common method is based on output lower use of productive inputs, which in turn per hectare of land, or yield. Simply was a result of gender-specific social norms. comparing yields on men’s and women’s The authors estimated that increasing input farms can reveal differences between the use on women’s plots could increase overall two groups – women typically achieve output by 10–20 percent (Udry et al., 1995). lower yields than men do – but it does not Further analysis of the same data found that explain why. The most thorough studies also overall household production could have attempt to assess whether these differences been almost 6 percent higher if resources are caused by difference in input use, such were reallocated towards women’s plots as improved seeds, fertilizers and tools, or (Udry, 1996). other factors such as access to extension Two additional studies from Burkina services and education. The vast majority Faso provide a deeper understanding of of this literature confirms that women are these issues. The first found that female just as efficient as men and would achieve farmers produced 15 percent lower value the same yields if they had equal access to per hectare than male farmers. It also found productive resources and services. that female farmers needed advice from A thorough literature search identified female agricultural extension workers – not 27 studies that compare the productivity just more inputs – in order to achieve higher of male and female farmers.10 These yields, confirming the complementarities studies covered a wide range of countries among the broad range of assets and services (primarily, but not only, in Africa), crops, required for agricultural production (Bindlish, time periods and farming systems, and Evenson and Gbetibouo, 1993). The second used various measures of productivity and reconsidered the data from Udry (1996) efficiency. Despite this variety, most found and supplemented them with more recent that male farmers achieved higher yields nationally representative data. It found than female farmers. The estimated yield that households located in less favourable gaps ranged widely but many clustered production zones or in areas suffering around 20–30 percent, with an average of from drought tended to allocate resources 25 percent.11 between male- and female-managed plots Most of the studies found that differences more efficiently than households in more in yields were attributable to differences in favourable areas, perhaps because the risk input levels, suggesting that reallocating associated with being inefficient was higher inputs from male to female plots can for them (Akresh, 2008). increase overall household output. Several Research in the Ethiopian highlands found studies showed this explicitly. Because that female-headed households produced this literature is complex and somewhat 35 percent less per hectare, in value terms, contentious, it is summarized below. than male-headed households but the One of the most influential studies in differences were due to lower levels of input this field comes from Burkina Faso. The use and less access to extension services by authors compared 4 700 agricultural plots the female farmers (Tiruneh et al., 2001). In in six villages. With the exception of own- the same region, yields for barley and other cereals were found to be 50 percent higher 10 For more detailed surveys of this literature, see for farms operated by men because farms Quisumbing (1996) and Peterman, Quisumbing and run by female-headed households had only Behrman (2010). half the male labour and less than one-third 11 Not all of the 27 studies quantified the yield gap. Some provided estimates for a single crop while others reported of the amount of draught animal power on multiple crops. (Holden, Shiferaw and Pender, 2001).
- 53. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 41 Women in Ghana were found to be of lower quality or higher price (Timothy and as efficient as men in maize and cassava Adeoti, 2006). production, but they achieved lower yields Additional studies in sub-Saharan Africa and earned lower profits because they from Cameroon (Kumase, Bisseleua and could not maintain the fertility of their land Klasen, 2008), Benin (Kinkingninhoun- (Goldstein and Udry, 2008). People who are Mêdagbé et al., 2010), Côte d’Ivoire (Adesina disadvantaged in the social and political and Djato, 1997) and Zimbabwe (Horrell and networks of their villages – like many female Krishnan, 2009) also overwhelmingly support household heads – are more likely to have the conclusion that differences in farm their land expropriated if they allow it to yields between men and women are caused remain fallow, so they tend to keep their primarily by differences in access to resources land under cultivation continuously, eroding and extension services.12 soil fertility (Goldstein and Udry, 2008). Evidence from other regions is relatively Several studies from Ghana also confirm rare because farming operations are less that male and female cocoa producers have likely to be segregated by gender than is the same yields when input use is the same the case in Africa, but the available studies (Quisumbing and Otsuka, 2001b; Hill and generally support the finding that female Vigneri, 2009). farmers are at least as efficient as their Men producing maize, beans and cowpeas male counterparts. For example, female- in Kenya achieve higher gross value of managed farms in Nepal produce less value output per hectare than women, but the per hectare than male-managed farms, but difference is accounted for by differences in the differences are nearly all accounted for input use (Saito, Mekonnen and Spurling, by lower input use (Thapa, 2008). Female- 1994). In western Kenya, female-headed managed farms in China are at least as households were found to have 23 percent profitable as those run by men, according to lower yields than male-headed households, data from the China National Rural Survey but the difference was caused by less-secure (Zhang, De Brauw and Rozelle, 2004). access to land and lower education levels Some studies compare labour productivity (Alene et al., 2008). An earlier study of rather than yields, but the results are smallholder farmers in western Kenya found consistent with the finding that yield that women’s maize yields were 16 percent differences are caused by differences in input lower than men’s, largely because they used use. The labour productivity of female farm substantially less fertilizer (Ongaro, 1990). workers in Bangladesh is at least as high as A nationally representative study in that of male workers when input use is the Malawi found that maize yields were same (Rahman, 2010). Labour productivity 12–19 percent higher on men’s plots, but studies for oil palm in Indonesia (Hasnah, when women were given the same level of Fleming and Coelli, 2004), for rice in Nepal fertilizer for use on experimental plots, they (Aly and Shields, 2010) and for vegetables in achieved the same yields (Gilbert, Sakala and Turkey (Bozoglu and Ceyhan, 2007) all show Benson, 2002). that female labour is at least as productive Considerable evidence is available from as male labour when differences in irrigation Nigeria from several states and for a wide and seed type are considered. variety of crops. In Oyo State, male and female farmers growing maize, yam, cassava, vegetables and legumes were found to be Production gains from closing the equally productive (Adeleke et al., 2008). In gender gap Osun State, female rice producers achieved 66 percent lower yields than male farmers If gender-specific differences in input use but the difference was attributable to could be overcome and female farmers could differences in input use (Oladeebo and achieve the same yields as male farmers, the Fajuyigbe, 2007). Similarly, in Ondo and Ogun States, female small-scale cassava 12 Some studies could not fully account for yield differences between male and female farmers because they did not farmers achieved lower yields and lower consider all the resource gaps women face (Zavale, Mabaye returns than their male counterparts because and Christy [2006], Uaiene and Channing [2009], and Lilja, they used fewer inputs and purchased inputs Randolph and Diallo [1998]).
- 54. 42 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 evidence suggests that the production gains countries where the gender gap is wider. could be substantial. The potential gains Increasing women’s access to land as well as cannot be calculated precisely because the complementary inputs in that case would necessary data are not available; however, generate broader socio-economic benefits a reasonable range can be estimated based than those captured by this analysis. on the yield gaps identified in the studies This approach provides admittedly discussed above and the amount of farm very rough estimates, but they suggest land that women manage. that closing the gender productivity gap As noted above, studies of the yield gap could increase agricultural output in the between male and female farmers provide developing world by a significant amount. estimates averaging 20–30 percent, and most Increased production would also imply attribute the difference to lower levels of increased food availability and reductions input use. Although most of these studies in undernourishment. The standard pertain to sub-Saharan Africa, similar input methodology used by FAO to estimate the gaps have been documented for all regions number of people who are undernourished in Chapter 3. Therefore, it is reasonable to calculates the average daily dietary energy assume that a similar range of yield gaps supply available for consumption in each exists in other regions. Closing the input country and applies country-specific criteria gap on the agricultural land held by women for its distribution and thresholds for could increase yields on their land to the minimum per capita energy requirements levels achieved by men. This would imply (see FAO, 2002 for details). People who an increase in production of 20–30 percent fall below this minimum threshold are on their land, and increases at the national considered chronically undernourished. level proportionate to the amount of land Domestic food production is a key controlled by women. This would increase component of the dietary energy supply, agricultural output in the developing so – assuming that the additional output countries for which data are available by an from closing the gender gap is consumed average of 2.5–4 percent.13 Assuming that domestically – closing the gender yield gap the input and yield gaps are representative could have a direct impact on reducing the of other developing countries, this would number of people who are undernourished. imply global gains of a similar magnitude. Inserting the potential output gains Of course, the potential production calculated above into the formula for gains calculated by this method are based estimating the number of undernourished on the existing distribution of land and a provides a rough quantitative estimate of stylized yield gap of 20–30 percent. This how closing the gender gap in agriculture implies that countries where women control could contribute to reducing hunger. If proportionately more land could achieve yield gaps of 20–30 percent were closed the greatest potential gains. It may be the and domestic production increased by 2.5– case, however, that the overall gender gap 4 percent, the number of undernourished in access to agricultural resources is, in fact, people in the countries for which data are wider where women control less land. The available could decline by 12–17 percent.14 actual gains from closing the gender gap An estimated 925 million people in the world in access to resources would be greater in were undernourished in 2010, of which 906 million were in developing countries (FAO, 2010g), Gains of this magnitude could 13 Data on the share of women agricultural holders are available for 52 countries. The methodology for therefore equate to 100–150 million fewer calculating potential gains starts with the definition of people living in hunger. For countries where output (Q) as yield (Y) times area (A), Q = Y*A. Next, for hunger is more widespread and women play the 20 percent productivity gap scenario, assume that a major role in the agriculture sector, the women farmer’s yields are only 80 percent those of men, i.e. Yf = 0.8*Ym. (The subscripts f and m denote female proportional declines could be even greater. and male, respectively.) Now write Q=Y*A as Q = Yf *P*A + Ym*(1-P)*A, where P is the share of land cultivated by women farmers. Solve this problem for Ym and then use Yf = 0.8*Ym to obtain Yf. Assuming the gender gap in 14 Data for both the share of women agricultural holders productive assets is closed, set Yf equal to Ym and find the and the number of people undernourished are available for new output level, Q*. 34 countries.
- 55. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 43 These potential output gains would contributes positively and significantly only be the first, direct, effect. Over time, to household food consumption (Garcia, higher productivity would have additional 1991). This was reinforced by evidence impacts such as increased demand by from Brazil, which showed that maternal farmers for labour and locally produced income exerts a larger effect on children’s goods and services (Hayami et al., 1978; nutritional outcome indicators than paternal FAO, 2004). Additional output could result income and that women spend considerably in lower commodity prices, depending on more than men on education, health, the responsiveness of demand and the and household services (Thomas, 1997). In degree of trade openness. Most households extended family households in Mexico, the in developing countries, including in rural impact of increasing family income on the areas, are net food buyers and would gain nutritional status of children depends on from a fall in staple food prices. Farm who earns the income; higher earnings by incomes could suffer, on the other hand, any female household member – not only unless markets are sufficiently developed so mothers – has substantial positive impacts as to handle the additional supply. on child nutrition, while this is not the case for male income earners (Djebbari, 2005). More recent evidence from Malawi confirms Other social and economic benefits that increasing women’s – but not men’s – of closing the gender gap access to credit increases total household expenditures on food and improves the long- In addition to increases in production and term food security of young female children income, closing the gender gap in agriculture (Hazarika and Guha-Khasnobis, 2008). would generate broader social and economic The fact that gender inequality is benefits by strengthening women’s direct particularly severe in Southern Asia helps access to, and control over, resources and explain, at least partly, why rates of child incomes. Evidence from Africa, Asia and Latin malnutrition there are twice those found America consistently shows that families in sub-Saharan Africa (Smith et al., 2003). benefit when women have greater status Indeed, despite surpassing sub-Saharan and power within the household. Increased Africa in terms of national income, control over income gives women a stronger democracy, food supplies, health services bargaining position over economic decisions and education, Southern Asia still trails in regarding consumption, investment and child malnutrition. This has been labelled production. When women have more the “Asian enigma”, which finds women’s influence over economic decisions, their status, sanitation and urbanization to be families allocate more income to food, the key factors in narrowing the gap in health, education, children’s clothing and children’s nutritional status. Recent evidence children’s nutrition.15 Social safety-net from Bangladesh confirms that children’s programmes in many countries now target long-term nutritional status is higher women specifically for these reasons (Box 8). in households where women are more A large number of studies have linked empowered (Bhagowalia et al., 2010). women’s income and greater bargaining Improved gender equality in access to power within the family to improved child opportunities and returns to assets not only nutritional status, which in turn influences improve nutrition, health and education health outcomes and educational attainment outcomes, but can also have a long-lasting (Smith et al., 2003). Evidence from the impact on economic growth by raising Philippines provided some of the earliest the level of human capital in society.16 data showing that increasing the share Closing the gender gap spurs economic of household income earned by mothers development, largely through the impact of female education on fertility, child 15 Important studies in this field include Behrman and Deolalikar (1988), Behrman and Wolfe (1989), Kennedy and Peters (1992), Kennedy and Haddad (1994), Hoddinott 16 Important studies in this field include Dollar and Gatti and Haddad (1995), Thomas (1997), Haddad (1999), Katz (1999), Klasen (2002), Knowles, Lorgelly and Owen (2002), (2000), Quisumbing and Maluccio (2000), Smith et al. Kalaitzidakis et al. (2002), Lagerlöf (2003) and Klasen and (2003) and Doss (2005). Lamanna (2009).
- 56. 44 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 BOX 8 Targeting transfer payments to women for social benefits Conditional transfer programmes are a the education, nutrition, and /or well-being type of safety net programme in which of their children. Post-factum evaluations cash or benefits in kind are transferred to of conditional transfer programmes have generally poor households on condition confirmed this to be the case: the impact that the household undertake certain on spending patterns goes beyond the types of human capital investment for simple income effect of the transfer, with the benefit of their children. Women are recipient households spending a larger often targeted as the recipients of such proportion of their incomes on food payments because evidence shows they (Schady and Rosero, 2008) and a relatively are more likely than men to prioritize larger proportion on more nutritious food child nutrition. The types of investments (Macours, Schady and Vakis, 2008). generally considered are in health – i.e. An implicit, yet important, idea pre- and post-natal health care, health underlying these programmes is that by check-ups or attendance at health directing the transfers to mothers, they clinics – and in education – generally strengthen the bargaining position of measured by enrolment and attendance women in the intra-household decision- rates. Conditional transfer programmes making process. Some conditional have rapidly gained popularity in the transfer programmes successfully also developing world. Starting from the target gender inequality directly. In Oportunidades (formerly known as Bangladesh and Pakistan, programmes PROGRESA – Education, Health and exist to promote girls’ enrolment in public Nutrition Programme) programme in education. In Bangladesh, the Female Mexico in 1997, they have expanded Secondary School Assistance Project worldwide, with all developing regions (FSSAP) provides a stipend to girls aged having some active conditional transfer 11–18 years for attending secondary programme, although with the largest school, while in Pakistan, the Punjab prevalence in Latin America. Education Sector Reform Programme Conditional transfer programmes can (PESRP) provides “scholarships” for be used directly and indirectly to address girls aged 10–14 to attend school. Both gender inequities. With the exception of a programmes have been very successful few secondary school programmes, in the in increasing enrolment: Khandker, great majority of them the beneficiaries are Pitt and Fuwa (2003) estimate that the the mothers. This choice is founded on the FSSAP increased the enrolment of girls overwhelming evidence that, when women by 12 percentage points, while the PESRP and mothers control a higher proportion increased it by 11 percentage points, of household income, families tend to according to an evaluation by Chaudhury spend a higher share of their budgets on and Parajuli (2010). mortality and the creation of human capital men and women, will again work to raise in the next generation. Falling fertility the level of human capital available in rates will, after some years, lead to what the working population. These growth Bloom and Williamson (1998) have termed studies suffer from the usual limitations: the “demographic gift”. The working-age it is impossible to assign the direction of population will grow faster than the rest of causality, and it could also be the case the population, reducing dependency rates that higher growth causes countries to and thus benefiting per capita growth. reduce gender inequality by economically It is also true that removing the gender empowering women. Nonetheless, the point gap in access to opportunities widens the remains that closing the gender gap in pool of talent available, which, assuming educational and employment opportunities that the talent is distributed equally among would boost long-term growth.
- 57. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 45 • Increasing agricultural production Key messages by this magnitude could reduce the number of undernourished people • Female farmers are just as efficient as by 12–17 percent, and would imply male farmers but they produce less significant progress towards achieving because they control less land, use fewer MDG 1C. This highlights the synergies inputs and have less access to important that exist between promoting gender services such as extension advice. equality and reducing extreme poverty • Closing the gender gap in access and and hunger. use of productive resources and services • When women control additional would unlock the productivity potential income, they spend more of it than of women and could increase output men do on food, health, clothing and substantially. Closing the gap could education for their children. This has increase agricultural output in the positive implications for immediate developing world by 2.5–4 percent, on well-being as well as long-run human average, with higher gains in countries capital formation and economic growth where women are more involved in through improved health, nutrition and agriculture and the gender gap is wider. education outcomes.
- 58. 46 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 5. Closing the gender gap in agriculture and rural employment Closing the gender gap in agriculture is them. In the parts of sub-Saharan Africa not an easy task, but progress can be made where customary property regimes prevail, and simple interventions can sometimes community leaders tend to favour males over be very powerful. Carefully designed females in the allocation of land, both in policies, strategies and projects can work terms of quantity and quality. Where private within existing cultural norms, through property prevails, cultural norms generally the public and private sectors, in ways that dictate that men own and inherit land while benefit both women and men (Box 9). women gain access to land through their Specific recommendations for closing the relationship with a male relative. gender gap in access to land, rural labour markets, financial services, social capital and Eliminate discrimination under the law technology include the steps outlined below. Where statutory legal rights to land remain gender-biased, a key strategy is to review and reform all national legislation that Closing the gap in access to land17 relates to land and natural resources. Although land laws are the starting point, Governments have long recognized the related legislation should also be considered. importance of secure land tenure in Family and marriage laws, inheritance promoting equitable, sustainable agricultural provisions and housing law are all important development. Women have not always legal areas that play a supporting role in benefited from general land distribution and ensuring equitable treatment of men and titling efforts, however, and in some cases women in control over land.18 have seen their customary rights eroded as formal rights have been extended to male Recognize the importance and power of heads of household. Many governments have customary land rights attempted to strengthen women’s tenure Many countries have extended formal legal rights within marriage and as individuals, rights to women over land inheritance and but these efforts are often frustrated by a ownership, but customary practices – and combination of legal and cultural practices the inability of many women to assert that still favour men. their legal rights – mean that formal legal In Latin America, for example, inheritance provisions are often not followed. In many is the most frequent source of transfer of countries, tradition is stronger than law ownership of land, but daughters are much when it comes to land issues. Opposition less likely than sons to inherit land. Many from land reform authorities, peasant unions, countries in the region have instituted legal village authorities and male household reforms that have strengthened married heads can frustrate land reform efforts to women’s land rights, but land-titling efforts extend legal land rights to both single and have not always facilitated the practice of married women. Legal rights are difficult to including both husbands’ and wives’ names. enforce if they are not seen as legitimate; In Asia, women typically have legal rights to thus recognizing customary land rights and land ownership, but often struggle to assert working with community leaders is essential to ensure that women’s rights are protected. 17 This section is based on FAO (2010h), which provides an extensive review of the relevant literature. Important studies in this field include Agarwal (1994), Agarwal (2003), 18 Additional information on women and their status under Lastarria-Cornhiel (1997), Deere (2003), Deere and León the law is available at the World Bank website “Women, (2003), and Deere and Doss (2006). business and the law” (http://wbl.worldbank.org/).
- 59. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 47 BOX 9 Mama Lus Frut: working together for change Palm oil production in Papua New Guinea collection to take into account women’s is dominated by smallholder farmers, time constraints. Then they distributed and harvesting oil palm trees is highly special nets that made it easier to carry differentiated by gender: men cut fresh the loose fruits to the roadside. Neither fruit bunches from the trees, while women initiative was successful, because they did collect loose fruits from the ground and not correctly assess why women were not carry them to the roadside where they collecting the fruit. are picked up by operators from the mill. Finally, the Mama Lus Frut scheme These gender roles are firmly engrained in was introduced in 1997 to ensure that the local culture and institutions. women received payment for their work. Family labour is mobilized for the Women received individual harvest nets harvest. While it was implicitly assumed and harvest payment cards, and they in the past that the household head received their own monthly income would compensate family members for based on the weight of the fruit they their labour with the income gained from collected, deposited directly into their oil palm production, in reality, female personal bank accounts. As a result, the household members were often not being number of women participating in the compensated for their work. In many cases, scheme more than doubled and the this led to intra-household struggles and amount of loose fruits delivered to the to women withdrawing their labour from mills increased significantly. By 2001, loose fruit collection and focusing instead 26 percent of smallholder income from on vegetable production, which allowed oil palm was directly paid to women. Men them to earn, and keep, an income. reacted positively because the gender The local oil palm industry realized that division of labour remained unchanged between 60 and 70 percent of loose fruit and intra-household conflicts over palm oil were not being collected. The industry harvesting decreased. tried to raise the share of loose fruits in total harvest through several initiatives. Sources: Kosczberski, 2001, and Warner and First, they delayed the timing of loose fruit Bauer, 2002. Indeed, strengthening traditional use-rights and courts. Gender-balanced employment for widows and divorced women may provide in these institutions can also help. Where more secure tenure for them even in cases appropriate, officials’ performance should where there is resistance to full ownership. be evaluated against gender-related targets. The involvement of women’s organizations in Educate officials and evaluate them on the process can facilitate the achievement of gender targets gender equity targets. Furthermore, gender Local land officials may be unaware of targets for access and tenure security should gender equity laws and objectives or lack be monitored and officials held accountable the mechanisms, tools and will to implement for meeting them. them. Legislation needs to be supported In Nicaragua the property legalization by regulations and gender-specific rules process, which the women’s affairs office and guidelines that educate officials in helped coordinate, included gender agriculture ministries, land institutions and sensitization training for officials and other agencies regarding the implementation information campaigns on the inclusion of of the gender position of the law. Relevant women in the process (FAO, 2010h). This training is also required for staff in the has helped raise awareness and acceptance various institutions that carry out and enforce among men and women of women’s land land rights, including land registries, cadastral rights, although several rounds of training offices, titling agencies, land magistrates were necessary.
- 60. 48 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 Educate women regarding land rights of women in local government. The 2003 Raising women’s legal literacy, increasing constitution mandates that 30 percent of all the dissemination and accessibility of decision-making representatives be women. information and establishing supporting Similarly, in the United Republic of legal services are essential in promoting Tanzania, village land councils, which settle gender equity in land programmes. Legal land disputes, comprise seven members, of literacy means that women are aware of whom three must be female (Ikdahl, 2008). their legal rights and know how they can be Ethiopia’s land certification process has enforced and protected. Officials responsible been hailed as effective, low-cost, rapid and for implementing land programmes must transparent, and gender equity goals have actively educate both men and women been advanced because land administration regarding gender equity provisions and committees at the local level are required to the possibility of joint titling, rather than have a least one female member. treating the decision as a private matter In the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, between spouses (Ikdahl, 2008; Brown, 2003). women were not receiving titles until the Civil society organizations can be Lao Women’s Union started to participate instrumental in promoting legal literacy. In in the land-titling programme. The Union Mozambique, when land legislation was works at the national and local levels and integrated into literacy programmes or when has been active in informing both men and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) women about the titling process and their distributed land law information repeatedly legal rights, as well as helping to formulate over a long time, women were more likely to gender-sensitive procedures and train local know their rights to land (FAO, 2010h). field staff in their application. Precisely because they are so important, Women must be an integral part of the land tenure issues are often contentious, and implementation of land programmes. women seeking to assert their rights may Training community members as paralegals, be subject to pressure from their families topographers and conflict mediators can and communities. The provision of legal help build community skills and increase the protections and affordable legal services probability that women’s concerns will be are vital in this respect. Mobile legal clinics addressed. with staff trained in land issues may be a useful solution during land formalization Adjust bureaucratic procedures programmes. Simple steps such as making space for two names on land registration forms can Ensure that women’s voices are heard be a powerful tool for encouraging joint Meaningful representation constitutes an titling and protecting the rights of women important step towards helping women within marriage. In Brazil, for example, gain access to established rights. Women’s women were guaranteed equal rights to organizations can be effective in promoting land distributed through agrarian reform local participation, building a consensus and in 1988, but few women were registered as raising consciousness at all levels. The role beneficiaries because the registration forms played by women’s organizations is especially mentioned them only as dependants. The valuable as women are generally not well forms were changed in 2001 to include the represented in decision-making bodies, and names of both spouses as co-applicants or they are often instrumental in pressuring for beneficiaries (Deere, 2003). government programmes to include women Rural women often lack the documents as equal participants. (such as birth records) required to obtain Rwanda provides an example of how state land titles, so facilitating access to such institutions and civil society organizations can documents may be necessary. Placing work together to secure women’s land rights. photographs of owners on land certificates Rwanda successfully reformed its inheritance can reduce the likelihood of cheating and and land tenure legislation and now has manipulation. Ethiopia’s land programme, among the best legal conditions for gender for example, requires that certificates for equity in these areas. Enactment of the new women bear their photographs to help laws was made possible by the participation ensure that they retain control over their
- 61. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 49 land. This measure has been credited with reproductive roles, which reflects social improving their security of tenure and has norms and child-rearing responsibilities. As facilitated the renting-out of land by women noted in Box 3 (see page 14), in most rural (Deininger et al., 2007). areas women undertake most of the work related to child care, food preparation Gather sex-disaggregated data for and other household responsibilities such policy design and monitoring as collecting fuel and water. Women are Gathering sex-disaggregated data can help also heavily involved in unpaid agricultural improve the design and effectiveness of production. When all household activities land-titling programmes. In Cambodia, for are taken into account, women generally example, a land-titling project conducted a work longer hours than men. Women face social assessment before implementation, multiple trade-offs in the allocation of their revealing useful insights into gender time and, without policies and investment in inequality and land ownership that were labour-saving technologies, labour market subsequently used to inform the programme participation is often not an option – even implementation. The fact that 78 percent when the opportunities are available. of new titles were issued in the joint names Labour-saving technologies are discussed of husbands and wives testifies to project’s separately in the section on “Closing the success in ensuring the inclusion of women. technology gap” (see page 56). Improving women’s labour market participation also requires that governments Closing the gap in rural labour create a good investment climate through markets19 strengthening property rights and providing public goods such as roads, electricity and For most women in developing countries water. Women’s unequal access to assets and labour is their key asset. Agriculture is of resources such as land limits their options for particular importance as a source of self- and self-employment. Easier access to firewood, wage-employment, especially for women water and markets relaxes women’s time (and men) who lack training or resources constraints and can make an appreciable for employment in other sectors. Viewed difference in their ability to participate in in this context, agriculture also contributes employment and self-employment. Women to poverty alleviation. Agricultural need to be involved in investment planning growth generates demand for labour and right from the beginning. In Peru, for adds upward pressure on real wages for example, women’s direct participation in unskilled labour. Both of these have positive the design of a rural roads project ensured implications for poor men and women, but that greater priority was given to their especially so for the latter (see Chapter 3). needs. Upgrading was not restricted to roads The principle that both employment and connecting communities, but was extended job quality matter is reflected in target 1B to many non-motorized transport tracks of MDG 1: “Achieve full and productive used mostly by women and ignored by other employment and decent work for all, road programmes. The resultant reduction in including women and young people”. The time spent obtaining food and fuel supplies United Nations’ “Decent Work” agenda for enabled women to participate more in achieving MDG 1B promotes four objectives markets and fairs, and 43 percent of them that include employment generation as reported earning higher incomes (World well as social protection, enforcement of Bank, 2008). labour standards and regulations, and social dialogue. Reduce gender inequalities in human capital Target women’s multiple trade-offs Women remain significantly overrepresented Perhaps the gender issue that has most among the illiterate (UN, 2009). Improved relevance for labour market participation access to education and better-quality is that of time allocated to productive and education will help reduce some of the wage gap and, more importantly, allow women 19 The analysis in this section draws on Termine (2010). to diversify by widening the opportunities
- 62. 50 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 available to them. In countries where part of the Ethiopian Government’s food agriculture is a major source of employment security strategy and reaches over 7 million for women, skill building should address chronically food-insecure individuals. Support relevant skills and knowledge gaps and focus for pregnant and lactating women is one on extension services and vocational training. important benefit for many women. At the A higher probability of obtaining a job in a community level, the creation of water- particular sector will also influence parents’ harvesting facilities and land rehabilitation educational choices for their children. In initiatives is a positive development for the Philippines, women are more likely to both women and men. Women also gain obtain non-farm employment than men and from the programme through the change this partly explains the higher educational in men’s attitudes towards women’s work attainment of girls (Quisumbing, Estudillo capabilities as a result of regular joint work and Otsuka, 2003). on public works. The programme has helped Policy interventions need to focus increase household food consumption and on school enrolment for girls, health contributes to the costs of providing for interventions such as immunization and children’s needs, including clothing and nutritional interventions that target women’s education and health-care costs (Holmes specific needs throughout their life cycle. and Jones, 2010). These benefits have been Conditional transfer programmes (see particularly valuable in the case of female- Box 8, page 44), which are often targeted headed households who, prior to the at the women in the household, have been programme, had fewer alternative avenues used successfully to improve the education, for support. health and nutrition of children and women In India, the National Rural Employment (Quisumbing and Pandolfelli, 2010). Guarantee Act (NREGA) was implemented in 2005 with the goal of improving the Capitalize on public works programmes purchasing power of rural people. It Informal labour is a major source of income provides a legal guarantee for 100 days of for unskilled women in general, but employment per year for adult members of especially so in times of crisis. Public works any rural household who are willing to do schemes can provide support to unskilled unskilled manual work on public projects workers, including women. These are public in return for the statutory minimum wage. labour-intensive infrastructure-development It also aims to empower rural women initiatives that provide cash or food-based by promoting their participation in the payments in exchange for work. Such workforce through a quota: at least one- programmes have a number of advantages: third of all workers who have registered and they provide income transfers to the poor requested work under the scheme in each and are often designed to smooth income state must be women. Moreover, the Act during “slack” or “hungry” periods of the stipulates the payment of equal wages for year; they address infrastructure shortages men and women. Women’s status appears (rural roads, irrigation, water-harvesting to be strengthened when they are employed facilities, tree plantations, facilities for through the programme, particularly schools and health clinics); they are typically when they have access to income through self-targeting, in view of the relatively low their own bank accounts. NREGA’s design benefit levels and heavy physical labour incorporates the provision of crèche facilities, requirements (Subbarao, 2003), and thus intended as a means of enhancing women’s entail lower administrative costs than many participation, but the provision of child-care other safety-net measures. They are also facilities remains a serious implementation politically popular owing to the requirement challenge (Jandu, 2008; Holmes and Jones, that beneficiaries must work (Bloom, 2009), 2010). whereas generating support for direct cash transfers, particularly from middle- Strengthen women’s rights and voice class voters, can be more challenging (e.g. The lack of voice suffered by women, Behrman, 2007). especially in rural communities, is both The Ethiopian Productive Safety Net cause and consequence of the gender Programme was launched in 2005 as differences observed in rural labour markets.
- 63. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 51 Institutional changes can help achieve decent work opportunities and economic Closing the financial services gap21 and social empowerment through labour markets and at the same time reduce Women’s access to financial services is gender inequalities in the context of conditioned by their legal, social and informal employment in agriculture. Public economic position within the community policies and legislation can influence public and household. Some of the interventions attitudes and the values that underlie required to close the gender gap in access gender inequalities. Government legislation to financial services are similar to those is essential for guaranteeing equitable needed for other asset categories. For employment conditions that protect workers example, giving women equal rights to in both formal and casual employment, enter into financial contracts is a crucial first the latter being of particular relevance to step in countries where legal and customary women. For example, governments can restrictions prevent women from opening support the organization of women in savings accounts, taking loans or buying informal jobs. At the same time, collective insurance policies in their own right. bargaining and voluntary standards can be Microfinance programmes have been important, in conjunction with more formal highly effective in overcoming the barriers legislation. Rural producer organizations faced by women in accessing formal and workers’ unions can play a vital role credit markets, as discussed in Chapter 3. in negotiating fairer and safer conditions Considerations for improving women’s access of employment, including better product to financial services are considered below. prices and wages, and in promoting gender equity and decent employment for men and Promote financial literacy women. Financial institutions, governments and NGOs Nevertheless, prevailing vertical and should offer financial literacy training to horizontal institutional arrangements (i.e. ensure that women can compare products producer organizations, cooperatives, and make decisions based on a clear workers’ unions, outgrower schemes) are understanding of the characteristics and generally controlled and managed by conditions of the products available (Mayoux men. There is thus a need for effective and Hartl, 2009). Such efforts could involve empowerment of women among the steps such as disseminating information and membership and leadership positions promotion materials in places or through in these organizations to ensure that channels that women can access, simplifying rural women have a stronger voice and application procedures and adapting them decision-making power.20 At the same to women’s literacy and numeracy levels, time, it is necessary to promote gender and simplifying insurance contracts and sensitivity within representative bodies communicating their conditions using through the training of men and women language and examples that less-literate representatives, as this does not derive women can easily understand. automatically from women’s participation. Women representatives do not always have Design products that meet the needs of the capacity to address issues in a gender- women sensitive way, especially when gender roles The past few years have seen noticeable are perceived as rigid or if there exists strong progress in extending insurance products opposition or conflict with men’s interest. to small producers and to rural areas. Crop Gender sensitivity training is also relevant for staff in institutions that work with women and implement gender-focused policies. 21 The material in this section is based on Fletschner and Kenney (2010). Important studies in this field include Berger (1989), Goetz and Gupta (1996), Pitt and Khandker (1998), Hashemi, Schuler and Riley (1996), Baydas, Meyer and Alfred (1994), Fletschner (2009), Fletschner and Carter (2008), Ashraf, Karlan and Yin (2010, Pitt, Khandker and 20 Additional information on women’s parliamentary Cartwright (2006), Holvoet (2004), Hazarika and Guha- representation is available at the website of the Inter- Khasnobis (2008), Besley (1995), Boucher, Carter and Parliamentary Union website (www.ipu.org). Guirkinger (2008) and World Bank (2007a).
- 64. 52 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 insurance and livestock insurance, for into a major income shock for resource-poor instance, are increasingly being offered as households, and women may be particularly safety nets to farmers. Generally, however, vulnerable because they are more likely to be such products are designed without due assigned the role of caregiver. Illness in the attention to gender differences, and the family thus reduces women’s ability to engage degree to which women access them is in income-generating activities and weakens unclear. A notable exception to this pattern their ability to influence family decisions. is the approach taken by BASIX, a large Life events such as birth, death, marriage microfinance institution in India that offers and other cultural ceremonies also constitute weather insurance to women’s self-help shocks to rural households. Most micro- group members in drought-prone areas insurance plans described here cover (Fletschner and Kenney, 2010). pregnancy and birth-related expenses. Some A number of multilateral financial offer life and funeral insurance (Sriram, 2005; institutions and NGOs offer health insurance Mgobo, 2008), but informal safety nets, such to women (Table 2). Illness can translate as burial societies, remain important sources TABLE 2 Selected examples of health insurance products targeted towards women Provider Beneficiaries Details and country Bangladesh Rural Originally BRAC members Year started: 2001 Advancement Committee only; since 2007 open to all Members: 10 000 (as of 2004) (Matin, Imam and (BRAC) community members (poor Ahmed, 2005) Bangladesh rural women are policy- Results: 55 percent did not renew after first year; holders) poorer households less likely to know about programme and better-off households more likely to enrol; some clients found it difficult to pay annual premium; others who did not use services but enrolled found it to be a “waste” (ibid.) SKS SKS borrowers, who are Year started: 2007, expanded in 2009 to cover Bangladesh primarily women (spouse and spouses (usually husbands) up to two children covered) Members: 210 000 (as of 2008); required for all new borrowers or renewing borrowers (as of 2007) (Chen, Comfort and Bau, 2008) Results: Women aged 16–30 are heaviest users (ibid.) Self Employed Women’s SEWA members and non- Year started: 1992 Association (SEWA) members (women are policy- Members: 110 000 (as of 2003), two-thirds from India holders) rural areas (Ranson et al., 2006) Results: Found to reduce clients’ vulnerability to shocks overall, but slow processing costly to clients; initially coverage was mandatory for all borrowers, but once it became voluntary, 80 percent dropped coverage (McCord, 2001) SPANDANA Borrowers (compulsory, as Year started: 2003 (Sriram, 2005) India part of loan product) Members: 84 000, including spouses (as of 2004) (Sriram, 2005; CGAP, 2004) (CGAP, 2004). In 2007, 96.5 percent of borrowers were women (Mix Market, 2010) Port Sudan Association Women NGO members Year started: 2007 (Mayoux and Hartl, 2009) for Small Enterprise (individual low-cost access to Number of members: unknown Development (PASED) state health insurance) / Learning for (Mayoux and Hartl, 2009) Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) Sudan Kenya Women Finance Medium and low-income Year started: 2008 Trust Limited (KWFT) women, with option to cover Members: unknown, potentially 100 000 (total Kenya family members KWFT members) (Mgobo, 2008) Zurich Financial Services WWB affiliates (women Year started: 2009 and Women’s World member MFIs) Members: not yet known, but WWB network has Banking (WWB) 21 million members (WWB, 2010) (Global)
- 65. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 53 of income-smoothing for rural households, reducing the need to travel long distances, especially for women, who may face the loss allowing them to sidestep social constraints of all assets upon a husband’s death (Dercon that restrict women’s mobility or the people et al., 2007; Mapetla, Matobo and Setoi, with whom they can interact (Duncombe 2007). and Boateng, 2009). In another example, a bank in Malawi that hosts small-scale savings Promote a women-friendly and has introduced innovations that give women empowering culture greater control over their income, such as Lenders and other financial institutions the use of a biometric card that allows only should promote a gender-sensitive culture the card holder to withdraw money from the throughout their organization (World account and the facility to open an account Bank, FAO and IFAD, 2009). Women should without an identity card, which many people be consulted and included in discussions, in rural areas do not possess. The bank has decision-making, planning and provision of successfully attracted large numbers of services. Marketing strategies, promotion women to open bank accounts (Cheston 2007, and service delivery should be gender- cited in Quisumbing and Pandolfelli, 2010). sensitive. Bringing men into projects and Financial institutions in countries such as groups can have positive effects on gender Brazil, India, Kenya, the Philippines and South relations and improve the success of the Africa have been able to reach rural customers project, but also risks losing the focus on at a lower cost by handling transactions women (Armendáriz and Roome, 2008). through post offices, petrol stations and A large body of evidence shows that stores, and many telecommunication service lending to women helps households diversify providers allow their customers to make and raise incomes and is associated with payments or transfer funds (World Bank, other benefits such as increased livelihood 2007a). These more accessible outlets can be diversification, greater labour market particularly beneficial for rural women who participation, more education and better have difficulty travelling to central business health. It does not necessarily empower locations. women, however, if they do not control the assets that are built or increased (Garikipati, 2008). Closing the gap in social capital Products designed to strengthen women’s through women’s groups position include the Grameen Bank’s loans for purchasing land or houses requiring Building women’s social capital can be that they be registered in women’s names an effective way to improve information and the loans offered by Credit and Savings exchange and resource distribution, to pool Household Enterprise in India for parents to risks and to ensure that women’s voices buy assets for their daughters, enabling them are heard in decision-making at all levels. to generate income, delay their marriage Community-based organizations, including and have assets they can take with them women’s groups, can be an effective means when they marry (Mayoux and Hartl, 2009). of generating social capital. Functioning as Along similar lines, a host of products have production cooperatives, savings associations been designed to benefit other women in and marketing groups, women’s groups the community indirectly (Mayoux and Hartl, can promote production and help women 2009): for instance, loans for businesses that maintain control over the additional income employ women, or for businesses that offer they earn, as has been demonstrated by services such as child care that benefit other a project based around polyculture fish women. production in Bangladesh. As the project proved successful in providing additional Use technology and innovative delivery incomes, the position of women within channels the household and community was also Technological innovations such as prepaid strengthened (Naved, 2000). cards and mobile phone plans to make loan Achieving scale through pooling resources payments and transfer cash make it easier can help women overcome some of the for women to gain access to capital by constraints faced by individual farmers.
- 66. 54 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 In Kenya, women farmers pooled their and Jiggins, 2002). Women-only groups can land parcels and organized themselves to be an effective stepping stone to graduating establish savings associations and to deal into mixed-sex organizations or joining with stockists and traders. In this way, they established groups. were able to solve problems experienced Self-help groups have also proved to be in acquiring access to land, credit and an effective method for connecting women information (Spring, 2000). An impressive with financial institutions. Such groups may example of achieving scale is the Self operate at the village level and typically Employed Women’s Association (SEWA), require their members to meet regularly. which was founded in 1972 in Ahmedabad, Savings are collected from each member and India. This started as a small membership either deposited in rural banks or loaned organization for poor women working in to other group members. After a group has the informal sector. Today, it has more than demonstrated its capacity to repay loans, one million members in 14 districts across rural banks typically leverage the group’s India and aims at organizing groups with savings and provide additional capital that regard to services, access to markets and group members may use for agricultural fair treatment. Its largest cooperative is purposes (World Bank, FAO and IFAD, 2009). the SEWA Bank, which in 2007–08 had over There is evidence that working through 300 000 accounts with about US$16.6 million groups can help women retain control over in deposits (see Box 10). Established the loans they receive and enhance the associations and networks are not always returns to investments in women-managed accessible to women, as demonstrated by enterprises (Garikipati, 2008). another example, from southwest China. While groups can be an important way Here women found it difficult to access the of increasing women’s voice, there can male-dominated system of networks relating sometimes be an over-reliance on this to the formal plant-breeding system (Song mechanism. Women’s groups, like any BOX 10 India’s Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) The main goal of the Self Employed leaders. The low literacy levels of female Women’s Association (SEWA) is to participants are a major challenge to organize women to achieve full effective training delivery. SEWA also employment and self-reliance. In order to offers functional literacy training that achieve this, SEWA sets up small self-help is group-based and facilitated by a local groups that meet monthly in members’ trainer from the community. The training fields, homes or community rooms. focuses on reading skills and is designed Farmers choose to join these groups to around women’s specific needs. share mutual interests and concerns and SEWA’s village resource centres help to solve their problems collectively. For farmers, through the self-help groups, example, in the Sabarkantha district of to identify the potential benefits Gujarat State, SEWA supported small-scale of new technologies, evaluate their women farmers in creating a federation, appropriateness and participate in the Sabarkantha Women Farmer’s technology development processes. The Association, and conducted a watershed resource centres also provide farmers with conservation campaign in seven villages. good-quality inputs, market information SEWA’s facilitation approach includes and technical advice. SEWA’s cooperatives capacity building provided by professional are authorized seed distributors of the organizations. These organizations Gujarat State Seed Corporation and train SEWA members in managerial and provide timely and reasonably priced leadership skills, providing training for quality seeds (up to 20 percent below self-organization and collective action local market prices). The village resource to assist members in becoming confident centres communicate current output
- 67. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 55 collective action process, face challenges clearly the specific issue they are trying to and costs. Membership fees may exclude address in group formation, and that using resource-poor women from joining, and existing, sometimes informal, groups and membership criteria such as land ownership networks has proved more successful than would bar landless women from becoming initiating them from scratch. members. Timing and length of meetings Mixed-sex groups can be more effective may interfere with women’s daily tasks. where joint action is required, such as in Building trust within newly formed groups natural resource management (Pandolfelli, can take a significant amount of time. Meinzen-Dick and Dohrn, 2008). In order for Women may also not be interested in women to participate actively in mixed-sex joining a group because the group does not groups, the groups must address women’s address their main concerns. Quisumbing problems and should be set up to allow the and Pandolfelli (2008) report results from a participation of more than one member of a project in the Philippines that encouraged household, if required (Meinzen-Dick et al., women to monitor a lake to assess whether 2010). Mixed groups should also allow for or not soil conservation techniques reduced women’s voices to be heard. A case study silting. Women’s participation was low, on Ethiopia found that meetings with only however, because their main interest was in women or with an equal number of men health issues. When the project started to and women increased women’s willingness emphasize the relationship between health to voice their opinion (German and Taye and water quality, women’s participation 2008). The specifics of group mechanisms, increased. Understanding the motivations such as the management of funds and for joining a group is therefore essential in sharing of benefits, and the share of women ensuring group sustainability (Pandolfelli, in leadership positions, will also play a Meinzen-Dick and Dohrn, 2008). Policy- significant role in encouraging women to makers and practitioners need to understand participate. prices to female leaders in each village well as their communication facilities such cluster through regular SMS messages, as the SEWA radio station. The SEWA thereby enabling the self-help groups approach is accountable and inclusive to bargain for better prices for their owing to its grassroots foundations and produce. the effectiveness of service provision Among the SEWA organizations that through self-help groups. SEWA is enable market access for small-scale also powerful because of its internal farmers, the Rural Distribution Network cohesiveness and its linkages with external (RUDI) plays a special role. RUDI acts as a partners such as government departments, link between farmers and consumers by universities, research and development making regularly used goods available agencies, NGOs and private companies. to villagers. Grains, spices and salt The 2 140 SEWA self-help groups from various districts are transported often radically improve women’s lives by to a processing centre and dispatched increasing their income and food security to selling centres. In this way, RUDI and by enabling them to seize new provides an outlet to farmer groups and opportunities. For example, the creation employment to saleswomen. of the Sabarkantha Women Farmer’s SEWA’s approach is particularly Cooperative enabled women farmers to successful because it is an integrated reclaim 3 000 hectares of ravine lands in process. Self-help groups and SEWA are 73 villages. Incomes increased from an closely linked through SEWA institutions average of 5 000 Indian rupees (about such as their microfinance and insurance US$ 112 ) to as much as 15 000 Indian agencies and their training facilities, as rupees a year.
- 68. 56 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 The ability to organize mixed-sex groups could be made much less onerous and time- will depend on the gender segregation consuming through the adoption of simple within a community. In communities with a technologies. high level of gender segregation, single-sex Water is of particular importance to groups may lead to more desirable outcomes rural households because it is necessary for women (Pandolfelli, Meinzen-Dick and for agricultural and household chores, Dohrn, 2008). Sometimes, however, excluding but men and women often have different men can generate unnecessary obstacles. priorities with regard to water use. Women A project introducing the new livelihood are frequently responsible for collecting all strategy of mud-crab production to supply water used domestically, i.e. drinking water, hotels in Unguja Island, United Republic of sanitation and health. The introduction of Tanzania, excluded men and the resultant water sources in villages can significantly anger among the men added transaction and reduce the time spent by women and girls input costs as women had to rely on a small fetching water (IFAD, 2007). For example, number of male fishers for seedstock and the construction and rehabilitation of water feedstuff (Coles and Mitchell, 2010). Projects sources in six rural provinces of Morocco that intervene within the local socio-cultural reduced the time that women and young dynamics should avoid “default” options girls spent fetching water by 50–90 percent. and, instead, base their interventions on the Primary school attendance for girls in these specific context and the underlying problem. provinces rose by 20 percent over a period of four years, which was partly attributed to the fact that girls spent less time fetching water Closing the technology gap (World Bank, 2003). Water projects that meet multiple Closing the gap in women’s access to a livelihood objectives and take gender issues broad range of technologies could help free properly into account are more likely to be their time for more productive activities, sustainable (Quisumbing and Pandolfelli, enhancing their agricultural productivity, 2010). In Manzvire village, Zimbabwe, for improving the market returns they receive example, a borehole rehabilitation project and empowering them to make choices that involved men and women in the decision- are better for themselves and their families. making process regarding the appropriate Closing the technology gap requires that technology and sites for new water points, the necessary technologies exist to meet and women were trained in maintaining the the priority needs of female farmers, that new water sources. Their active involvement women are aware of their usefulness, and provided women with a strong sense of that they have the means to acquire them. ownership for the sources; for example, they established saving schemes that provided Develop technologies and environments funds to buy spare parts. One of the project’s that address women’s needs results was that four times more boreholes Previous chapters documented that rural than targeted were rehabilitated (Katsi, women work very long days balancing a 2006). variety of tasks related to crop and livestock Firewood collection for cooking purposes production, wage employment, child care can also occupy a large share of women’s and additional household obligations. time and is – quite literally – a heavy burden. The latter, such as food preparation and Women in rural Senegal, for example, collecting firewood and water, occupy a walk several kilometres a day carrying large amount of women’s time and limit loads of over 20 kg of wood (Seck, 2007). women’s participation in more productive Deforestation and unfavourable weather activities. Studies from Kenya, Uganda events, such as drought, can increase and the United Republic of Tanzania, for the time spent on firewood collection. example, show that children and women Fuel-efficient stoves can reduce firewood in rural areas fetch water from the main requirements by 40–60 percent (FAO, 2006b), water source on average four times per day in addition to reducing indoor pollution and require about 25 minutes for each trip and the time required for cooking. Locally (Thompson et al., 2001). Many of these tasks manufactured stoves can also provide
- 69. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 57 income-earning opportunities for rural access to them. Conducting baseline surveys artisans. In western Kenya, for example, of households and communities before new the introduction of the Upesi stove led to technologies are introduced may help predict considerable reductions in smoke levels. how men and women will be affected Women who used the stove reported time- by them (Quisumbing and Pandolfelli, savings of about ten hours per month. 2010). Greater involvement of women in The stove saves up to 40 percent of fuel agricultural research and higher education compared with traditional three-stone could also enhance the development of fires and has a lifespan of about four female-friendly technology. years. Upesi stoves are produced by local Improved crops with higher yields and women’s groups, generating income-earning better adapted to pests and diseases can opportunities for rural women (Okello, also be labour-saving, by reducing the time 2005). Woodlots, agroforestry and improved for cropping operations. Certain crops, for fallows can further reduce the time spent in example cassava and other root and tuber collecting firewood by bringing the sources crops, have lower labour requirements of firewood closer to the home. These and allow for more flexibility in cropping measures require secure tenure as well as operations. Varieties that are harvested labour inputs and investments for which in seasons with low labour requirements benefits will only be realized after a number can ease labour bottlenecks. Integrated of years (FAO, 2006b). pest management techniques can decrease Appropriate farm tools for women can labour requirements and costs for pesticide also reduce drudgery and time spent in the application, reduce farmer exposure to field. Farm tools that are predominantly hazardous chemicals and increase yields. used in operations dominated by women, Conservation agriculture, or no-tillage for example weeding or post-harvest systems, decreases the labour needed for activities, are often not gender-specific. In land preparation and weeding, because the fact, technology developers often think of field is covered with cover crops and seeding technologies as being gender-neutral, but on is done directly without preparing the average women tend to be of lower weight seedbed (FAO, 2006b). Biological nitrogen- and height compared with men and may not fixation technologies to improve soil fertility, have equal muscular strength (Singh, Puna Ji such as agroforestry innovations or grain Gite and Agarwal, 2006). Improved farming legumes, can raise productivity and save tools can facilitate seed-bed preparation, labour. planting, weeding and harvesting activities. For example, a case study in Burkina Faso, Improve extension services Senegal, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe Extension services are important for showed that long-handle hoes could ease the diffusing technology and good practices, burden of the work for women compared but reaching female farmers requires careful with traditional short-handle hoes, but consideration. In some contexts, but not all, they were not acceptable in some of the it is culturally more acceptable for female countries because standing up was associated farmers to interact with female extension with laziness (IFAD/FAO/FARMESA, 1998). agents. Whether they are male or female, Another study from India demonstrated that extension agents must be sensitive to the women who used a groundnut decorticator needs and constraints faced by their female were able to decorticate about 14 times clients. Extension services for women must more groundnuts and used significantly less consider all the roles of women; women’s physical effort than women who decorticated needs as farmers are often neglected in groundnuts by hand. When preparing land favour of programmes aimed at household with a new hand tool designed for making responsibilities. ridges for vegetable crops, women were able Hiring female extension agents can be to double the number of rows finished in an effective means of reaching female one hour (Singh, Puna Ji Gite and Agarwal, farmers. The United Republic of Tanzania, 2006). Thus, attention should be paid to for example, raised the share of female developing appropriate, context-specific extension agents to 30 percent in the technologies as well as enhancing women’s mid-1990s, because many female farmers
- 70. 58 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 indicated that “they felt freer to discuss 23 percent higher increases in income from problems with them ... and their time livestock production than participants from preferences were better met” (Due, male-headed households and were able to Magayane and Temu, 1997). This preference nearly double per capita agricultural income. is not universal, however, so in many cases FFS were easily accessible to women as well properly trained male extension agents may as to poor farmers and farmers with low be able to provide equally effective services. literacy levels. Farmers particularly valued Male extension agents must be sensitized the participatory learning approach and the to the realities of rural women and the ability to do practical experiments using new quality of information provided to women technologies in the field (Davis et al., 2009). improved. This requires careful and location- When targeting female participation in specific analysis of their situation. Cultural the FFS, time constraints play a significant barriers could be overcome by organizing role. A case study of FFS for integrated pest women in groups and possibly providing management in rice in Sri Lanka showed that separate training for male and female they can take up to 15 half-day meetings in a farmers. Extension systems will also have single season (Tripp, Wijeratne and Piyadasa, to be more innovative and flexible to 2005). Crop preferences or crop operations account for time and mobility constraints. relevant to women farmers also determine Indeed, women farmers tend to be less the extent to which women participate. A mobile than their male counterparts owing participatory potato research initiative in to time constraints, restricted access to Peru attracted only about 12 percent female transportation and potential social and participation because women thought cultural obstacles that keep them from of potato as a “male” crop. However, travelling outside their village boundaries. participation was as high as 60 percent in Women also often have seasonal workloads sessions dealing with planting, harvesting that can conflict with the timing of extension and evaluating potato clones because these training programmes. tasks were perceived as “female” (Buck, The Government of Ethiopia has 2001; Vasquez-Caicedo et al., 2001). endeavoured to render its extension services FFS are sometimes criticized as being more gender-responsive by mandating its financially unsustainable because they national and regional Bureaus of Agriculture require high initial investments and to introduce extension services closely linked significant recurrent costs. Comparisons to women’s activities, to encourage women show that costs vary widely by country and to participate in every programme and to crop, and that costs per farmer decline as assist women in obtaining better access to project managers learn to use local training agricultural inputs (Buchy and Basaznew, materials, replace international experts 2005). Women’s involvement in farmer-to- with local staff, and increase the number farmer training and extension has also had of participants (van den Berg and Jiggins, positive results in Uganda (Box 11). 2007). In order to increase the impact of FFS on women and to ensure their sustainability, Scale up farmer field schools it is important to train women farmers Farmer field schools (FFS) have proved to in effectively communicating learned be a participatory and effective way of experiences. This will enable them to become empowering and transferring knowledge facilitators in other FFS or to communicate to women farmers. For example, women with non-participating farmers. in Kenya, Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania who participated in FFS were more likely to adopt major technologies, Key messages including improved crop varieties, livestock management and pest control techniques. • Gender gaps can be closed across a wide In all three countries, women made up, on range of agricultural inputs, assets and average, 50 percent of all FFS participants services. Many steps are required by and they benefited significantly from their many different actors – governments, participation. For example, participants civil society, the private sector and from female-headed households achieved individuals – but the basic principles are
- 71. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 59 BOX 11 Women in a sustainable rural livelihoods programme in Uganda1 Women feature prominently in a trainers are women: about 58 percent sustainable rural livelihoods (SRL) of community-based rural development programme established in 2004 in eastern extension workers, 75 percent of Uganda’s Kamuli District. The primary community nutrition and health workers, goals of the programme are to improve 76 percent of committee members and food security, nutrition and health at 71 percent of executive committee the household and community levels. members. Related goals are increased sources and In response to the training and support levels of income, resilience to stresses and that they receive, the rural development shocks, and the sustainable management extension and community nutrition and of natural resources. The SRL is a health workers provide training and collaborative programme of Iowa State outreach to farmer group members and University’s Center for Sustainable Rural others in their communities and well Livelihoods, Makerere University’s Faculty beyond. More than 2 000 other households of Agriculture and VEDCO (Volunteer have benefited from training and outreach Efforts for Development Concerns), a services provided by these workers. Ugandan NGO. As a result of their participation in this The programme employs a farmer-to- programme, women’s human capital has farmer training and extension approach to been enhanced through training and demonstrate and disseminate information through experience gained in developing on key management practices, for leadership skills, improved nutrition and example: planting banana or cassava health, and community-wide respect in ways that ensure productivity and for their role as sources of valuable control diseases, enhancing soil fertility knowledge. In terms of social capital, they through composting with manure, are integrally involved in farm groups and growing and utilizing nutrient-dense emerging marketing associations. Another crops such as amaranth grain and Vitamin key result has been a significant increase in A-rich sweet potatoes. It also emphasizes household food security. the establishment of multiplication Innovations made through this three- gardens and seed nurseries, post-harvest way partnership in Kamuli District are management and storage, improving now being mainstreamed in VEDCO’s livestock breeding and feeding, integrating rural development support programme nutrition and health with agriculture, farm activities in nine other districts – for 25 000 enterprise development, marketing, and smallholder farmers. strengthening farmer groups. Groups were formed following community meetings and were often based on existing self-help groups such as 1 Prepared by Robert Mazur, Professor of Sociology and Associate Director for Socioeconomic savings clubs. A large proportion of the Development in the Center for Sustainable Rural 1 200 farm group members, leaders and Livelihoods, Iowa State University, USA. the same across the board: eliminate government officials and community discrimination under the law, make leaders and holding them accountable gender-aware policy and programming for upholding the law and empowering decisions, and give women greater voice women to ensure that they are aware of in decision-making at all levels. their rights and able to claim them. • Closing the gap in access to land and • Women’s participation in rural labour other agricultural assets requires, markets requires freeing women’s time among other things, reforming laws through labour-saving technologies to guarantee equal rights, educating and the provision of public services,
- 72. 60 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 raising women’s human capital through research and technology development education, eliminating discriminatory programmes, the provision of gender- employment practices, and capitalizing sensitive extension services and the on public works programmes. scaling up of FFS. • Closing the gap in financial services • Women’s groups and other forms of requires legal and institutional reforms collective action can be an effective to meet the needs and constraints of means of building social capital and women and efforts to enhance their addressing gender gaps in other areas financial literacy. Innovative delivery as well, through reducing transactions channels and social networks can reduce costs, pooling risks, developing skills and costs and make financial services more building confidence. Women’s groups readily available to rural women. can be a stepping stone to closing the • Improving women’s access to agricultural gender gap in participation in other civil technologies can be facilitated society organizations and government through participatory gender-inclusive bodies.
- 73. W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t 61 6. Closing the gender gap for development Evidence from an extensive body of implementing provisions and policies social and economic research surveyed on gender equality. Governments and in this report confirms the contributions civil society must work together to women make to the agriculture sector ensure that women are aware of their and rural enterprises, the gender-specific rights and have the support of their constraints they face in accessing resources governments, communities and families and opportunities, the potential benefits in claiming their rights. for the sector and society that could be • Strengthen rural institutions and make achieved by reducing those constraints, and them gender-aware. Strong, effective lessons learned from policies, programmes and inclusive rural institutions are and interventions aimed at closing the essential for poverty reduction, economic gender gap in agriculture. The conclusions development and the empowerment are clear: (i) gender equality is good for of small producers and the rural poor, agriculture, food security and society; and particularly women. Efforts are required (ii) governments, civil society, the private to ensure that women and men are sector and individuals, working together, can equally served by rural institutions support gender equality in agriculture and such as producers’ organizations, rural areas. labour unions, trade groups, and other Enabling women to achieve their membership-based organizations. Other productive potential requires many of the public and private service providers that same reforms that are necessary to address operate in rural areas, such as extension constraints facing small-scale farmers and services, animal health services and rural people in general, but additional care microfinance organizations, should must be taken to ensure that women’s voices consider the specific needs of men and are heard in the design and implementation women to ensure that their activities are of policies and interventions. No simple gender-aware. Women’s groups have an “blueprint” exists for achieving gender important role to play, but other rural equality in agriculture, but some principles institutions must also be accessible to are universal and many lessons can women and responsive to their needs. be learned about best practices. Basic • Free women for more rewarding and principles for achieving gender equality and productive activities. The most valuable empowering women in agriculture include asset most poor people have is their own the following: labour, but many women are compelled • Eliminate discrimination against women to spend too much of their time in under the law. Governments have a drudgery: fetching water, carrying fundamental responsibility to ensure wood, and processing food by hand. that their laws and policies guarantee Such work has to be done because water equal rights for men and women to pumps, modern fuel sources and grain control assets such as land and to receive mills are missing. Investments in basic services such as education, extension infrastructure for essential public services and credit. Governments also have a can liberate women from this drudgery responsibility to ensure that institutions and free them for more rewarding and and officials at all levels are fully productive work. supportive of the realization of equality • Build the human capital of women under the law. Officials must understand and girls. No single intervention can by the law and be held accountable for itself address the multiple challenges
- 74. 62 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 enumerated in this report, but building used to ensure that the resulting data the human capital of women and girls accurately highlight gender interactions is fundamental. General education and and inequalities in the agriculture the ongoing transfer of information and sector. More detailed time-use surveys practical skills will broaden the range of would lead to greater understanding choices women can make and give them of women’s contributions to household more influence within their households production and welfare as well as to and communities. Building women’s their time constraints. The quantity and human capital makes them better quality of sex-disaggregated data for farmers, more productive workers, better policy-making can be increased through mothers and stronger citizens. the integration of agricultural censuses • Bundle interventions. Some assets are and surveys and the retabulation of complementary and the constraints existing census data. Gender differences women face are often mutually and their implications may be more reinforcing. Interventions therefore visible when sex-disaggregated data are should be appropriately bundled and collected, analysed and presented at sequenced and should consider women subnational levels and by age groups. within their broader social contexts. • Make gender-aware agricultural policy Relaxing one constraint may be helpful, decisions. Virtually any agricultural but others may soon become binding, so policy related to natural resources, it is often necessary to address multiple technology, infrastructure or markets constraints. What is more, it is impossible will affect men and women differently to separate women’s economic activities because they play different roles from their household and community and experience different constraints roles and responsibilities. The gender- and opportunities in the sector. related constraints women face due Good agricultural policy requires an to power relations within the family understanding of the gender dimensions and community may affect their ability at stake. Because some agricultural to engage in economic activities and and gender issues are location-specific, retain control over the assets they these may best be addressed through obtain. Bringing men into the process location-specific assessments and will help ensure that progress towards tailored policies and programmes. gender equality is broadly beneficial and Because interventions may have gender- sustainable. impacts that are difficult to predict, • Improve the collection and analysis of policies and programmes should include sex-disaggregated data.22 Understanding the collection of baseline data and of many gender issues in agriculture rigorous monitoring and evaluation, – including crop, livestock, fisheries and practitioners should be prepared to and forestry sectors – is hindered by reformulate their activities in response the lack of sex-disaggregated data, to unforeseen developments. Making and inadequate analysis of the data women’s voices heard at all levels in that exist. Agricultural censuses should decision-making is crucial in this regard. focus more attention on areas in which women are relatively more active and collect sex-disaggregated data on ownership of, access to and control over productive resources such as land, water, equipment, inputs, information and credit. They should avoid gender biases in the concepts and definitions 22 FAO has developed the Agri-Gender Statistics Toolkit FAO, 2010i), providing technical guidance to support the enhanced production and use of sex-disaggregated agricultural data.
- 75. Part II World food and agriculture in review
- 76. Part II
- 77. W o r ld food a n d a g r icul t u r e i n r e v iew 65 World food and agriculture in review From 2007 to 2009, a food price crisis followed by the financial crisis and global Trends in undernourishment24 economic recession pushed the number of With the improved prospects for the global hungry and undernourished people in the economy and lower food commodity world to unprecedented levels, reaching prices, FAO projects that the number of a peak in 2009 of more than 1 billion.23 In undernourished people in the world will the first half of 2010, world agricultural decline in 2010 to 925 million people, from commodity markets appeared to enter the estimated 2009 peak of 1.023 billion calmer times. Prices of food and agricultural (Figure 17). Despite this welcome commodities remained high, but had reduction in world hunger, the number of nevertheless declined from the peaks of undernourished remains unacceptably high, 2008, and the world economy was emerging representing the second-highest number from recession. since FAO’s records began.25 However, there are growing concerns The decline in 2010 constitutes a reversal about high market volatility. These were of the constant upward trend observed reinforced from June through October since 1995–97. Indeed, after a steady, albeit 2010, when cereal prices – particularly slow, decline from 1970–71 to 1995–97, the those of wheat and maize – increased as following years saw a gradual increase in drought in the Russian Federation and high the number of undernourished people in temperatures and excess rain in the United the world. The upward trend accelerated States of America reduced supplies. During sharply in 2008 during the food price crisis. the food price crisis, many governments The number of undernourished spiked in took a number of uncoordinated policy 2009 as a result of the financial crisis and actions intended to ensure adequate the persistence of high food prices in the supplies on domestic markets, inter alia domestic markets of many countries in through export bans and other restrictions developing regions. on exports. Many of these actions, in fact, In spite of the increase in the absolute exacerbated price volatility on international number of undernourished people between markets. 1995–97 and 2009, the proportion of the This part of the report examines levels and population who are undernourished in the trends in global hunger in the context of developing world26 continued to decline, recent developments in agricultural markets albeit very slowly, even after 1995–97, before and the global economy. It reviews recent increasing in both 2008 and 2009 (Figure 18). trends in global production, consumption In 2010, 16 percent of the population in and trade of food and agricultural products developing countries were undernourished, and discusses price developments on down from 18 percent in 2009 but still well international and domestic food markets. above the target set by the Millennium The analysis focuses on increasing disquiet Development Goal 1C to halve to 10 percent over price volatility and the resilience of the proportion of undernourished between markets to price and economic fluctuations. 1990 and 2015. 23 This review of world food and agriculture is based on 24 A more detailed analysis of trends in global information available at the end of October 2010. More undernourishment and the impact of the crisis on global current information on agricultural markets and the food security can be found in FAO, 2010g. world food situation can be found at http://www.fao.org/ 25 FAO estimates date back to 1969–71. worldfoodsituation/wfs-home/en/?no_cache=1 and http:// 26 Countries in developing regions account for 98 percent www.fao.org/publications/sofi/en/ of the world’s undernourished population.
- 78. 66 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 FIGURE 17 Number of undernourished people in the world, 1969–71 to 2010 Millions 1 050 2009 1 000 950 2008 2010 900 1969–71 1990–92 850 2000–02 1979–81 2005-07 800 1995–97 750 Notes: Figures for 2009 and 2010 are estimated by FAO with input from the United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. Full details of the methodology are provided in the technical notes available at www.fao.org/publication/SOFI/EN/. Source: FAO, 2010g. FIGURE 18 Proportion of population that is undernourished in developing regions, 1969–71 to 2010 Percentage 35 1969–71 30 25 1979–81 1990–92 20 2009 2000–02 2008 15 1995–97 2005–07 2010 10 5 0 Source: FAO, 2010g. Most of the world’s 925 million hungry is found in sub-Saharan Africa, where in people (62 percent of the total) live in 2005–07 (the latest period with complete Asia and the Pacific, the world’s most information by country) 30 percent of the populous region, followed by sub-Saharan total population were estimated to be Africa, home to 26 percent of the world’s undernourished, although large variations undernourished population (Figure 19). The occur among countries. While the prevalence highest prevalence of undernourishment of hunger is lower in Asia and the Pacific
- 79. W o r ld food a n d a g r icul t u r e i n r e v iew 67 (16 percent), Latin America and the Although international food commodity Caribbean (9 percent) and the Near East and prices fell in 2009, they remained high North Africa (7 percent), it varies greatly relative to prior years, and data through to by subregion and by country within these October 2010 indicate an increase in the FPI regions. from 2009 to 2010. Moreover, high domestic prices have persisted in many countries, as Vulnerability of global food security the decline in international prices was slow to shocks in being transmitted to domestic markets. The events of the past few years have While food prices remained above their highlighted the vulnerability of global pre-crisis level, reduced incomes caused by food security to major shocks – both in the financial crisis had a detrimental effect the global agricultural markets and in the on access to food, leading to a further world economy. The food price crisis and sharp increase in global undernourishment the ensuing economic crisis reduced the levels. According to estimates of growth purchasing power of large segments of the in per capita GDP (approximated using population in many developing countries, International Monetary Fund [IMF] severely curtailing their access to food and estimates of growth in total GDP minus thus undermining their food security. population growth rates), the global GDP The rise in global undernourishment per capita contracted in 2009, with the numbers in 2008 was a result of the spike advanced economies affected more than in food prices from 2007 to 2008. From a the economies of the developing world historical perspective, the price developments (Figure 21). However, per capita GDP in this period are not unprecedented, with declined or stagnated in all developing markets exhibiting a comparable spike regions, with the exception of developing during the “world food crisis” of 1973–75 Asia – where per capita GDP growth (Figure 20). Even so, FAO’s Food Price Index slowed to 5.8 percent, compared with (FPI) declined in real terms (using the United more than 10 percent in 2007 (IMF, 2010a; States GDP deflator) over the period 1961– IMF, 2010b). The economic recession had a 2010. severe negative impact on export revenues, Since the early 2000s, however, the foreign direct investments and foreign downward trend appears to have been migrant remittances received by developing reversed, or at least interrupted, with food countries (FAO, 2009b). By 2010, the prices increasing significantly in real terms, burgeoning recovery of the world economy culminating in the price spike of 2007–08. and the significant increases in economic FIGURE 19 Number of undernourished people in 2010, by region (millions) 37 19 53 578 Asia and the Pacific 239 Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America and the Caribbean Near East and North Africa Developed regions Total: 925 million Source: FAO, 2010g.
- 80. 68 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 FIGURE 20 FAO Food Price Index in real terms, 1961–2010 Index (1990 = 100) 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1961 1968 1975 1982 1989 1996 2003 2010 Notes: Calculated using international prices for cereals, oilseeds, meats, dairy products and sugar. The FAO Food Price Index is calculated from 1990 to the present on a regular basis; in this figure it has been extended back to 1961 using proxy price information. The index measures movements in international prices and not necessarily domestic prices. The United States GDP deflator is used to express the Food Price Index in real rather than nominal terms. Source: Calculations by FAO. growth rates underpinned the reduction in global undernourishment numbers discussed Food production, above. consumption and trade In spite of the declining numbers in 2010, during the crises reflecting the resumption of economic Recent trends in global food growth and reduction in food prices, the production, consumption and trade two crises have drawn our attention to the According to data and estimates available acute vulnerability of poor countries and by mid-2010,27 growth in the global food populations to global shocks such as those production index (measured in constant experienced in the most recent years. In prices) slowed to about 0.6 percent in 2009, addition, localized shocks and emergencies following significant increases of 2.6 and have affected food security in specific 3.8 percent respectively in 2007 and 2008 – countries as well as at the subnational during the food price crisis (Figure 22, page level (see Box 12 for a discussion of food 72). At the same time, global agriculture emergencies in countries requiring external assistance). Mechanisms to protect the most 27 The indices of food production, consumption and trade vulnerable populations from the effects of in this section are based on data derived from FAO, Food Outlook, June 2010 (FAO, 2010k), updated to reflect such shocks are often woefully inadequate. production estimates in September 2010. Indices express Consequently, vulnerable households may production, consumption and trade in constant prices be forced to deal with shocks by selling and have been computed using international reference productive assets, which are very difficult to commodity prices averaged during 2004–06. Production indices are net of feed and seedstock. Consumption indices rebuild, thus extending and prolonging the are derived from estimates of food use. Commodities negative impacts of the crisis far beyond its covered include wheat, coarse grains, rice, oilseeds, immediate effect. vegetable oils, meat and dairy products.
- 81. W o r ld food a n d a g r icul t u r e i n r e v iew 69 FIGURE 21 Average annual percentage change in GDP per capita at constant prices, 2005–2010 2005 World 2006 2007 Advanced economies 2008 2009 Emerging and 2010 developing economies Central and Eastern Europe Commonwealth of Independent States Developing Asia Near East and North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America and the Caribbean -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Notes: Figures from 2010 are projections based on data from the first three quarters of that year, incorporating the most recent estimates made in October. Source: Author’s calculations, using data from IMF, 2010a and IMF, 2010b. has been affected by other shocks, such over 2 percent per year (almost 1 percent as the drought in the Russian Federation in per capita terms), fell marginally in per during the summer of 2010, which caused capita terms during the economic recession the country’s wheat production and in 2009. Growth in trade had been around exports to fall dramatically. Growth of only the 4–6 percent range annually before the 0.8 percent is projected for 2010. Global food financial crisis; in 2009 it contracted and is consumption, which had been increasing at projected to remain negative in 2010.
- 82. 70 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 Box 12 Food emergencies Food crises affecting individual countries assistance for food.1 Food crises can be shock and destabilize the food security triggered by a number of factors – natural or status of part of or the entire population human-induced. If the emergency is natural, (the newly food-insecure) and worsen it may be described as either sudden or slow- it for those who were already food- onset,2 and if it is human-induced it may be insecure prior to the emergency (the the result of socio-economic problems3 or chronically food-insecure). FAO’s Global war/conflict (see figure). Information and Early Warning System The total number of recorded on food and agriculture (GIEWS) emergencies in recent years is far higher monitors and disseminates information than in the 1980s. Since the mid-1980s, the on countries in crisis requiring external general trend has been towards an increase Emergencies (by type) in countries requiring assistance, 1981 to 2009 Number of countries 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1981 1985 1989 1993 1997 2001 2005 2009 Human-induced / War Human-induced / Socio-economic Natural / Slow Natural / Sudden Note: Data on emergencies do not include events taking place in 2010. At the time of writing, floods in Pakistan amounted to the world’s largest humanitarian crisis ever, with up to 20 million people affected (about 18 percent of the country’s population) and 6 million people in need of food assistance. The crisis was far larger than both the tsunami of 2004 and the Haitian earthquake of early 2010 combined. Source: FAO. Food consumption per capita by the region was particularly hard hit by the region economic downturn. The most rapid growth in per capita Food consumption per capita has remained consumption of basic foods in recent years stagnant-to-falling in the developed regions has been recorded in Eastern Europe, of North America, Western Europe and followed by Latin America and the Oceania. In sub-Saharan Africa, it rose Caribbean, then Asia and the Near East and between 2000 and 2007, but is estimated North Africa (Figure 23, page 72). In these to have fallen somewhat on a per-capita regions, per capita consumption generally basis since then. In this context, however, it continued to rise even during the recession. is important to bear in mind that estimates An exception was Eastern Europe, which saw provided in this analysis do not include all a decline of some 2 percent in 2009, when food items; roots and tubers, for example,
- 83. W o r ld food a n d a g r icul t u r e i n r e v iew 71 in the number of countries affected by have begun. Countries in protracted crisis emergencies. The number of human-induced face a particularly difficult situation. emergencies seems to have increased the According to The State of Food Insecurity most, with war/conflict accounting for most in the World 2010 (FAO, 2010g), 22 of them. Over the past decade and a half, the countries are currently considered to be in frequency of sudden-onset natural disasters a state of protracted crisis. Protracted crisis appears to have been on an upward trend. situations are characterized by recurrent From 1981 to 2009, the region with the natural disasters and/or conflict, longevity largest number of countries experiencing of food crises, breakdown of livelihoods emergencies was Africa, followed by Asia, and insufficient institutional capacity to Latin America and the Caribbean, Eastern react to the crisis. Such countries need Europe, Commonwealth of Independent to be considered as a special category States (CIS) and Oceania. The high incidence with special requirements in terms in Africa is explained in part by the relatively of interventions by the development large number of countries in the region community. (For a detailed discussion (44 are assessed by GIEWS), but also by of the special situation of countries in civil unrest occurring in many countries as protracted crisis, see FAO, 2010g.) well as numerous slow-onset disasters. The number of African countries experiencing emergencies has ranged from around 15 to 25 annually, with the exception of the late 1980s, when the number was closer to 10. Of the 23 countries considered in the Asian region, the number experiencing emergencies has increased from around 5 annually during the period 1981–2002 to 1 Some countries that have consistently funded around 10 from 2003 to 2009. The number their own response to emergencies rather than seeking assistance from the international of countries affected in Latin America and community are excluded from the information the Caribbean is relatively small but has collected and disseminated by GIEWS. fluctuated over the time period, whereas 2 Natural sudden emergencies include sudden onset disasters such as floods, cyclones, hurricanes, in Eastern Europe and the CIS it has been earthquakes, volcanoes, and locusts. Slowly decreasing. developing natural disasters such as drought, adverse weather, and transboundary pests and Just as the effects of economic shocks on diseases are classified as natural slow emergencies. hunger do not disappear entirely when prices 3 Examples of human-induced socio-economic emergencies are crises caused by commodity price recover and economic growth resumes, the collapses/spikes, loss of export markets, currency impacts of crises on food security may also problems, land tenure problems and health- persist long after relief and recovery efforts related crises. which are widely consumed in sub-Saharan production, including structural causes Africa, have not been included. and weather-related factors. Generally, production in industrialized countries and Food production by region the “BRIC” countries28 responded most to the The global production estimates for the high crop prices of 2007 and 2008. However, period 2006–10 presented in Figure 22 over the last decade the strongest production illustrate a global production response growth was achieved by the LDCs and the stimulated by high, then falling food prices. “rest of the world” (Figure 24, page 73). However, more detailed regional and The two geographic regions that national data underlying the aggregates experienced the strongest growth in food present more complex patterns, reflecting the impact of other influences on agricultural 28 Brazil, Russian Federation, India and China.
- 84. 72 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 FIGURE 22 Annual growth in global food production, consumption and trade, 2006–2010 Percentage change 7 Production 6 Consumption 5 Trade 4 3 2 1 0 -1 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Note: Estimates are in constant US dollars (2004–2006 basis). Data for 2010 are projected; those for 2009 are provisional estimates. Source: FAO. FIGURE 23 Indices of per capita food consumption by geographic region, 2000–10 Index (2004–06 = 100) 115 Northern America Latin America and 110 the Caribbean Western Europe 105 Eastern Europe Near East and 100 North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa 95 Asia Oceania and Japan 90 85 80 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Note: Estimates are in constant US dollars (2004–2006 basis). Data for 2010 are projected; those for 2009 are provisional estimates.
- 85. W o r ld food a n d a g r icul t u r e i n r e v iew 73 FIGURE 24 Indices of food production by economic group Index (2004–06 = 100) 120 World BRIC countries 115 OECD countries 110 LDCs Rest of the world 105 100 95 90 85 80 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 Note: Net of feed and seedstock. Estimates are in constant US dollars (2004–2006 basis). Data for 2010 are projected; those for 2009 are provisional estimates. BRIC = Brazil, Russian Federation, India and China; LDCs = least-developed countries. Source: FAO. production over the last decade – Eastern Union (EU), but declined by around 2 percent Europe and Latin America and the Caribbean in 2009 as a result of lower prices and – had mixed experiences during the food unfavourable weather conditions. price and financial crises (Figure 25). The Eastern European countries, after recording Food exports by region bumper crops in 2008, were unable to sustain Food exports by nearly all regions, fell or potential growth in the subsequent years, and stagnated in 2009 during the economic the 2010 drought led to substantially reduced crisis (Figure 26). From 2000 to 2008, Eastern levels of crop production in the region. Europe saw cumulative export growth of Latin America and the Caribbean suffered around 350 percent; in 2008 it recorded a weather-related production shortfalls in particularly high level of grain production. 2008 but recovered in 2009 and 2010. In Asia, However, exports declined the following growth in food production remained strong year and even more significantly as a result throughout the last decade, generally in the of drought in 2010.29 Food exports from range of 2–4 percent per year, but recorded a Western Europe declined, possibly as a result slowdown in 2009 and 2010. of the rise in the value of the euro as well Production failed to grow in 2009 in sub- as of successive policy reforms, including Saharan Africa, which had seen growth in the reform of the EU Common Agricultural the range of 3–4 percent per year over the Policy. Strong export performances previous decade; it is expected to expand by countries in Latin America and the moderately in 2010. The region registering Caribbean, for which food exports nearly the slowest growth in food production doubled over the decade, have made this in recent years is Western Europe, where region an increasingly important supplier production in 2010 is projected to be of food to global markets. However, the only some 5 percent higher than in 2000. Production did increase in 2007 and 2008 29 The trade index values by region include trade within under the effect of high prices and reduced the region; this may affect conclusions about relative trade set-aside requirements in the European performance.
- 86. 74 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 FIGURE 25 Indices of food production by region, 2000–10 Index (2004–06 = 100) 130 Northern America Latin America and the Caribbean 120 Western Europe Eastern Europe 110 Near East and North Africa 100 Sub-Saharan Africa Asia Oceania and Japan 90 80 70 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Note: Net of feed and seedstock. Estimates are in constant US dollars (2004–2006 basis). Data for 2010 are projected; those for 2009 are provisional estimates. Source: FAO. region’s food exports stagnated in volume subsequent economic downturn translated terms during the food price crisis and during into a decline in import volumes in 2008 and the economic recession. Export volumes stagnating levels in 2009 and 2010. During from North America grew by 24 percent the last decade, net food imports by sub- over the decade, but growth may have been Saharan Africa, measured in constant prices, dampened by the rising use of domestic increased more than 60 percent, implying grains for biofuel production. a further widening of the food trade deficit faced by this region over the past Food imports by region several decades, as population growth has Food imports have been rising more rapidly outstripped growth in food production. in Asia than in any other region (Figure 27), increasing in volume terms by almost 75 percent between 2000 and 2010. Imports continued to grow through the food price crisis and also during the recession, as the region succeeded in sustaining relatively high rates of income growth. Food imports by countries in the Near East and North Africa have also grown, financed by growing oil revenues, but were considerably reduced during the recession. Imports by all other regions also grew significantly over time, with the exception of North America and Oceania, where they remained relatively stagnant. Sub-Saharan Africa’s food import volumes increased during the first half of the decade, but the higher international prices during the food price crisis and the
- 87. W o r ld food a n d a g r icul t u r e i n r e v iew 75 FIGURE 26 Indices of food export volumes by geographic region, 2000–10 Index (2004–06 = 100) 200 Northern America Latin America and 180 the Caribbean 160 Western Europe Eastern Europe 140 Near East and North Africa 120 Sub-Saharan Africa 100 Asia Oceania and Japan 80 60 40 20 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Note: Estimates are in constant US dollars (2004–2006 basis). Data for 2010 are projected; those for 2009 are provisional estimates. Source: FAO. FIGURE 27 Indices of food import volumes by geographic region, 2000–10 Index (2004–06 = 100) 140 Northern America 130 Latin America and the Caribbean 120 Western Europe 110 Eastern Europe Near East and 100 North Africa 90 Sub-Saharan Africa Asia 80 Oceania and Japan 70 60 50 40 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Note: Estimates are in constant US dollars (2004–2006 basis). Data for 2010 are projected; those for 2009 are provisional estimates. Source: FAO.
- 88. 76 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 food price crisis and have shown substantial Recent trends in agricultural and highly correlated volatility since 2006 prices: a higher price plateau, (Figure 29). More recently, from June and greater price volatility through October 2010, prices of cereals, oils and sugar have increased, largely explaining International prices for agricultural the increase in the FPI over the same period. commodities The volatility of sugar prices, particularly As discussed above, price developments in since 2005, has been even more pronounced food commodity markets, especially those than that of the other commodities used to calculate the FPI (cereals, oils, dairy, contained in the FPI. Meat prices have meats and sugar), can have a critical impact fluctuated little in comparison with those of on global food security. Close monitoring of cereals, oils, dairy products and sugar. market developments is therefore crucial. Among other agricultural commodities This section reviews recent developments in that are not part of the FPI (Figure 28), international and domestic food markets, international fruit prices moved closely discusses the current situation and identifies together with those of the FPI, exhibiting major issues of concern for future food a spike during the food price crisis and a security. decline during the subsequent financial crisis. During the food price crisis of 2007–08 The price of beverage products moved less the FPI increased sharply (Figure 28). At the closely with prices of commodities contained time of writing, the most recent data shows in the FPI. Raw material prices were generally the FPI to have increased again from June not affected by the rise in other commodity through October 2010. In fact, by October prices during the food price crisis but 2010, the FPI was just 8 percent below its decreased significantly in response to the peak in June 2008. economic downturn in 2009 before moving Among the commodities included in the upwards again in response to economic FPI, prices for cereals, oils and dairy products recovery, reflecting the high income elasticity showed a sharp increase during the 2007–08 of demand for this group of commodities. FIGURE 28 FAO Food Price Index and indices of other commodities (fruits, beverages and raw materials), October 2000–October 2010 Index (2002–04 = 100) 250 FAO Food Price Index Fruits 200 Beverages Raw materials 150 100 50 0 Oct Oct Oct Oct Oct Oct Oct Oct Oct Oct Oct 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Source: FAO.
- 89. W o r ld food a n d a g r icul t u r e i n r e v iew 77 FIGURE 29 Indices of prices of commodities included in the FAO Food Price Index (cereals, oils, dairy, meat and sugar), October 2000–October 2010 Index (2002–04 = 100) 400 Cereals Oils 350 Dairy 300 Sugar Meat 250 200 150 100 50 0 Oct Oct Oct Oct Oct Oct Oct Oct Oct Oct Oct 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Sources: FAO and IMF. Although prices of basic commodities have double threat to the food security of poor declined from the peak levels they attained consumers, as domestic food prices remained during the food price crisis, by the third high while income growth slowed or turned quarter of 2010 prices of all commodities in negative. the FPI remained significantly higher than In 2010, this double threat seems to those preceding the crisis. According to have diminished relative to the preceding projections in the OECD-FAO Agricultural period, particularly as many emerging and Outlook 2010–2019 (OECD-FAO, 2010), real developing countries appeared to have commodity prices over the next decade are recovered from the economic slowdown expected to be, on average, higher than earlier and more strongly than expected they were in the period 2000–10. Factors (See IMF, 2010c ). Moreover, the most recent underlying the projected higher agricultural available data on domestic prices indicate commodity prices include higher production that cereal prices in developing countries costs, increased demand by emerging and have declined significantly from their peaks developing countries and growing production in 2008, although at the time of writing the of biofuels from agricultural feedstocks. price of wheat on international markets had again risen sharply. Data on cereal wholesale Domestic food prices in developing prices in 74 developing countries collected countries by GIEWS (FAO, 2010j) show that, by early Last year’s edition of this report discussed 2010, such prices had fallen in nominal terms price transmission from international to relative to their peak values in 90 percent of domestic markets (FAO, 2009a). After the the countries. After adjusting for inflation, food price crisis, domestic commodity more than 98 percent of price quotes had prices in many countries were slow in fallen from their peaks by the start of 2010. moving downwards, despite the rapid fall Nevertheless, although domestic prices in in international prices, suggesting a slow developing countries have declined, they or low degree of transmission to domestic remain high compared with before the consumers. This phenomenon created a food price crisis. Indeed, in early 2010, more
- 90. 78 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 than 80 percent of the inflation-adjusted increased fluctuations in agricultural and wholesale cereal price quotes remained food production. A further source of price above their average level in 2006 – the year volatility is the expanding production of prior to the food price crisis. biofuels based on agricultural feedstocks, which could tighten the link between prices Growing concerns over price of agricultural commodities, especially volatility maize, and developments and conditions The extreme variability of prices of basic in international energy markets, implying food commodities over the most recent an increased transmission of fluctuations in period has caused considerable concern. energy prices onto markets for agricultural Episodes of high prices are detrimental and food commodities. The close to food security, and the high uncertainty relationship between the production costs of associated with price volatility affects ethanol from maize and of petrol from crude producer viability and may lead to reduced oil is illustrated in Figure 31. This also implies agricultural investments. Data on price that prices for crude oil and for maize now volatility over a longer period (starting in appear to be closely related. In the light of 1957), show that high price volatility such current uncertainties surrounding future oil as that recently experienced is not far out prices and their impact both on demand for of line with past experiences (Figure 30). biofuels and on agricultural input markets Indeed, periods of high price volatility are (e.g. markets for fertilizers, mechanization, not new to agriculture, but there are fears and transportation), concerns over increased that price volatility may be increasing. agricultural price volatility from these new Increased disquiet over greater volatility sources appear to have some justification. of food prices is related to the emergence Furthermore, higher real crop prices have of new factors contributing to it. One also recently induced higher production important factor is the expected increase in some areas where yield volatility is also in severe weather events as a consequence higher, such as the grain-producing areas of climate change, which could lead to around the Black Sea. To the extent that FIGURE 30 Historic annualized volatility of international grain prices Percentage 70 Wheat Maize 60 Rice 50 40 30 20 10 0 1957 1961 1965 1969 1973 1977 1981 1985 1989 1993 1997 2001 2005 2009 Note: Some price variability can be predicted (e.g. seasonal variation, business cycles or other trending behaviour). The figure shows the coefficient of variation of prices after the predictable component has been removed from the observed values (for explanation, see OECD-FAO, 2010, p. 57, footnote 5). Values close to zero indicate low volatility, higher values denote greater volatility. Source: OECD-FAO, 2010.
- 91. W o r ld food a n d a g r icul t u r e i n r e v iew 79 BOX 13 Implied volatility as a measure of uncertainty How organized commodity exchanges Implied volatilities for wheat, maize perceive and value uncertainty is and soybeans since 1990 are presented important for future decisions on in Figure A and movement over the production, trade and investment. period October 2007–October 2010 is Implied volatility represents the market’s presented in Figure B. Market perceptions expectation of how much the price of a of volatility as estimated by the commodity is likely to fluctuate in the implied price volatility have increased future. It is derived from the prices of systematically, with a sharp peak in 2008. derivative contracts, namely options, In the aftermath of the 2007–08 market which are priced on the basis of the turmoil, implied volatilities fell as markets market’s estimates of future prices as began to stabilize. However, around mid- well as the uncertainty surrounding these 2010 implied volatility started moving estimates. The more divergent are traders’ upwards again when doubts began to expectations about future prices, the emerge over Russia’s ability to meet higher the underlying uncertainty and grain export commitments, followed thus the implied volatility. (For a more by similar concerns over United States detailed discussion of the concept and the maize prospects and expected demand methodology, see FAO, 2010k.) outstripping soybean supply. Implied price volatility of wheat and maize A 1990–2010 Percentage 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 B October 2007–October 2010 Percentage 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Oct Apr Oct Apr Oct Apr Oct 2007 2008 2008 2009 2009 2010 2010 Wheat Maize Soybeans Source: FAO.
- 92. 80 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 FIGURE 31 Co-movement of energy production costs: ethanol from maize versus petrol from crude oil, October 2006–October 2010 US cents/litre 80 Petrol from crude oil 70 Ethanol from maize 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Oct Apr Oct Apr Oct Apr Oct Apr Oct 2006 2007 2007 2008 2008 2009 2009 2010 2010 Notes and sources: FAO calculation using ethanol production, simple cost budgets and IMF commodity price statistics. The petroleum equivalent is the per-litre price of crude oil adjusted to an ethanol energy basis, plus a cost adjustment for processing to gasoline. Ethanol from maize is the cost of producing ethanol, net of by-product revenues, on a per-litre basis. Source prices are Brent Crude oil and US Gulf #2 Maize. these areas increase their export market Europe, but has continued to grow in other shares, greater supply volatility from these regions, although more slowly in Eastern regions may affect price volatility. Europe. Despite some fluctuations during A highly relevant factor in recent times the crises, food production increased over has been the uncoordinated national policy the last decade in all regions except Western responses to fluctuations in international Europe, as well as Japan and Oceania. With prices, which may exacerbate market the exception of Eastern Europe and Latin volatility. The impact of such policies was America and the Caribbean, which represent discussed in last year’s edition of this report key future food suppliers, supplies from (FAO, 2009a). A further issue is the role traditional exporters appear to be increasing of speculation in recent market volatility; more slowly than in the past. Food imports this has been surrounded by considerable decreased as a result of the price and controversy, and further research evidence financial crises in all regions except Asia and on the topic is needed. the Near East and North Africa. Commodity prices appear to be on a Summary of the current situation higher plateau and are projected to remain and future prospects for agricultural at levels above those of the pre-crisis period markets while markets have remained highly volatile. In the aftermath of the food price and Market volatility and its possible implications financial crises, global food and agricultural for food security have become increasingly commodity markets appear to be problematic for policy-makers worldwide. characterized both by higher price levels In an environment of increased uncertainty, and increased uncertainty. During the crises, policy responses to the situation will be per capita food consumption decreased a critical determinant of future market marginally in sub-Saharan Africa as well developments and their possible implications as in North America, Oceania and Western for food security.
- 93. W o r ld food a n d a g r icul t u r e i n r e v iew 81 BOX 14 Price volatility and FAO’s Intergovernmental Groups on Grains and Rice The extraordinary joint intersessional • insufficient market transparency at all meeting of FAO’s Intergovernmental levels, including in relation to futures Group on Grains and Intergovernmental markets; Group on Rice held in Rome on • growing linkages with outside 24 September 2010 recognized that markets, in particular the impact of unexpected price hikes and volatility “financialization” on futures markets; are amongst the major threats to food • unexpected changes triggered by security. They pointed to a number of root national food-security situations; causes that need to be addressed: • panic buying and hoarding. • the lack of reliable and up-to-date information on crop supply and demand and export availability; Source: FAO, 2010l. of appropriate safety nets and social Conclusions programmes to protect the food-insecure The world food-price crisis, followed by the from the immediate impact of shocks like global financial crisis and economic recession, these, as well as the critical and urgent pushed the number of undernourished need to boost the productive capacity of people in the world to unprecedented developing countries and to enhance their levels in 2008 and 2009. Estimates indicate resilience to shocks. that the number of undernourished people The food price crisis has highlighted a series declined in 2010, as food prices fell from of concerns specific to the agriculture sector their peak levels and global economic and agricultural markets. First, the most conditions began to improve. However, levels recent projections by FAO and OECD indicate of undernourishment remain very high by that, although international prices fell fairly historical standards, and concerns both for rapidly from the peak levels attained during the world economy and for world agriculture the global food-price crisis, they remain continue to be at the top of the international higher than they were before the crisis and policy agenda. In October 2010, the IMF it appears that higher food prices are here indicated that “macroeconomic recovery is to stay. Agriculture faces higher production proceeding broadly as expected, although costs, increasing demand from rapidly growing downside risks remain elevated” (IMF, 2010b, countries in developing regions and expanding p. 1). At the same time, the sudden rise in biofuel production. As a result, prices are cereal prices from June through October projected to increase over the next decade 2010 raised fears of a new food-price crisis. and to continue to be at levels, on average, Whatever the short-term outlook for above those of the past decade. There is by the world economy, agriculture and food now a widely recognized need to significantly security, a number of lessons with long-term increase investments in agriculture in implications appear to have emerged or to order to generate environmentally have been confirmed from the developments sustainable productivity increases and of the past few years. expand production, while at the same time The experiences of the food price and enhancing the contribution of agriculture to financial crises have provided a sharp economic growth and poverty alleviation. reminder of the vulnerability of world A second source of concern is the recent food security to shocks in the global food turbulence in international agricultural system and the world economy and have markets and the risk of increased price demonstrated how rapidly an already volatility. Price volatility has always been a unacceptable level of food insecurity in the feature of agricultural markets; however, a world can deteriorate in the face of such number of trends appear to be accentuating events. This has underscored the importance this phenomenon. Climate change may
- 94. 82 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 be leading to more frequent and extreme security and hunger-reduction efforts, there weather events and to the consequent risk is a need to address issues of governance on of shocks to agricultural markets. Expanding global agricultural markets with a view to production of biofuels based on agricultural confronting the problem of price volatility commodities will make agricultural markets and avoiding counter-productive “beggar- much more dependent on developments in thy-neighbour” policy responses. Necessary global energy markets. steps would include improved regulation A specific “human-induced” threat to of markets, greater market transparency, market stability is that of uncoordinated improved and timely statistics on food national policy responses to increasing food commodity markets, establishment of an prices. Because such measures are based appropriate level of emergency stocks and exclusively on concerns about domestic food provision of adequate and appropriate security, with little regard for their effects safety nets. The recent food and financial on trading partners, they may exacerbate crises, the uncoordinated policy responses international market volatility and and continuing fears over global food- jeopardize global food security. market turmoil have underscored the Given the importance of international urgent need for action by the international food commodity markets for global food community.
- 96. Part III
- 97. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 85 Notes on the annex tables Symbols The following symbols are used in the tables: .. = data not available 0 or 0.0 = nil or negligible blank cell = not applicable (A) = FAO estimate Numbers displayed in the tables might be slightly different from the ones obtained from the original data sources because of rounding or data processing. To separate decimals from whole numbers a full point (.) is used. Technical notes Table A1: Total population, female share of population and rural share of population in 1980, 1995 and 2010 Source: FAO, 2010b. Total population The de facto population in a country, area or region as of 1 July of the year indicated. Figures are presented in the thousands. Female share of population The total number of women divided by the total population and multiplied by 100. Rural share of population The de facto population living in areas classified as rural (according to the criteria used by each country) divided by the total population and multiplied by 100. Table A2: Female share of national, rural and urban population aged 15–49, most recent and earliest observations Source: United Nations, 2008. Data presented are not directly comparable among countries because they vary in terms of year(s) of data collection. For details, refer to United Nations (2008). Rural/urban The population classified as rural or urban according to criteria used by each country.
- 98. 86 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 Table A3: Economically active population, female share of economically active population and agricultural share of economically active women in 1980, 1995 and 2010 Source: FAO, 2010b. Economically active population The number of all employed and unemployed persons (including those seeking work for the first time). The term covers employers; self-employed workers; salaried employees; wage earners; unpaid workers assisting in a family, farm or business operation; members of producers’ cooperatives; and members of the armed forces. The economically active population is also referred to as the labour force. Female share of economically active population The share of all employed and unemployed persons who are female (including those seeking work for the first time). The term covers female employers; self-employed workers; salaried employees; wage earners; unpaid workers assisting in a family, farm or business operation; members of producers’ cooperatives; and members of the armed forces. The economically active female population is also referred to as the female labour force. Agricultural share of economically active women The share of the economically active female population who are engaged in or seeking work in agriculture, hunting, fishing or forestry. Table A4 : Economically active population, agricultural share of economically active population and female share of economically active in agriculture in 1980, 1995 and 2010 Source: FAO, 2010b. Economically active population See notes for Table A3. Agricultural share of the economically active population The share of the economically active population who are engaged in or seeking work in agriculture, hunting, fishing or forestry. Female share of economically active in agriculture The share of the economically active population in agriculture who are women. Table A5: Share of households in rural areas that are female- headed, most recent and earliest observations, and total agricultural holders and female share of agricultural holders, most recent observations Sources: Measure DHS/ICF Macro, 2010 (columns 1 and 2), and FAO, 2011 (forthcoming) (columns 3 and 4). Households Values are based on de jure members, i.e. usual residents. Agricultural holder The definition of agricultural holder varies from country to country, but widely refers to the person or group of persons who make the
- 99. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 87 major decisions regarding resource use and exercise management control over the agricultural holding operation. The agricultural holder has technical and economic responsibility for the holding and may undertake all responsibilities directly, or delegate responsibilities related to the management of day-to-day work. The agricultural holder is often, but not always, the household head. Symbols used (B) Indicates that the source is FAO (2010f). (1) Data are from the Northeast Region only. (2) In Kyrgyzstan and Lebanon the landless holders are without arable land (rather than without any land). (3) In the case of Viet Nam, farm owners (rather than agricultural holders) were counted. (4) Data were collected for ever-married women aged 10-49. Women age 10–14 were removed from the data set and the weights recalculated for the 15–49 age group. (5) Data were collected for women aged 10-49 and indicators were calculated for women 15-49. (6) Data were collected for women aged 13-49 and indicators were calculated for women 15-49. (7) For Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal and Sweden, holders include “holders without agricultural land”. Table A6: Share of adult population with chronic energy deficiency (CED – body mass index less than 18.5) by sex and share of children underweight by sex, residence and household wealth quintile, most recent observations Source: WHO, 2010. Share of women with CED The share of adult women who have a body mass index (BMI) (kg/m2) less than 18.5. Share of men with CED The share of adult men who have a body mass index (BMI) (kg/m2) less than 18.5. Share of children underweight Underweight prevalence, among children under five years of age (0–59 months unless otherwise noted) is estimated as the share of those children whose weight is below minus two standard deviations from the median weight for age of the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS)/WHO/Centers for Disease Control and Statistics (CDC) international standard reference population. Residence Criteria used to define rural and urban are often country-specific; data in this table are based on national definitions. Household wealth quintile Household ownership of assets and access to services is measured and principle components analysis is used to calculate an index, the value of which is assigned to each member of the household. The index
- 100. 88 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 scores for the entire population are then arranged in ascending order and the distribution is divided at the points that form the five 20 percent cohorts. Symbols used and additional notes on the data (C) Indicates no observations available for both men and women from the same year for chronic energy deficiency (CED). For share of underweight children, observations are for children aged 0–59 months unless indicated by: (1) 6–59 months, (2) 0–71 months, (3) 3–59 months (4) 6–39 months and (5) 24–59 months. The national BMI data displayed in this table are empirical and it has been verified that they apply internationally recommended BMI cut-off points. However, it should be noted the data presented are not directly comparable because they vary in terms of sampling procedures, age ranges and the year(s) of data collection. For details, refer to WHO, 2010. Country groups and aggregates The tables in this publication contain country group composites for all indicators for which aggregates can be calculated. These are generally weighted averages that are calculated for the country groupings as described below. In general, an aggregate is shown for a country grouping only when data are available for at least half the countries and represent at least two-thirds of the available population in that classification. Country and regional notes Regional and subregional groupings, as well as the designation of developing and developed regions, follow the standard country or area codes for statistical use developed by the United Nations Statistics Division. They are available at http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/ m49/m49regin.htm Whenever possible, data from 1992 or later are shown for the individual countries of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. Data before 1992 are shown under the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (“USSR” in the table listings). Separate observations are shown for Belgium and Luxembourg whenever possible. Unless otherwise noted, data for China include data for Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China, Macao Special Administrative Region of China, and Taiwan Province of China. Data for China, mainland do not include those areas. Data are shown when possible for the individual countries formed from the former Czechoslovakia – the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Data before 1993 are shown under Czechoslovakia.
- 101. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 89 Data are shown for Eritrea and Ethiopia separately, if possible; in most cases before 1992 data on Eritrea and Ethiopia are aggregated and presented as Ethiopia PDR. Data for Yemen refer to that country from 1990 onward; data for previous years refer to aggregated data of the former People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen and the former Yemen Arab Republic. Data for years prior to 1992 are provided for the former Yugoslavia (“Yugoslavia SFR” in the table listings). Observations from the years 1992 to 2006 are provided for the individual countries formed from the former Yugoslavia; these are Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and Slovenia, as well as Serbia and Montenegro. Observations are provided separately for Serbia and for Montenegro after the year 2006 when Serbia and Montenegro separated and became two independent states.
- 102. 90 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A1 Total population, female share of population and rural share of population in 1980, 1995 and 2010 Population Total Female share Rural share (Thousands) (% of total) (% of total) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 WORLD 4 428 081 5 713 069 6 908 685 49.7 49.6 49.6 60.9 55.3 49.4 COUNTRIES IN DEVELOPING 3 299 983 4 538 389 5 671 456 49.0 49.1 49.2 70.7 62.4 54.7 REGIONS AFRICA 482 232 726 284 1 033 043 50.3 50.2 50.1 72.1 65.8 59.9 Sub-Saharan Africa 389 751 593 182 863 315 50.4 50.4 50.2 76.1 69.3 62.5 Eastern Africa 143 491 219 874 327 187 50.6 50.6 50.4 85.3 80.4 76.2 Burundi 4 130 6 167 8 519 51.9 51.3 50.9 95.7 92.8 89.0 Comoros 384 615 890 49.7 49.8 49.9 76.8 71.7 71.8 Djibouti 340 624 879 50.3 50.2 50.1 27.9 20.2 11.9 Eritrea 3 206 5 224 51.2 50.8 83.4 78.4 Ethiopia 56 983 84 976 50.3 50.2 86.1 82.4 Ethiopia PDR (A) 37 878 50.4 89.3 Kenya 16 261 27 492 40 863 50.2 50.2 50.0 84.3 81.0 77.8 Madagascar 8 604 13 121 20 146 49.7 50.0 50.2 81.5 74.2 69.8 Malawi 6 215 10 144 15 692 51.6 50.6 50.3 90.9 86.7 80.2 Mauritius 966 1 129 1 297 50.7 50.1 50.5 57.7 56.7 57.4 Mozambique 12 138 15 945 23 406 51.1 52.3 51.3 86.9 73.8 61.6 Réunion 506 664 837 51.2 51.1 51.3 46.6 13.9 6.0 Rwanda 5 197 5 440 10 277 52.0 52.1 51.5 95.3 91.7 81.2 Seychelles 66 76 85 50.0 50.0 49.4 50.0 50.0 44.7 Somalia 6 434 6 521 9 359 50.6 50.5 50.4 73.2 68.6 62.5 Uganda 12 655 20 954 33 796 50.2 50.2 49.9 92.5 88.3 86.7 United Republic of Tanzania 18 661 29 972 45 040 50.6 50.5 50.1 85.4 79.5 73.6 Zambia 5 774 9 108 13 257 50.3 50.3 50.1 60.2 62.9 64.3 Zimbabwe 7 282 11 713 12 644 50.3 50.6 51.6 77.6 68.3 61.7 Middle Africa 53 793 86 423 128 908 50.9 50.6 50.4 71.0 65.2 56.9 Angola 7 854 12 539 18 993 50.8 50.7 50.7 75.7 56.0 41.5 Cameroon 9 080 14 054 19 958 50.4 50.3 50.0 68.1 54.7 41.6 Central African Republic 2 269 3 335 4 506 50.9 50.9 50.9 66.1 62.8 61.1 Chad 4 608 7 128 11 506 50.8 50.5 50.3 81.2 78.1 72.4 Congo 1 815 2 782 3 759 50.3 50.2 50.1 52.1 43.6 37.9 Democratic Republic 27 170 44 921 67 827 51.1 50.6 50.4 71.3 71.6 64.8 of the Congo Equatorial Guinea 220 452 693 51.4 50.7 50.4 72.3 61.1 60.3 Gabon 682 1 084 1 501 50.7 50.5 50.0 45.3 24.6 14.0 Sao Tome and Principe 95 128 165 50.5 50.0 50.3 66.3 51.6 37.6 Northern Africa 112 990 163 943 212 920 49.8 49.7 49.8 59.9 53.6 48.3 Algeria 18 811 28 265 35 423 49.8 49.6 49.5 56.5 44.0 33.5
- 103. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 91 TABLE A1 (cont.) Population Total Female share Rural share (Thousands) (% of total) (% of total) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 Egypt 44 433 63 858 84 474 49.9 49.6 49.7 56.1 57.2 57.2 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 3 063 4 834 6 546 46.6 47.6 48.4 29.9 24.0 22.1 Morocco 19 567 26 951 32 381 50.0 50.3 50.9 58.8 48.3 43.3 Sudan 20 509 30 841 43 192 49.9 49.7 49.6 80.0 68.7 54.8 Tunisia 6 457 8 935 10 374 49.3 49.5 49.7 49.4 38.5 32.7 Western Sahara 150 259 530 46.0 47.9 47.2 22.7 12.7 18.1 Southern Africa 32 972 47 240 57 968 50.5 50.9 50.7 55.3 48.6 41.2 Botswana 985 1 550 1 978 51.2 50.6 49.9 83.6 51.0 38.9 Lesotho 1 296 1 726 2 084 53.9 53.4 52.7 88.5 83.0 73.1 Namibia 1 013 1 620 2 212 51.2 51.1 50.7 74.9 70.2 62.0 South Africa 29 075 41 375 50 492 50.3 50.7 50.7 51.6 45.5 38.3 Swaziland 603 969 1 202 52.6 52.0 51.0 82.3 77.0 74.5 Western Africa 138 986 208 804 306 060 50.1 50.0 49.9 72.8 64.1 55.4 Benin 3 560 5 723 9 212 51.6 50.3 49.5 72.7 63.3 58.0 Burkina Faso 6 862 10 127 16 287 50.5 50.6 50.0 91.2 84.9 79.6 Cape Verde 289 398 513 54.3 52.8 52.0 76.5 51.3 38.8 Côte d’Ivoire 8 419 14 981 21 571 48.0 48.2 49.1 63.1 58.6 49.9 Gambia 616 1 085 1 751 50.6 50.5 50.4 71.6 56.1 41.9 Ghana 11 026 17 245 24 333 49.5 49.4 49.3 68.8 59.9 48.5 Guinea 4 628 7 478 10 324 49.8 49.5 49.5 76.4 70.5 64.6 Guinea-Bissau 836 1 166 1 647 50.6 50.5 50.5 82.4 70.2 70.0 Liberia 1 910 1 945 4 102 50.7 50.6 50.3 64.8 50.0 38.5 Mali 7 183 9 549 13 323 49.9 50.5 50.6 81.5 74.5 66.7 Mauritania 1 525 2 270 3 366 49.8 49.7 49.3 72.7 60.2 58.6 Niger 5 922 9 302 15 891 50.2 50.4 49.9 86.6 84.2 83.3 Nigeria 74 523 110 449 158 259 50.3 50.2 49.9 71.4 61.1 50.2 Saint Helena 5 5 4 60.0 60.0 50.0 60.0 60.0 75.0 Senegal 5 636 8 660 12 861 49.4 50.1 50.4 64.2 60.2 57.1 Sierra Leone 3 261 3 989 5 836 51.4 51.5 51.3 70.9 65.8 61.6 Togo 2 785 4 432 6 780 50.7 50.6 50.5 75.3 66.8 56.6 ASIA EXCLUDING JAPAN 2 450 128 3 322 591 4 039 744 48.6 48.7 48.7 64.9 57.4 50.7 Central Asia 53 399 61 349 50.8 50.9 57.0 57.7 Kazakhstan 15 926 15 753 51.7 52.4 44.1 41.5 Kyrgyzstan 4 592 5 550 50.8 50.6 63.7 63.4 Tajikistan 5 775 7 075 50.0 50.6 71.1 73.5 Turkmenistan 4 187 5 177 50.6 50.7 54.7 50.5 Uzbekistan 22 919 27 794 50.4 50.3 61.6 63.1
- 104. 92 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A1 (cont.) Population Total Female share Rural share (Thousands) (% of total) (% of total) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 Eastern Asia excluding 1 042 581 1 286 233 1 436 956 48.6 48.4 48.2 78.0 66.2 53.2 Japan China(A) 986 220 1 217 595 1 361 763 48.5 48.3 48.1 80.0 68.3 54.8 China, Hong Kong SAR 5 039 6 214 7 069 47.9 50.3 52.6 8.5 0.0 0.0 China, Macao SAR 252 412 548 49.2 51.7 52.4 1.6 0.0 0.0 China, mainland 963 123 1 189 612 1 330 840 49.4 49.2 48.9 81.8 69.9 56.0 Democratic People’s 17 239 21 717 23 991 51.3 50.9 50.6 43.1 40.9 36.6 Republic of Korea Mongolia 1 663 2 270 2 701 49.9 50.0 50.6 47.9 43.2 42.5 Republic of Korea 37 459 44 651 48 501 49.9 49.9 50.5 43.3 21.8 18.1 Southeastern Asia 355 774 479 834 589 616 50.2 50.2 50.2 74.5 64.7 51.8 Brunei Darussalam 193 295 407 46.6 47.5 48.4 39.9 31.5 24.3 Cambodia 6 748 11 380 15 053 53.7 51.9 51.0 91.0 85.8 77.2 Indonesia 146 582 191 501 232 517 49.9 49.9 50.1 77.9 64.4 46.3 Lao People’s Democratic 3 238 4 809 6 436 50.3 50.0 50.1 87.6 82.6 66.8 Republic Malaysia 13 763 20 594 27 914 49.7 49.2 49.2 58.0 44.3 27.8 Myanmar 33 561 43 864 50 496 50.6 50.7 51.2 76.0 73.9 66.1 Philippines 48 112 69 965 93 617 49.6 49.6 49.6 62.5 46.0 33.6 Singapore 2 415 3 480 4 837 48.9 49.7 49.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 Thailand 47 264 60 140 68 139 49.9 50.5 50.8 73.2 69.7 66.0 Timor-Leste 581 849 1 171 49.1 48.6 49.1 83.6 77.4 71.9 Viet Nam 53 317 72 957 89 029 51.5 51.3 50.6 80.8 77.8 71.2 Southern Asia 949 618 1 332 534 1 719 122 48.0 48.3 48.6 76.6 72.3 68.1 Afghanistan 13 946 18 084 29 117 48.1 48.2 48.2 84.3 80.2 75.2 Bangladesh 90 397 128 086 164 425 48.5 49.2 49.4 85.1 78.3 71.9 Bhutan 423 509 708 48.2 49.1 47.3 89.8 79.4 63.1 India 692 637 953 148 1 214 464 48.0 48.1 48.4 76.9 73.4 69.9 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 39 330 62 205 75 078 48.8 49.1 49.2 50.3 39.8 30.5 Maldives 158 248 314 47.5 48.8 49.4 77.8 74.2 59.6 Nepal 15 058 21 624 29 853 48.7 49.9 50.3 93.9 89.1 81.8 Pakistan 82 609 130 397 184 753 47.4 48.2 48.5 71.9 68.2 63.0 Sri Lanka 15 060 18 233 20 410 49.0 49.8 50.8 81.2 83.6 84.9 Western Asia 102 155 170 591 232 701 48.8 48.7 48.6 48.6 37.6 33.7 Armenia 3 223 3 090 52.6 53.4 33.7 36.3 Azerbaijan 7 784 8 934 51.1 51.1 47.8 47.8 Bahrain 347 578 807 41.8 41.7 42.6 13.8 11.6 11.4 Cyprus 611 731 880 50.1 50.1 51.3 41.4 32.0 29.8 Georgia 5 069 4 219 52.5 53.0 46.1 47.0 Iraq 14 024 20 971 31 467 49.0 49.8 49.4 34.5 31.2 33.6 Israel 3 764 5 374 7 285 50.0 50.7 50.4 11.4 9.1 8.3
- 105. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 93 TABLE A1 (cont.) Population Total Female share Rural share (Thousands) (% of total) (% of total) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 Jordan 2 225 4 304 6 472 48.3 47.7 48.7 40.0 21.8 21.5 Kuwait 1 375 1 725 3 051 42.7 39.9 40.6 5.2 1.9 1.6 Lebanon 2 785 3 491 4 255 50.4 50.8 51.0 26.3 15.2 12.8 Occupied Palestinian 1 476 2 617 4 409 48.4 49.3 49.1 37.5 29.6 27.9 Territory (A) Oman 1 187 2 172 2 905 47.3 41.0 43.7 52.5 28.3 28.3 Qatar 229 526 1 508 36.2 34.0 24.6 10.5 5.9 4.2 Saudi Arabia 9 604 18 255 26 246 46.0 44.2 45.3 34.1 21.3 17.9 Syrian Arab Republic 8 971 14 610 22 505 49.6 49.6 49.5 53.3 49.9 45.1 Turkey 46 161 61 206 75 705 49.5 49.6 49.8 56.2 37.9 30.4 United Arab Emirates 1 015 2 432 4 707 30.9 33.9 32.9 19.3 21.6 21.9 Yemen 8 381 15 523 24 256 50.1 49.3 49.4 83.5 76.2 68.2 LATIN AMERICA 362 654 482 265 588 647 50.1 50.4 50.6 35.1 27.0 20.7 AND THE CARIBBEAN Caribbean 29 860 36 640 42 311 50.1 50.3 50.5 48.3 41.0 33.2 Anguilla 7 10 15 42.9 50.0 53.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 Antigua and Barbuda 72 68 89 51.4 51.5 50.6 65.3 66.2 69.7 Aruba 61 80 107 50.8 51.3 52.3 49.2 51.3 53.3 Bahamas 210 281 346 50.5 50.5 51.2 27.1 19.2 15.9 Barbados 249 258 257 52.2 51.9 51.4 60.2 65.5 59.1 British Virgin Islands 11 18 23 54.5 50.0 52.2 81.8 61.1 60.9 Cayman Islands 17 33 57 52.9 51.5 50.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 Cuba 9 835 10 910 11 204 49.4 49.8 49.9 31.9 25.7 24.3 Dominica 73 69 67 50.7 50.7 50.7 37.0 30.4 25.4 Dominican Republic 5 927 8 124 10 225 49.4 49.6 49.8 48.7 42.2 29.5 Grenada 89 100 104 51.7 51.0 50.0 67.4 69.0 69.2 Guadeloupe 327 405 467 51.1 51.4 52.0 2.1 1.5 1.7 Haiti 5 691 7 861 10 188 50.8 50.6 50.6 79.5 67.4 50.4 Jamaica 2 133 2 466 2 730 50.7 50.7 51.1 53.3 49.4 46.3 Martinique 326 370 406 51.5 52.2 53.2 20.2 2.2 2.0 Montserrat 12 10 6 50.0 50.0 50.0 83.3 90.0 83.3 Netherlands Antilles 174 191 201 51.7 52.4 53.7 19.0 12.0 7.0 Puerto Rico 3 197 3 701 3 998 51.3 51.7 52.1 33.1 12.9 1.2 Saint Kitts and Nevis 43 43 52 51.2 51.2 51.9 65.1 67.4 67.3 Saint Lucia 118 147 174 50.8 51.0 51.1 73.7 70.7 71.8 Saint Vincent 100 108 109 52.0 50.0 49.5 73.0 57.4 52.3 and the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago 1 082 1 265 1 344 50.0 50.9 51.4 89.1 90.4 86.1 Turks and Caicos Islands 8 15 33 50.0 53.3 51.5 37.5 20.0 6.1 United States Virgin Islands 98 107 109 52.0 52.3 53.2 20.4 9.3 4.6
- 106. 94 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A1 (cont.) Population Total Female share Rural share (Thousands) (% of total) (% of total) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 Central America 91 879 124 004 153 115 50.1 50.4 50.8 39.8 32.9 28.3 Belize 144 220 313 49.3 49.5 49.5 50.7 52.7 47.3 Costa Rica 2 349 3 479 4 640 49.0 49.2 49.2 56.9 44.2 35.7 El Salvador 4 663 5 728 6 194 50.8 51.6 52.9 55.9 46.0 38.7 Guatemala 7 016 10 007 14 377 49.4 50.3 51.3 62.6 56.9 50.5 Honduras 3 634 5 588 7 616 49.8 49.9 50.0 65.1 57.7 51.2 Mexico 68 872 91 650 110 645 50.2 50.5 50.8 33.7 26.6 22.2 Nicaragua 3 250 4 659 5 822 49.9 50.2 50.5 50.1 46.5 42.7 Panama 1 951 2 673 3 508 49.2 49.5 49.6 49.6 40.0 25.2 South America 240 915 321 621 393 221 50.1 50.4 50.6 31.6 23.0 16.4 Argentina 28 154 34 772 40 666 50.6 50.9 50.9 17.1 11.3 7.6 Bolivia (Plurinational 5 356 7 484 10 031 50.7 50.3 50.1 54.6 40.6 33.5 State of) Brazil 121 618 161 692 195 423 50.1 50.5 50.8 32.6 22.2 13.5 Chile 11 181 14 410 17 135 50.7 50.6 50.5 18.8 15.6 11.0 Colombia 26 891 36 459 46 300 50.2 50.6 50.8 37.9 29.5 24.9 Ecuador 7 964 11 407 13 775 49.7 49.8 49.9 53.0 42.2 33.1 Falkland Islands (Malvinas) 2 2 3 50.0 50.0 66.7 50.0 0.0 0.0 French Guiana 68 139 231 48.5 48.2 50.2 29.4 25.2 23.8 Guyana 776 759 761 50.5 51.4 48.6 69.5 70.9 71.6 Paraguay 3 199 4 802 6 460 49.6 49.4 49.5 58.3 47.9 38.5 Peru 17 328 23 943 29 496 49.7 49.8 49.9 35.4 29.7 28.4 Suriname 366 436 524 49.5 49.3 50.0 45.1 29.8 24.4 Uruguay 2 916 3 224 3 372 51.0 51.6 51.7 14.6 9.5 7.4 Venezuela (Bolivarian 15 096 22 092 29 044 49.4 49.6 49.8 20.8 13.2 6.0 Republic of) OCEANIA EXCLUDING AUSTRALIA AND 4 969 7 249 10 022 47.5 48.7 49.2 78.2 75.9 76.8 NEW ZEALAND American Samoa 33 53 69 48.5 49.1 49.3 24.2 15.1 7.2 Cook Islands 18 19 20 50.0 47.4 50.0 44.4 42.1 25.0 Fiji 634 768 854 49.4 49.2 49.3 62.1 54.6 46.6 French Polynesia 151 216 272 47.7 48.1 48.9 42.4 46.3 48.5 Guam 107 146 180 47.7 47.9 48.9 6.5 8.2 6.7 Kiribati 55 77 100 49.1 49.4 52.0 67.3 63.6 56.0 Marshall Islands 51 63 49.0 52.4 33.3 28.6 Micronesia (Federated 107 111 48.6 48.6 74.8 77.5 States of) Nauru 7 10 10 57.1 50.0 50.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 New Caledonia 143 193 254 48.3 48.7 50.0 42.7 39.9 34.6 Niue 3 2 1 66.7 50.0 100 100 50.0 100 Northern Mariana Islands 58 88 50.0 52.3 10.3 9.1 Palau 17 21 47.1 52.4 29.4 19.0
- 107. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 95 TABLE A1 (cont.) Population Total Female share Rural share (Thousands) (% of total) (% of total) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 Papua New Guinea 3 199 4 709 6 888 46.8 48.7 49.2 87.0 85.9 87.5 Samoa 155 168 179 49.0 48.2 48.0 78.7 78.6 76.5 Solomon Islands 229 362 536 48.0 48.1 48.1 89.5 85.4 81.3 Tokelau 2 1 1 50.0 100 100 100 100 100 Tonga 97 97 104 49.5 49.5 49.0 78.4 77.3 75.0 Tuvalu 8 9 10 50.0 55.6 50.0 75.0 55.6 50.0 Vanuatu 117 172 246 47.0 48.8 48.8 85.5 79.7 74.4 Wallis and Futuna Islands 11 14 15 54.5 50.0 53.3 100 100 100 COUNTRIES IN DEVELOPED 1 127 965 1 174 680 1 237 229 51.7 51.5 51.4 32.1 27.8 24.9 REGIONS ASIA AND OCEANIA 134 636 147 245 152 810 50.7 50.9 51.1 37.0 32.2 29.5 Australia 14 695 18 118 21 512 50.1 50.3 50.3 14.2 13.9 10.9 Japan 116 794 125 442 126 995 50.8 51.0 51.3 40.4 35.4 33.2 New Zealand 3 147 3 685 4 303 50.3 50.6 50.6 16.6 14.7 13.2 EUROPE 739 232 727 362 732 760 52.1 51.9 51.9 33.2 29.0 27.4 Eastern Europe 369 928 309 805 291 485 52.8 52.6 53.1 39.2 31.8 31.6 Belarus 10 270 9 588 53.1 53.5 32.1 25.7 Bulgaria 8 862 8 357 7 497 50.2 51.0 51.7 37.9 32.2 28.3 Czech Republic 10 319 10 411 51.4 50.9 25.4 26.5 Czechoslovakia (A) 15 260 51.3 32.5 Hungary 10 707 10 332 9 973 51.6 52.2 52.5 35.8 34.8 31.7 Poland 35 574 38 595 38 038 51.3 51.3 51.8 41.9 38.5 38.8 Republic of Moldova 4 339 3 576 52.2 52.5 53.7 58.8 Romania 22 201 22 681 21 190 50.7 51.0 51.4 53.9 46.0 45.4 Russian Federation 148 497 140 367 53.1 53.8 26.6 27.2 Slovakia 5 352 5 412 51.3 51.5 43.4 43.2 Ukraine 51 063 45 433 53.6 53.9 33.0 31.9 USSR (A) 265 407 53.4 37.4 Yugoslav SFR (A) 11 917 51.0 54.5 Northern Europe 82 479 93 260 98 907 51.1 51.3 50.9 16.8 17.0 15.6 Denmark 5 123 5 228 5 481 50.6 50.7 50.4 16.3 15.0 12.8 Estonia 1 439 1 339 53.6 53.9 30.0 30.5 Faroe Islands 43 43 50 51.2 51.2 50.0 69.8 69.8 58.0 Finland 4 780 5 108 5 346 51.7 51.3 51.0 40.2 38.6 36.1 Iceland 228 267 329 49.6 49.8 48.6 11.8 8.2 7.6 Ireland 3 401 3 609 4 589 49.7 50.3 49.9 44.7 42.1 38.1 Latvia 2 492 2 240 53.9 53.9 31.3 31.8 Lithuania 3 630 3 255 52.9 53.2 32.7 32.8
- 108. 96 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A1 (cont.) Population Total Female share Rural share (Thousands) (% of total) (% of total) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 Norway 4 086 4 359 4 855 50.4 50.6 50.3 29.4 26.2 22.4 Sweden 8 310 8 827 9 293 50.5 50.6 50.3 16.9 16.2 15.3 United Kingdom 56 508 58 258 62 130 51.3 51.4 50.9 12.2 11.2 10.1 Southern Europe 116 325 143 699 153 780 51.2 51.2 51.0 34.8 35.3 32.5 Albania 2 671 3 134 3 169 48.4 49.6 50.7 66.2 61.1 52.0 Andorra 37 65 87 48.6 47.7 48.3 8.1 6.2 11.5 Bosnia and Herzegovina 3 332 3 760 51.5 51.9 58.9 51.4 Croatia 4 669 4 410 51.8 51.8 45.1 42.2 Gibraltar 28 29 31 46.4 48.3 48.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 Greece 9 643 10 672 11 183 50.9 50.6 50.4 42.3 40.7 38.6 Holy See 1 1 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Italy 56 307 57 207 60 098 51.5 51.6 51.3 33.4 33.1 31.6 Malta 324 378 410 51.2 50.5 50.2 10.2 9.0 5.4 Montenegro 626 50.8 40.4 Portugal 9 766 10 038 10 732 51.9 51.8 51.6 57.2 48.9 39.3 San Marino 21 26 32 47.6 46.2 46.9 19.0 7.7 6.3 Serbia (A) 9 856 50.5 47.6 Serbia and Montenegro (A) 10 828 50.4 49.0 Slovenia 1 966 2 025 51.4 51.2 49.4 52.0 Spain 37 527 39 391 45 317 51.0 51.0 50.7 27.2 24.1 22.6 The former Yugoslav 1 963 2 043 50.0 50.1 39.7 32.1 Republic of Macedonia Western Europe 170 500 180 598 188 588 51.8 51.3 51.1 27.3 25.2 23.0 Austria 7 549 7 936 8 387 52.7 51.8 51.2 34.6 34.2 32.4 Belgium 10 698 51.0 2.6 Belgium-Luxembourg (A) 10 192 10 493 51.1 51.1 5.2 3.8 France 53 950 57 999 62 637 51.2 51.4 51.4 26.7 25.1 22.2 Germany 78 289 81 622 82 057 52.4 51.4 50.9 27.2 26.7 26.2 Liechtenstein 25 31 36 52.0 51.6 52.8 84.0 83.9 86.1 Luxembourg 492 50.4 17.7 Monaco 26 31 33 53.8 51.6 51.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 Netherlands 14 150 15 448 16 653 50.4 50.6 50.4 35.3 27.2 17.1 Switzerland 6 319 7 038 7 595 51.4 51.2 51.2 42.9 26.4 26.4 NORTHERN AMERICA 254 097 300 073 351 659 50.9 50.9 50.6 26.1 22.7 17.9 Bermuda 56 61 65 48.2 49.2 49.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 Canada 24 516 29 302 33 890 50.2 50.5 50.5 24.3 22.3 19.4 Greenland 50 56 57 48.0 48.2 49.1 24.0 19.6 15.8 Saint Pierre and Miquelon 6 6 6 50.0 50.0 50.0 16.7 16.7 16.7 United States of America 229 469 270 648 317 641 51.0 50.9 50.6 26.3 22.7 17.7
- 109. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 97 TABLE A2 Female share of national, rural and urban population aged 15–49, most recent and earliest observations Most recent observation Earliest observation (1999–2008) (1960–1980) (%) (%) National Rural Urban National Rural Urban WORLD COUNTRIES IN DEVELOPING REGIONS AFRICA Sub-Saharan Africa Eastern Africa Burundi .. .. .. 50.1 50.2 46.2 Comoros .. .. .. 52.2 52.6 51.0 Djibouti .. .. .. .. .. .. Eritrea .. .. Ethiopia 50.0 49.9 50.5 Ethiopia PDR .. .. .. Kenya 50.9 54.3 38.9 51.1 53.2 37.6 Madagascar .. .. .. 51.6 51.5 51.8 Malawi 51.4 52.1 48.7 53.3 54.5 42.6 Mauritius 49.7 49.6 49.9 .. .. .. Mozambique .. .. .. .. .. .. Réunion .. .. .. .. .. .. Rwanda 52.9 55.0 44.3 52.3 53.1 40.8 Seychelles .. .. .. 51.7 50.6 54.8 Somalia 50.5 50.1 51.2 .. .. .. Uganda 52.3 52.5 51.5 50.2 51.1 42.3 United Republic of Tanzania .. .. .. 52.4 53.7 45.9 Zambia 51.7 52.4 50.5 53.1 56.8 47.9 Zimbabwe 52.3 53.2 50.9 .. .. .. Middle Africa Angola .. .. .. .. .. .. Cameroon .. .. .. 53.3 56.0 47.3 Central African Republic .. .. .. 54.5 55.2 53.1 Chad .. .. .. .. .. .. Congo .. .. .. .. .. .. Democratic Republic of the Congo .. .. .. .. .. .. Equatorial Guinea .. .. .. .. .. .. Gabon .. .. .. .. .. .. Sao Tome and Principe 51.4 49.5 52.8 .. .. .. Northern Africa 49.3 50.7 47.1 Algeria .. .. .. 50.7 50.8 50.5
- 110. 98 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A2 (cont.) Most recent observation Earliest observation (1999–2008) (1960–1980) (%) (%) National Rural Urban National Rural Urban Egypt .. .. .. 50.5 51.2 49.3 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 49.5 49.9 49.5 48.2 49.5 47.2 Morocco 51.2 51.0 51.4 51.8 52.2 51.0 Sudan .. .. .. 51.4 53.7 45.1 Tunisia .. .. .. 50.3 51.8 48.4 Western Sahara .. .. .. 42.4 45.4 38.5 Southern Africa 51.7 51.7 52.3 50.1 53.5 43.3 Botswana 52.4 50.9 53.2 52.5 52.6 47.5 Lesotho 50.8 49.2 54.9 .. .. .. Namibia 51.6 52.6 50.1 48.7 52.3 39.2 South Africa 52.0 54.0 50.7 49.0 55.6 43.2 Swaziland .. .. .. .. .. .. Western Africa Benin 54.0 55.7 51.8 57.4 59.1 55.0 Burkina Faso 54.2 55.9 49.7 52.7 53.0 48.9 Cape Verde 51.4 52.5 50.6 .. .. .. Côte d’Ivoire .. .. .. 48.7 51.7 43.4 Gambia .. .. .. .. .. .. Ghana 51.3 51.1 51.4 .. .. .. Guinea .. .. .. .. .. .. Guinea-Bissau .. .. .. .. .. .. Liberia .. .. .. 52.2 54.9 46.3 Mali .. .. .. .. .. .. Mauritania .. .. .. .. .. .. Niger 51.3 51.6 50.0 .. .. .. Nigeria .. .. .. 51.3 52.6 45.2 Saint Helena .. .. .. .. .. .. Senegal 53.7 54.4 53.0 52.6 53.0 51.8 Sierra Leone .. .. .. .. .. .. Togo .. .. .. .. .. .. ASIA EXCLUDING JAPAN 49.5 49.2 49.5 Central Asia 50.2 49.5 51.0 49.8 50.0 49.6 Kazakhstan 50.6 48.5 52.3 49.8 48.5 50.8 Kyrgyzstan 50.1 49.0 52.0 49.8 49.6 50.2 Tajikistan 50.1 50.3 49.5 50.0 50.7 48.8 Turkmenistan .. .. .. 49.7 50.5 48.8 Uzbekistan 50.2 50.3 50.0 49.9 50.4 49.2 Eastern Asia excluding Japan 49.3 47.8 49.9 China 48.7 48.6 48.8 .. .. ..
- 111. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 99 TABLE A2 (cont.) Most recent observation Earliest observation (1999–2008) (1960–1980) (%) (%) National Rural Urban National Rural Urban China, Hong Kong SAR .. .. .. .. .. .. China, Macao SAR .. .. .. 50.7 48.4 50.8 China, mainland .. .. .. .. .. .. Democratic People’s Republic of Korea .. .. .. .. .. .. Mongolia 50.3 48.5 51.4 .. .. .. Republic of Korea 49.1 46.4 49.6 50.3 50.2 50.4 Southeastern Asia 50.2 49.7 50.7 Brunei Darussalam 49.8 47.8 50.5 47.1 50.0 43.9 Cambodia 51.1 50.9 51.9 50.5 50.7 48.5 Indonesia 50.3 50.1 50.5 52.7 52.7 53.0 Lao People’s Democratic Republic 50.4 50.6 50.0 .. .. .. Malaysia 49.2 48.6 49.5 .. .. .. Myanmar .. .. .. .. .. .. Philippines .. .. .. 51.3 50.3 53.1 Singapore .. .. .. .. .. .. Thailand 50.4 50.0 51.5 50.5 50.5 50.7 Timor-Leste .. .. .. .. .. .. Viet Nam 50.2 49.8 51.2 .. .. .. Southern Asia 49.4 49.9 47.9 48.7 49.4 44.9 Afghanistan .. .. .. 49.2 49.3 48.3 Bangladesh 50.0 51.4 46.2 48.4 49.4 39.5 Bhutan 46.1 47.2 44.2 .. .. .. India 48.2 48.7 47.0 48.4 49.5 43.9 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 49.3 49.2 49.3 48.7 49.7 47.1 Maldives 50.8 50.6 51.1 46.5 46.3 48.5 Nepal 50.9 51.6 48.2 51.5 51.8 45.6 Pakistan 49.6 50.2 48.7 47.7 48.9 40.9 Sri Lanka 50.2 50.5 48.6 48.9 49.9 45.4 Western Asia 48.9 48.5 49.1 47.2 48.5 46.0 Armenia 50.7 49.2 51.6 50.7 49.8 51.1 Azerbaijan 50.3 49.8 50.7 50.2 52.1 48.9 Bahrain .. .. .. 43.4 49.2 42.0 Cyprus 50.8 49.2 51.5 52.0 53.0 50.4 Georgia 51.7 49.7 53.5 51.5 50.4 52.4 Iraq 49.8 50.3 49.6 49.9 51.4 48.3 Israel 49.8 48.7 49.9 50.2 48.6 50.5 Jordan 48.2 48.0 48.3 48.4 49.0 47.9 Kuwait .. .. .. .. .. .. Lebanon .. .. .. 49.5 50.0 49.2 Occupied Palestinian Territory .. .. .. Oman 38.5 40.3 37.9 .. .. ..
- 112. 100 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A2 (cont.) Most recent observation Earliest observation (1999–2008) (1960–1980) (%) (%) National Rural Urban National Rural Urban Qatar .. .. .. .. .. .. Saudi Arabia .. .. .. .. .. .. Syrian Arab Republic 50.0 50.3 49.9 49.5 50.5 47.9 Turkey 49.1 49.9 48.7 48.5 51.4 42.0 United Arab Emirates .. .. .. 22.5 26.8 21.8 Yemen .. .. .. .. .. .. LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN 50.7 48.3 51.8 50.9 48.6 53.3 Caribbean Anguilla .. .. .. .. .. .. Antigua and Barbuda .. .. .. 53.5 52.4 55.0 Aruba .. .. .. .. .. .. Bahamas .. .. .. .. .. .. Barbados .. .. .. .. .. .. British Virgin Islands .. .. .. .. .. .. Cayman Islands .. .. .. .. .. .. Cuba 49.3 47.7 49.8 49.2 46.7 50.7 Dominica .. .. .. .. .. .. Dominican Republic 50.4 49.5 50.8 50.7 48.3 55.5 Grenada .. .. .. .. .. .. Guadeloupe .. .. .. .. .. .. Haiti 51.2 47.7 56.6 .. .. .. Jamaica 51.3 48.9 53.3 53.4 51.9 56.2 Martinique .. .. .. .. .. .. Montserrat .. .. .. .. .. .. Netherlands Antilles .. .. .. 50.5 50.8 51.4 Puerto Rico .. .. .. 52.5 51.8 52.9 Saint Kitts and Nevis .. .. .. 55.1 54.6 56.2 Saint Lucia 50.9 51.0 50.6 .. .. .. Saint Vincent and the Grenadines .. .. .. .. .. .. Trinidad and Tobago .. .. .. .. .. .. Turks and Caicos Islands .. .. .. .. .. .. United States Virgin Islands .. .. .. 49.3 46.4 51.5 Central America 51.6 50.2 52.7 50.9 48.4 54.2 Belize 51.4 50.5 52.2 51.5 46.4 55.7 Costa Rica 51.1 50.0 51.9 50.4 47.7 53.9 El Salvador 54.1 53.2 54.6 52.1 49.9 55.3 Guatemala 52.7 51.9 53.3 49.7 48.2 52.4 Honduras 51.0 48.4 53.2 51.3 50.3 54.2 Mexico 52.2 52.3 52.2 51.2 49.5 52.7 Nicaragua 50.9 48.6 52.6 51.9 48.6 56.6 Panama 49.7 46.9 51.6 49.5 46.6 53.0
- 113. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 101 TABLE A2 (cont.) Most recent observation Earliest observation (1999–2008) (1960–1980) (%) (%) National Rural Urban National Rural Urban South America 50.1 46.8 51.1 50.2 47.3 52.2 Argentina 49.9 47.0 50.2 50.3 45.4 51.2 Bolivia (Plurinational State of) 50.1 46.8 51.6 51.2 50.5 52.0 Brazil 50.8 46.8 51.6 50.9 49.0 52.9 Chile 49.8 46.2 50.3 51.6 45.3 54.1 Colombia 51.5 47.0 52.7 52.0 48.3 55.2 Ecuador 49.8 48.4 50.4 50.8 49.3 53.5 Falkland Islands (Malvinas) .. .. .. 42.1 40.1 44.2 French Guiana .. .. .. .. .. .. Guyana 50.1 49.0 52.6 50.5 49.7 54.5 Paraguay 49.4 46.1 51.7 52.1 50.7 54.3 Peru 50.7 48.0 51.4 50.5 50.9 50.0 Suriname 49.2 48.3 49.6 .. .. .. Uruguay 50.3 43.4 50.8 50.7 41.7 52.6 Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) 49.8 44.7 50.4 .. .. .. OCEANIA EXCLUDING AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND American Samoa .. .. .. .. .. .. Cook Islands .. .. .. .. .. .. Fiji 48.8 47.4 50.0 49.6 49.8 49.2 French Polynesia .. .. .. .. .. .. Guam .. .. .. .. .. .. Kiribati 51.0 49.9 52.3 51.6 53.2 47.2 Marshall Islands .. .. .. .. .. .. Micronesia (Federated States of) .. .. .. .. .. .. Nauru .. .. .. .. .. .. New Caledonia .. .. .. .. .. .. Niue .. .. .. .. .. .. Northern Mariana Islands 61.2 66.3 60.5 .. .. .. Palau .. .. .. .. .. .. Papua New Guinea 49.1 49.8 45.4 47.6 49.2 39.3 Samoa .. .. .. 48.6 48.4 49.6 Solomon Islands .. .. .. 48.2 50.2 29.9 Tokelau .. .. .. .. .. .. Tonga 49.5 49.3 49.9 .. .. .. Tuvalu .. .. .. .. .. .. Vanuatu .. .. .. 47.3 49.0 37.6 Wallis and Futuna Islands .. .. .. .. .. .. COUNTRIES IN DEVELOPED REGIONS 49.5 47.9 50.2 ASIA AND OCEANIA 50.1 49.3 50.2 49.8 47.9 50.1 Australia 49.8 48.9 50.0 48.7 44.8 49.5
- 114. 102 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A2 (cont.) Most recent observation Earliest observation (1999–2008) (1960–1980) (%) (%) National Rural Urban National Rural Urban Japan 49.4 49.5 49.4 51.4 52.4 50.9 New Zealand 51.0 49.4 51.2 49.3 46.4 49.8 EUROPE 49.5 47.7 50.4 Eastern Europe 49.7 47.9 50.6 51.5 51.4 51.4 Belarus 50.2 47.0 51.1 52.6 52.9 52.2 Bulgaria 49.2 46.9 50.0 49.7 49.7 49.6 Czech Republic 48.7 47.8 49.0 Czechoslovakia .. .. .. Hungary 49.4 47.8 50.2 51.6 51.7 51.4 Poland 49.5 48.1 50.4 52.5 52.7 52.4 Republic of Moldova 50.3 48.9 52.0 51.9 51.3 52.7 Romania 49.2 46.6 51.1 50.6 51.0 49.8 Russian Federation 50.6 48.9 51.2 50.2 48.1 51.0 Slovakia 49.2 48.2 50.1 .. .. .. Ukraine 50.6 48.7 51.4 52.8 54.0 52.0 USSR .. .. .. Yugoslav SFR .. .. .. Northern Europe 49.2 47.2 50.1 49.6 46.8 51.7 Denmark .. .. .. 50.1 45.7 51.5 Estonia 50.3 48.0 51.4 50.1 47.4 51.1 Faroe Islands 46.4 45.7 47.6 46.4 44.6 50.4 Finland 49.0 47.6 49.5 50.8 47.3 53.3 Iceland 47.8 43.9 48.1 49.2 47.2 51.5 Ireland 49.8 47.9 51.0 49.8 45.8 53.9 Latvia 50.0 47.2 51.4 50.5 48.4 51.3 Lithuania 50.2 47.2 51.6 50.7 48.9 51.6 Norway 49.0 47.4 49.5 49.3 46.6 51.4 Sweden .. .. .. 49.5 45.7 50.7 United Kingdom 50.4 49.7 50.6 .. .. .. Southern Europe 49.5 47.9 50.5 Albania 50.9 50.2 51.7 .. .. .. Andorra .. .. .. .. .. .. Bosnia and Herzegovina .. .. .. .. .. .. Croatia 49.6 47.6 51.1 .. .. .. Gibraltar .. .. .. .. .. .. Greece 49.1 45.3 50.1 51.4 52.7 50.7 Holy See .. .. .. .. .. .. Italy .. .. .. .. .. .. Malta 48.9 47.4 48.9 .. .. ..
- 115. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 103 TABLE A2 (cont.) Most recent observation Earliest observation (1999–2008) (1960–1980) (%) (%) National Rural Urban National Rural Urban Montenegro 49.8 47.3 51.2 .. .. .. Portugal 50.2 49.6 51.2 51.9 51.2 54.0 San Marino .. .. .. .. .. .. Serbia 49.8 47.7 51.1 Serbia and Montenegro .. .. .. Slovenia 48.4 47.9 48.8 .. .. .. Spain 49.4 48.0 50.1 51.0 49.8 52.3 The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia .. .. .. Western Europe Austria 49.5 48.3 50.1 50.7 49.6 51.7 Belgium 49.5 48.7 49.5 .. .. .. Belgium-Luxembourg .. .. .. .. .. .. France 50.1 48.2 50.6 49.4 47.6 50.2 Germany .. .. .. .. .. .. Liechtenstein .. .. .. .. .. .. Luxembourg .. .. .. 49.8 48.5 50.6 Monaco .. .. .. .. .. .. Netherlands 49.5 49.0 49.8 49.2 48.1 49.6 Switzerland 49.5 48.8 49.7 49.6 48.2 50.7 NORTHERN AMERICA 48.9 47.2 49.2 49.8 47.0 51.2 Bermuda .. .. .. .. .. .. Canada 50.4 49.3 50.7 49.6 46.8 50.8 Greenland 46.5 43.2 47.1 48.8 45.4 51.0 Saint Pierre and Miquelon .. .. .. .. .. .. United States of America 49.7 49.1 49.9 50.9 48.8 51.7
- 116. 104 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A3 Economically active population, female share of economically active population and agricultural share of economically active women in 1980, 1995 and 2010 Economically active population Total Female share Agricultural share of (Thousands) (% of total) economically active women (%) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 WORLD 1 894 978 2 575 394 3 282 308 38.1 39.6 40.5 53.5 48.7 42.0 COUNTRIES IN DEVELOPING 1 353 280 2 000 716 2 656 880 36.4 38.3 39.2 72.1 62.8 52.7 REGIONS AFRICA 172 652 268 197 407 905 38.5 39.5 41.4 78.8 70.9 62.2 Sub-Saharan Africa 147 699 227 175 346 919 41.8 42.4 43.8 79.1 72.7 65.0 Eastern Africa 61 341 97 031 152 689 46.2 47.2 48.3 91.0 86.5 79.2 Burundi 1 977 2 978 4 260 53.2 52.3 51.4 97.8 97.6 97.3 Comoros 151 250 387 43.0 42.8 43.7 93.8 88.8 82.8 Djibouti 133 249 381 42.9 43.4 43.3 91.2 87.0 79.4 Eritrea 1 200 2 086 42.1 40.9 83.4 78.5 Ethiopia 24 306 41 929 43.6 47.9 83.3 73.5 Ethiopia PDR (A) 14 833 41.1 88.6 Kenya 6 718 12 139 18 887 45.7 46.3 46.4 88.1 82.9 73.9 Madagascar 3 880 5 966 10 060 48.6 48.3 49.1 92.7 85.8 76.4 Malawi 2 876 4 302 6 542 51.6 50.2 49.8 96.1 95.1 94.0 Mauritius 370 485 589 29.7 33.0 37.0 27.3 11.3 5.5 Mozambique 5 951 7 547 10 778 51.2 55.5 55.8 97.0 95.5 94.0 Réunion 170 270 362 35.3 43.3 46.4 8.3 0.9 0.6 Rwanda 2 328 2 327 4 722 52.6 52.7 53.1 98.0 97.3 96.1 Seychelles 28 33 40 46.4 48.5 47.5 92.3 81.3 78.9 Somalia 2 437 2 565 3 731 38.0 38.4 39.2 90.2 85.4 76.7 Uganda 5 679 9 225 14 896 47.5 47.7 47.8 90.8 86.2 77.5 United Republic of Tanzania 9 084 14 855 22 339 50.2 49.8 49.7 91.8 89.6 84.0 Zambia 1 985 3 481 5 146 36.3 42.9 43.3 84.7 79.7 68.0 Zimbabwe 2 741 4 853 5 554 46.8 46.7 44.2 84.5 78.2 68.2 Middle Africa 21 068 33 670 50 767 42.7 42.0 41.8 85.4 79.9 70.2 Angola 3 421 5 397 8 447 45.7 45.6 47.3 87.3 84.4 80.6 Cameroon 3 402 5 086 7 622 43.2 40.1 41.7 86.5 77.3 54.1 Central African Republic 1 018 1 476 2 030 46.6 45.8 44.9 90.3 83.9 70.3 Chad 1 547 2 790 4 623 25.9 45.8 49.0 95.3 88.3 76.2 Congo 700 1 099 1 524 40.3 42.1 40.6 80.5 63.3 44.4 Democratic Republic of 10 558 17 137 25 488 43.8 40.5 38.5 83.7 79.1 72.6 the Congo Equatorial Guinea 87 174 268 33.3 32.8 32.5 93.1 89.5 87.4 Gabon 305 472 708 44.9 44.1 43.9 73.7 50.0 26.7 Sao Tome and Principe 30 39 57 33.3 33.3 40.4 80.0 84.6 69.6
- 117. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 105 TABLE A3 (cont.) Economically active population Total Female share Agricultural share of (Thousands) (% of total) economically active women (%) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 Northern Africa 31 554 50 078 74 694 20.4 23.9 28.3 78.2 58.5 42.8 Algeria 4 555 9 018 14 950 21.4 25.6 34.0 69.3 51.0 32.9 Egypt 11 780 18 531 27 492 16.9 22.1 25.7 82.7 55.3 39.3 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 838 1 517 2 425 13.4 18.3 24.5 62.5 20.9 8.6 Morocco 5 848 9 015 11 963 21.3 24.2 24.8 72.3 59.7 49.1 Sudan 6 601 9 056 13 708 26.5 26.7 31.3 88.4 80.3 65.1 Tunisia 1 865 2 829 3 886 19.0 23.4 27.4 52.7 37.3 24.6 Western Sahara 67 112 270 31.3 33.9 38.5 76.2 57.9 42.3 Southern Africa 10 753 16 325 21 371 41.2 43.5 45.9 23.2 14.4 9.8 Botswana 332 506 741 38.3 42.9 43.6 74.8 54.8 55.1 Lesotho 538 720 895 50.7 51.5 52.3 64.1 57.1 50.6 Namibia 309 507 769 47.2 45.4 46.8 63.7 47.8 31.9 South Africa 9 350 14 220 18 481 40.3 42.9 45.5 15.8 8.1 4.2 Swaziland 224 372 485 48.7 49.5 49.7 63.3 47.8 31.5 Western Africa 47 936 71 093 108 384 38.0 37.7 39.6 70.3 60.2 50.7 Benin 1 168 2 240 3 778 33.6 40.2 40.8 68.7 59.9 43.0 Burkina Faso 2 989 4 421 7 425 46.4 47.6 47.1 92.8 93.4 93.3 Cape Verde 90 131 195 40.0 38.2 42.6 38.9 28.0 16.9 Côte d’Ivoire 3 096 5 407 8 106 30.4 29.2 30.5 75.0 65.9 45.0 Gambia 273 483 806 46.2 45.5 46.8 92.9 90.5 86.5 Ghana 4 473 7 247 11 116 49.5 49.2 49.0 56.8 53.4 49.3 Guinea 2 210 3 535 4 968 47.5 46.9 47.1 96.4 90.3 84.3 Guinea-Bissau 331 451 613 39.3 40.1 38.2 97.7 96.1 94.4 Liberia 711 719 1 509 40.4 39.8 40.3 88.9 80.4 68.6 Mali 1 963 2 508 3 517 35.0 34.6 38.4 92.3 86.2 73.6 Mauritania 603 913 1 441 42.6 42.5 43.2 79.4 62.4 62.6 Niger 1 965 3 045 5 228 33.7 32.3 31.3 97.6 97.4 97.0 Nigeria 23 353 33 165 49 144 34.4 33.6 36.9 57.4 39.4 26.8 Saint Helena 2 2 2 50.0 50.0 50.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 Senegal 2 382 3 591 5 626 40.1 40.7 43.2 89.9 84.0 77.2 Sierra Leone 1 265 1 546 2 197 52.6 50.4 51.1 82.0 78.8 72.6 Togo 1 062 1 689 2 713 39.8 38.3 38.1 66.9 62.9 57.8 ASIA EXCLUDING JAPAN 1 052 771 1 533 185 1 964 239 36.7 38.5 38.4 76.0 67.5 57.6 Central Asia 21 059 29 095 46.7 47.0 25.0 17.8 Kazakhstan 7 773 8 427 47.6 49.8 12.6 6.8 Kyrgyzstan 1 885 2 547 45.5 42.6 23.9 14.6 Tajikistan 1 678 2 896 46.7 46.8 41.8 31.1 Turkmenistan 1 635 2 437 46.4 47.1 39.3 33.4
- 118. 106 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A3 (cont.) Economically active population Total Female share Agricultural share of (Thousands) (% of total) economically active women (%) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 Uzbekistan 8 088 12 788 46.2 46.2 31.2 20.2 Eastern Asia excluding 526 764 737 152 855 786 43.0 45.0 45.5 77.1 71.1 61.8 Japan China (A) 504 496 704 769 817 033 43.2 45.2 45.6 78.2 73.1 64.0 China, Hong Kong SAR 2 415 3 086 3 759 33.8 39.0 47.4 1.2 0.5 0.1 China, Macao SAR China, mainland Democratic People’s 7 103 10 400 12 979 39.7 41.1 44.8 52.0 37.0 23.9 Republic of Korea Mongolia 574 862 1 204 46.5 46.3 50.2 36.0 26.6 17.1 Republic of Korea 14 591 21 121 24 570 37.0 39.6 41.2 46.9 14.9 5.5 Southeastern Asia 147 907 221 405 299 123 41.2 41.9 41.6 64.2 57.1 47.8 Brunei Darussalam 71 131 195 23.9 35.9 43.6 5.9 0.0 0.0 Cambodia 3 209 4 930 8 029 54.0 51.6 48.3 80.0 76.4 69.8 Indonesia 55 181 84 276 115 905 34.9 37.8 36.9 55.8 53.4 44.2 Lao People’s Democratic 1 463 2 172 3 281 49.8 50.0 50.3 82.3 80.2 77.8 Republic Malaysia 4 984 8 167 12 445 34.5 33.9 35.8 49.3 19.3 7.5 Myanmar 15 972 22 769 29 464 44.9 45.2 46.3 80.3 75.8 70.0 Philippines 17 861 28 019 39 967 38.4 37.1 38.8 37.0 28.1 20.9 Singapore 1 117 1 740 2 637 34.6 38.7 42.1 1.3 0.1 0.0 Thailand 23 709 33 490 39 198 46.9 45.5 46.5 74.2 60.8 47.1 Timor-Leste 242 332 461 39.7 38.0 40.6 94.8 92.1 88.2 Viet Nam 24 098 35 379 47 541 49.3 49.8 48.5 75.3 71.0 64.0 Southern Asia 348 669 496 504 699 660 26.6 28.3 29.6 81.5 70.5 60.4 Afghanistan 4 548 5 620 9 384 24.1 22.4 23.4 86.0 83.9 82.0 Bangladesh 38 345 56 409 78 232 37.7 38.2 40.3 80.9 69.9 57.4 Bhutan 146 150 326 25.3 18.7 33.1 97.3 96.4 97.2 India 259 177 364 665 491 326 26.8 28.2 28.6 82.6 71.5 61.8 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 11 064 18 288 30 746 19.7 24.9 30.2 50.0 40.1 33.3 Maldives 46 70 150 21.7 27.1 42.0 40.0 21.1 14.3 Nepal 5 837 8 061 12 936 33.7 40.2 45.7 98.0 98.0 97.8 Pakistan 23 563 35 980 67 292 8.1 12.2 20.3 87.7 68.7 56.9 Sri Lanka 5 943 7 261 9 268 31.3 33.0 38.2 58.0 48.6 41.6 Western Asia 29 431 57 065 80 575 21.3 26.1 25.7 72.2 50.2 35.8 Armenia 1 375 1 575 48.4 50.2 8.0 3.0 Azerbaijan 3 229 4 633 47.3 47.9 33.1 25.6 Bahrain 136 263 384 11.0 18.3 21.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 Cyprus 282 343 446 31.9 38.5 45.7 36.7 11.4 4.9 Georgia 2 508 2 278 47.1 46.7 20.5 11.7 Iraq 3 097 5 018 7 918 12.8 14.2 17.5 62.0 32.0 15.7
- 119. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 107 TABLE A3 (cont.) Economically active population Total Female share Agricultural share of (Thousands) (% of total) economically active women (%) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 Israel 1 271 2 039 2 935 36.2 43.6 47.0 3.7 1.7 0.8 Jordan 444 1 160 1 882 11.9 14.1 17.6 58.5 35.6 22.4 Kuwait 457 823 1 541 14.2 21.5 24.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 Lebanon 857 1 190 1 563 19.8 23.7 26.0 20.0 7.1 2.2 Occupied Palestinian 465 866 1 508 26.0 26.3 26.0 57.9 36.0 22.2 Territory (A) Oman 341 778 1 123 17.3 12.5 20.4 25.4 17.5 10.5 Qatar 106 284 976 9.4 13.0 11.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Saudi Arabia 2 415 5 752 9 570 9.9 11.2 16.0 25.1 7.6 1.8 Syrian Arab Republic 2 020 4 240 7 365 13.6 22.0 21.7 78.2 65.8 56.0 Turkey 15 299 22 518 25 942 25.8 28.1 25.5 87.9 79.1 66.3 United Arab Emirates 548 1 309 2 914 5.1 11.8 15.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 Yemen 1 693 3 370 6 022 20.3 19.8 25.1 98.3 83.2 61.9 LATIN AMERICA AND 125 954 196 316 280 321 30.4 35.6 41.8 20.6 11.2 7.4 THE CARIBBEAN Caribbean 10 733 14 496 18 380 35.6 35.3 40.8 24.5 15.5 12.2 Anguilla 2 4 7 50.0 25.0 42.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 Antigua and Barbuda 26 27 38 34.6 37.0 42.1 22.2 10.0 12.5 Aruba 22 32 46 36.4 34.4 43.5 25.0 18.2 10.0 Bahamas 88 140 186 43.2 45.0 48.4 2.6 1.6 0.0 Barbados 111 144 154 44.1 47.9 48.1 8.2 4.3 2.7 British Virgin Islands 4 7 10 25.0 42.9 40.0 0.0 0.0 25.0 Cayman Islands 6 13 25 33.3 38.5 40.0 50.0 20.0 10.0 Cuba 3 495 4 853 5 239 31.0 35.4 39.7 10.4 7.4 5.0 Dominica 26 27 29 38.5 37.0 41.4 20.0 20.0 8.3 Dominican Republic 1 834 2 925 4 491 27.5 27.1 44.8 11.1 8.8 7.3 Grenada 32 40 45 37.5 35.0 40.0 25.0 14.3 11.1 Guadeloupe 126 184 213 44.4 47.3 50.7 10.7 2.3 0.0 Haiti 2 344 2 692 3 940 44.7 33.2 33.1 61.0 53.9 44.0 Jamaica 951 1 177 1 218 46.6 47.2 44.4 18.1 13.5 10.9 Martinique 127 170 185 45.7 49.4 51.9 6.9 3.6 1.0 Montserrat 4 4 3 50.0 25.0 33.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 Netherlands Antilles 69 82 98 37.7 45.1 49.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Puerto Rico 909 1 278 1 512 29.6 37.9 43.1 0.4 0.4 0.2 Saint Kitts and Nevis 15 17 23 40.0 35.3 39.1 16.7 16.7 11.1 Saint Lucia 39 61 84 30.8 41.0 41.7 25.0 16.0 11.4 Saint Vincent and 32 43 54 31.3 34.9 40.7 20.0 13.3 13.6 the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago 428 519 716 35.5 38.9 44.4 8.6 4.5 2.5 Turks and Caicos Islands 3 6 14 33.3 33.3 42.9 0.0 0.0 16.7 United States Virgin Islands 40 51 50 50.0 49.0 52.0 25.0 16.0 11.5
- 120. 108 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A3 (cont.) Economically active population Total Female share Agricultural share of (Thousands) (% of total) economically active women (%) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 Central America 29 939 46 462 64 495 30.8 31.7 36.5 18.3 9.9 6.1 Belize 39 75 131 17.9 29.3 36.6 14.3 4.5 2.1 Costa Rica 849 1 411 2 109 27.7 31.4 35.2 4.7 6.1 5.5 El Salvador 1 592 2 201 2 587 33.9 36.3 41.1 8.5 6.5 5.3 Guatemala 2 313 2 941 5 367 25.6 23.9 38.3 16.9 14.2 10.0 Honduras 1 144 1 999 2 782 26.7 32.3 31.5 40.3 22.2 15.8 Mexico 22 318 35 202 47 529 31.3 32.2 36.6 19.2 9.6 5.5 Nicaragua 1 016 1 531 2 395 33.2 28.9 32.2 15.7 7.0 3.5 Panama 668 1 102 1 595 31.1 32.9 37.7 4.8 2.8 1.5 South America 85 282 135 358 197 446 29.6 37.0 43.6 20.8 11.1 7.3 Argentina 10 231 14 320 19 094 28.6 36.7 41.8 3.1 2.6 1.9 Bolivia (Plurinational 1 908 2 837 4 849 32.8 42.0 45.5 53.3 43.3 37.8 State of) Brazil 44 710 70 889 101 026 29.4 36.9 44.2 26.3 11.2 6.1 Chile 3 756 5 632 7 302 29.0 31.9 37.1 6.4 5.7 5.1 Colombia 8 764 15 077 23 927 33.0 39.9 46.6 23.0 11.5 7.8 Ecuador 2 543 4 260 6 320 24.9 33.6 40.8 21.8 14.7 11.2 Falkland Islands (Malvinas) 1 1 2 0.0 0.0 50.0 French Guiana 29 56 91 37.9 39.3 46.2 18.2 13.6 7.1 Guyana 252 301 347 25.0 35.5 35.4 11.1 6.5 3.3 Paraguay 1 267 2 045 3 358 38.4 39.6 45.9 8.6 6.6 4.2 Peru 5 597 9 948 15 497 29.6 40.1 44.5 25.1 20.9 17.0 Suriname 106 142 195 32.1 33.1 36.9 20.6 14.9 11.1 Uruguay 1 242 1 511 1 654 37.8 41.4 44.4 3.8 3.8 3.5 Venezuela (Bolivarian 4 876 8 339 13 784 25.4 31.1 39.9 1.9 1.5 0.8 Republic of) OCEANIA EXCLUDING AUSTRALIA AND 1 903 3 018 4 415 39.3 44.1 45.8 80.5 73.3 67.0 NEW ZEALAND American Samoa 11 20 28 27.3 35.0 39.3 66.7 42.9 27.3 Cook Islands 6 7 8 33.3 42.9 37.5 50.0 33.3 33.3 Fiji 208 291 348 21.2 31.6 32.8 27.3 26.1 23.7 French Polynesia 56 89 122 33.9 38.2 39.3 47.4 35.3 25.0 Guam 43 67 88 37.2 37.3 40.9 25.0 20.0 13.9 Kiribati 22 35 48 36.4 40.0 43.8 25.0 21.4 14.3 Marshall Islands 23 31 39.1 45.2 22.2 14.3 Micronesia (Federated 49 54 36.7 40.7 22.2 13.6 States of) Nauru 3 5 5 33.3 40.0 40.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 New Caledonia 49 81 108 36.7 37.0 38.0 55.6 43.3 31.7 Niue 1 1 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 Northern Mariana Islands 26 43 38.5 44.2 20.0 15.8 Palau 8 10 37.5 40.0 33.3 25.0
- 121. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 109 TABLE A3 (cont.) Economically active population Total Female share Agricultural share of (Thousands) (% of total) economically active women (%) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 Papua New Guinea 1 278 1 987 3 054 43.3 48.0 49.0 91.5 86.9 79.0 Samoa 54 61 65 33.3 32.8 33.8 50.0 35.0 27.3 Solomon Islands 85 144 222 40.0 40.3 38.7 85.3 84.5 80.2 Tokelau 1 1 0 0.0 0.0 Tonga 25 33 41 20.0 36.4 43.9 60.0 33.3 27.8 Tuvalu 3 4 4 33.3 25.0 50.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Vanuatu 54 81 129 44.4 46.9 46.5 54.2 42.1 30.0 Wallis and Futuna Islands 4 5 6 25.0 40.0 33.3 100.0 50.0 50.0 COUNTRIES IN DEVELOPED 541 644 574 678 625 428 42.3 44.3 46.0 13.4 6.2 3.0 REGIONS ASIA AND OCEANIA 64 518 77 780 77 707 38.4 40.8 42.7 12.4 5.7 2.5 Australia 6 750 9 068 11 315 36.7 42.7 45.7 3.9 3.8 3.8 Japan 56 431 66 883 64 067 38.7 40.5 42.1 13.5 6.0 2.1 New Zealand 1 337 1 829 2 325 34.0 44.0 46.4 7.0 6.8 5.9 EUROPE 351 529 341 936 363 492 43.4 44.6 46.6 17.5 8.6 4.1 Eastern Europe 189 751 149 744 147 999 48.7 47.5 48.6 22.6 11.7 5.5 Belarus 5 016 4 880 48.4 49.1 9.6 3.4 Bulgaria 4 718 3 709 3 334 47.9 47.9 46.8 21.9 8.7 2.4 Czech Republic 5 160 5 242 44.3 44.5 7.0 3.2 Czechoslovakia (A) 8 116 45.8 11.8 Hungary 5 058 4 188 4 318 43.4 43.4 45.6 15.2 8.2 3.7 Poland 17 568 17 438 17 275 45.5 45.5 45.7 31.9 23.3 13.5 Republic of Moldova 1 962 1 343 48.7 52.6 21.0 8.5 Romania 10 508 12 122 9 307 46.8 46.3 45.7 45.3 21.3 8.7 Russian Federation 72 466 76 217 47.8 49.8 7.8 4.0 Slovakia 2 481 2 757 44.7 44.9 7.4 3.4 Ukraine 25 202 23 326 50.0 49.7 12.6 5.7 USSR (A) 137 459 49.7 20.3 Yugoslav SFR (A) 6 324 45.8 32.2 Northern Europe 40 445 46 413 51 420 40.6 45.0 46.6 2.7 2.4 1.4 Denmark 2 666 2 822 2 914 44.9 45.3 47.2 2.8 2.4 1.3 Estonia 713 688 48.2 50.7 9.0 4.6 Faroe Islands 22 22 26 40.9 40.9 46.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 Finland 2 468 2 490 2 724 46.2 47.5 48.3 10.3 5.1 2.7 Iceland 121 153 195 44.6 47.1 46.2 3.7 4.2 2.2 Ireland 1 246 1 466 2 328 27.8 37.7 43.6 6.1 2.5 1.1 Latvia 1 207 1 219 48.1 48.5 9.8 4.7 Lithuania 1 790 1 544 47.7 49.8 9.8 3.6
- 122. 110 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A3 (cont.) Economically active population Total Female share Agricultural share of (Thousands) (% of total) economically active women (%) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 Norway 2 006 2 234 2 616 41.4 45.8 47.7 6.0 3.6 2.8 Sweden 4 437 4 555 5 029 45.1 47.4 47.6 3.7 2.4 1.7 United Kingdom 27 479 28 961 32 137 39.4 44.3 46.1 1.4 1.0 0.8 Southern Europe 46 186 61 050 71 677 32.8 39.0 43.0 21.8 12.8 6.5 Albania 1 296 1 308 1 450 43.1 40.8 42.8 62.4 55.8 42.3 Andorra 16 28 41 31.3 35.7 41.5 20.0 10.0 5.9 Bosnia and Herzegovina 1 636 1 876 46.1 46.6 10.6 3.0 Croatia 2 104 1 938 43.4 45.1 10.3 2.9 Gibraltar 12 12 15 33.3 33.3 40.0 25.0 25.0 0.0 Greece 3 881 4 537 5 218 33.8 36.7 41.2 42.3 24.9 15.3 Holy See 0 0 0 Italy 22 134 23 058 25 775 33.7 36.8 42.1 14.5 7.2 3.5 Malta 120 140 172 23.3 26.4 34.3 3.6 0.0 0.0 Montenegro 305 44.9 10.9 Portugal 4 467 4 880 5 696 39.6 44.6 46.9 33.6 18.7 12.3 San Marino 9 11 15 33.3 36.4 40.0 33.3 0.0 0.0 Serbia (A) 4 806 44.7 10.9 Serbia and Montenegro (A) 4 893 45.0 25.4 Slovenia 949 1 025 46.0 46.1 3.7 0.6 Spain 14 251 16 688 22 439 28.3 37.7 42.8 18.2 8.2 3.9 The former Yugoslav 806 906 37.2 39.4 16.7 6.2 Republic of Macedonia Western Europe 75 147 84 729 92 396 38.2 43.1 46.1 7.3 3.3 1.5 Austria 3 244 3 845 4 295 38.4 43.0 46.1 12.2 7.0 3.3 Belgium 4 713 45.4 0.9 Belgium-Luxembourg (A) 4 040 4 337 35.8 41.1 2.1 1.5 France 24 001 25 382 28 232 40.0 44.9 46.9 7.4 3.4 1.4 Germany 35 415 39 754 41 914 38.4 42.5 45.6 8.1 3.0 1.3 Liechtenstein 11 15 18 36.4 40.0 44.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 Luxembourg 228 44.7 1.0 Monaco 11 14 16 36.4 42.9 43.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 Netherlands 5 388 7 454 8 713 31.2 41.3 45.9 3.0 2.9 2.0 Switzerland 3 037 3 928 4 267 36.5 43.3 46.6 4.4 3.9 3.0 NORTHERN AMERICA 125 597 154 962 184 229 41.2 45.4 46.2 2.1 1.3 1.0 Bermuda 28 32 34 39.3 43.8 44.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 Canada 12 102 15 023 19 320 39.7 45.0 47.5 6.1 2.3 1.9 Greenland 25 29 30 40.0 44.8 46.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 Saint Pierre and Miquelon 3 3 3 33.3 33.3 33.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 United States of America 113 439 139 875 164 842 41.4 45.4 46.0 1.6 1.2 0.9
- 123. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 111 TABLE A4 Economically active population, agricultural share of economically active population and female share of economically active in agriculture in 1980, 1995 and 2010 Economically active population Total Agricultural share Female share of economically (Thousands) (% of total) active in agriculture (%) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 WORLD 1 894 978 2 575 394 3 282 308 50.4 46.1 39.9 40.4 41.9 42.7 COUNTRIES IN DEVELOPING 1 353 280 2 000 716 2 656 880 65.3 57.2 48.2 40.1 42.1 42.9 REGIONS AFRICA 172 652 268 197 407 905 68.4 60.3 53.1 44.3 46.4 48.5 Sub-Saharan Africa 147 699 227 175 346 919 71.9 65.4 58.4 46.0 47.1 48.7 Eastern Africa 61 341 97 031 152 689 84.7 80.6 74.5 49.6 50.6 51.3 Burundi 1 977 2 978 4 260 93.2 91.4 89.2 55.9 55.9 56.0 Comoros 151 250 387 80.8 75.6 69.5 50.0 50.3 52.0 Djibouti 133 249 381 84.2 79.9 74.0 46.4 47.2 46.5 Eritrea 1 200 2 086 78.7 73.7 44.6 43.6 Ethiopia 24 306 41 929 84.4 77.3 43.0 45.5 Ethiopia PDR (A) 14 833 88.9 41.0 Kenya 6 718 12 139 18 887 82.2 77.6 70.6 49.0 49.5 48.6 Madagascar 3 880 5 966 10 060 82.3 76.9 70.1 54.7 53.9 53.5 Malawi 2 876 4 302 6 542 87.4 85.1 79.1 56.7 56.1 59.2 Mauritius 370 485 589 27.3 14.0 8.1 29.7 26.5 25.0 Mozambique 5 951 7 547 10 778 84.8 83.6 80.5 58.6 63.4 65.2 Réunion 170 270 362 28.2 4.8 1.4 10.4 7.7 20.0 Rwanda 2 328 2 327 4 722 93.1 91.5 89.4 55.3 56.1 57.0 Seychelles 28 33 40 85.7 81.8 72.5 50.0 48.1 51.7 Somalia 2 437 2 565 3 731 77.2 72.3 65.6 44.4 45.3 45.9 Uganda 5 679 9 225 14 896 87.1 82.4 74.8 49.5 49.9 49.5 United Republic of Tanzania 9 084 14 855 22 339 85.8 82.6 75.9 53.7 54.1 55.0 Zambia 1 985 3 481 5 146 74.7 71.8 63.3 41.2 47.6 46.5 Zimbabwe 2 741 4 853 5 554 73.0 66.0 56.5 54.3 55.3 53.3 Middle Africa 21 068 33 670 50 767 73.9 67.0 57.7 49.4 50.1 50.8 Angola 3 421 5 397 8 447 76.1 73.0 69.3 52.4 52.6 55.0 Cameroon 3 402 5 086 7 622 74.5 65.3 47.7 50.1 47.4 47.3 Central African Republic 1 018 1 476 2 030 84.5 76.6 63.3 49.8 50.2 49.9 Chad 1 547 2 790 4 623 85.6 79.7 65.7 28.9 50.8 56.9 Congo 700 1 099 1 524 57.3 44.4 32.0 56.6 60.0 56.5 Democratic Republic of 10 558 17 137 25 488 71.5 64.8 57.3 51.3 49.5 48.8 the Congo Equatorial Guinea 87 174 268 77.0 71.8 64.9 40.3 40.8 43.7 Gabon 305 472 708 65.6 44.5 25.7 50.5 49.5 45.6 Sao Tome and Principe 30 39 57 70.0 64.1 56.1 38.1 44.0 50.0
- 124. 112 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A4 (cont.) Economically active population Total Agricultural share Female share of economically (Thousands) (% of total) active in agriculture (%) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 Northern Africa 31 554 50 078 74 694 53.1 37.8 28.3 30.1 37.0 42.8 Algeria 4 555 9 018 14 950 35.9 25.9 21.2 41.5 50.4 52.7 Egypt 11 780 18 531 27 492 53.8 35.0 25.1 25.9 34.9 40.3 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 838 1 517 2 425 22.4 7.6 3.0 37.2 50.0 69.9 Morocco 5 848 9 015 11 963 53.0 37.1 25.5 29.0 38.9 47.7 Sudan 6 601 9 056 13 708 72.1 65.1 51.5 32.5 32.9 39.5 Tunisia 1 865 2 829 3 886 37.0 25.4 20.5 27.1 34.4 32.8 Western Sahara 67 112 270 56.7 41.1 30.4 42.1 47.8 53.7 Southern Africa 10 753 16 325 21 371 21.8 15.3 10.6 43.8 40.9 42.5 Botswana 332 506 741 61.4 44.9 42.2 46.6 52.4 56.9 Lesotho 538 720 895 45.2 43.2 39.3 72.0 68.2 67.3 Namibia 309 507 769 57.3 45.4 33.6 52.5 47.8 44.6 South Africa 9 350 14 220 18 481 17.2 11.1 6.5 37.1 31.1 29.6 Swaziland 224 372 485 52.7 39.0 28.9 58.5 60.7 54.3 Western Africa 47 936 71 093 108 384 65.7 55.6 46.4 40.7 40.9 43.3 Benin 1 168 2 240 3 778 67.0 58.7 44.3 34.5 41.1 39.6 Burkina Faso 2 989 4 421 7 425 92.2 92.3 92.1 46.7 48.1 47.7 Cape Verde 90 131 195 36.7 26.7 16.9 42.4 40.0 42.4 Côte d’Ivoire 3 096 5 407 8 106 64.6 54.1 37.9 35.3 35.6 36.2 Gambia 273 483 806 84.6 80.5 75.9 50.6 51.2 53.3 Ghana 4 473 7 247 11 116 61.6 58.2 54.5 45.6 45.1 44.3 Guinea 2 210 3 535 4 968 90.9 85.6 79.8 50.4 49.5 49.7 Guinea-Bissau 331 451 613 87.3 84.0 79.3 43.9 45.9 45.5 Liberia 711 719 1 509 76.8 70.1 62.1 46.7 45.6 44.5 Mali 1 963 2 508 3 517 88.3 83.0 74.9 36.6 35.9 37.7 Mauritania 603 913 1 441 71.1 53.9 50.2 47.6 49.2 53.9 Niger 1 965 3 045 5 228 90.2 87.2 82.9 36.5 36.1 36.6 Nigeria 23 353 33 165 49 144 53.9 38.0 24.9 36.6 34.8 39.7 Saint Helena 2 2 2 50.0 50.0 50.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 Senegal 2 382 3 591 5 626 80.4 75.0 70.2 44.9 45.5 47.4 Sierra Leone 1 265 1 546 2 197 73.0 67.9 60.1 59.0 58.5 61.7 Togo 1 062 1 689 2 713 68.7 62.7 53.4 38.8 38.4 41.3 ASIA EXCLUDING JAPAN 1 052 771 1 533 185 1 964 239 68.6 61.1 52.0 40.7 42.5 42.6 Central Asia 21 059 29 095 27.6 20.5 42.4 41.0 Kazakhstan 7 773 8 427 19.7 13.8 30.4 24.4 Kyrgyzstan 1 885 2 547 28.9 20.8 37.7 29.8 Tajikistan 1 678 2 896 37.4 27.4 52.2 53.0 Turkmenistan 1 635 2 437 35.4 29.7 51.6 53.0 Uzbekistan 8 088 12 788 31.2 21.4 46.2 43.5
- 125. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 113 TABLE A4 (cont.) Economically active population Total Agricultural share Female share of economically (Thousands) (% of total) active in agriculture (%) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 Eastern Asia excluding 526 764 737 152 855 786 72.4 67.2 58.6 45.8 47.6 47.9 Japan China (A) 504 496 704 769 817 033 73.9 69.4 60.8 45.8 47.7 47.9 China, Hong Kong SAR 2 415 3 086 3 759 1.3 0.6 0.2 31.3 31.6 25.0 China, Macao SAR .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. China, mainland .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Democratic People’s 7 103 10 400 12 979 44.2 33.8 23.3 46.7 45.0 46.0 Republic of Korea Mongolia 574 862 1 204 39.7 28.0 17.9 42.1 44.0 47.9 Republic of Korea 14 591 21 121 24 570 36.9 13.5 5.2 47.1 43.8 43.8 Southeastern Asia 147 907 221 405 299 123 63.2 56.0 46.8 41.9 42.7 42.5 Brunei Darussalam 71 131 195 5.6 1.5 0.5 25.0 0.0 0.0 Cambodia 3 209 4 930 8 029 75.5 71.9 65.9 57.3 54.9 51.2 Indonesia 55 181 84 276 115 905 57.8 51.7 41.4 33.7 39.0 39.3 Lao People’s Democratic 1 463 2 172 3 281 79.8 77.5 74.9 51.3 51.8 52.3 Republic Malaysia 4 984 8 167 12 445 40.9 22.8 12.7 41.7 28.6 21.0 Myanmar 15 972 22 769 29 464 75.9 71.9 67.1 47.5 47.6 48.3 Philippines 17 861 28 019 39 967 51.5 42.6 33.7 27.6 24.5 24.0 Singapore 1 117 1 740 2 637 1.5 0.2 0.1 29.4 25.0 0.0 Thailand 23 709 33 490 39 198 70.9 60.3 48.5 49.1 45.9 45.0 Timor-Leste 242 332 461 83.9 81.9 79.6 44.8 42.6 45.0 Viet Nam 24 098 35 379 47 541 73.2 69.4 63.2 50.7 51.0 49.1 Southern Asia 348 669 496 504 699 660 67.2 59.3 51.1 32.3 33.6 34.9 Afghanistan 4 548 5 620 9 384 70.4 65.8 59.7 29.4 28.5 32.1 Bangladesh 38 345 56 409 78 232 71.9 59.9 45.4 42.4 44.5 51.0 Bhutan 146 150 326 93.8 92.7 92.9 26.3 19.4 34.7 India 259 177 364 665 491 326 68.2 61.4 54.4 32.4 32.8 32.4 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 11 064 18 288 30 746 39.0 29.4 21.6 25.2 33.9 46.4 Maldives 46 70 150 52.2 28.6 14.7 16.7 20.0 40.9 Nepal 5 837 8 061 12 936 93.4 93.4 92.9 35.4 42.2 48.1 Pakistan 23 563 35 980 67 292 58.5 45.7 39.0 12.2 18.4 29.6 Sri Lanka 5 943 7 261 9 268 52.2 47.0 42.5 34.8 34.2 37.4 Western Asia 29 431 57 065 80 575 44.0 30.4 19.2 35.0 43.0 47.9 Armenia 1 375 1 575 14.9 9.4 25.9 16.2 Azerbaijan 3 229 4 633 29.0 22.8 53.8 53.9 Bahrain 136 263 384 3.7 1.5 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 Cyprus 282 343 446 25.5 10.8 5.4 45.8 40.5 41.7 Georgia 2 508 2 278 22.8 15.1 42.3 36.2 Iraq 3 097 5 018 7 918 26.6 11.9 5.5 29.7 38.2 50.3 Israel 1 271 2 039 2 935 6.1 3.2 1.7 22.1 22.7 21.6
- 126. 114 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A4 (cont.) Economically active population Total Agricultural share Female share of economically (Thousands) (% of total) active in agriculture (%) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 Jordan 444 1 160 1 882 16.7 11.3 6.3 41.9 44.3 62.2 Kuwait 457 823 1 541 2.0 1.2 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Lebanon 857 1 190 1 563 14.0 5.1 1.8 28.3 32.8 32.1 Occupied Palestinian 465 866 1 508 23.2 14.8 8.0 64.8 64.1 72.5 Territory (A) Oman 341 778 1 123 47.2 40.6 28.5 9.3 5.4 7.5 Qatar 106 284 976 2.8 1.8 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 Saudi Arabia 2 415 5 752 9 570 43.0 14.1 5.1 5.8 6.0 5.7 Syrian Arab Republic 2 020 4 240 7 365 33.6 28.5 20.0 31.7 50.7 60.7 Turkey 15 299 22 518 25 942 56.2 46.2 32.3 40.4 48.2 52.3 United Arab Emirates 548 1 309 2 914 4.6 6.3 3.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 Yemen 1 693 3 370 6 022 67.9 52.4 38.8 29.3 31.4 40.1 LATIN AMERICA AND 125 954 196 316 280 321 33.6 22.0 14.8 18.6 18.1 20.9 THE CARIBBEAN Caribbean 10 733 14 496 18 380 33.6 25.3 20.4 26.0 21.6 24.5 Anguilla 2 4 7 50.0 25.0 14.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 Antigua and Barbuda 26 27 38 34.6 25.9 21.1 22.2 14.3 25.0 Aruba 22 32 46 31.8 25.0 19.6 28.6 25.0 22.2 Bahamas 88 140 186 5.7 4.3 2.7 20.0 16.7 0.0 Barbados 111 144 154 9.9 5.6 2.6 36.4 37.5 50.0 British Virgin Islands 4 7 10 25.0 28.6 20.0 0.0 0.0 50.0 Cayman Islands 6 13 25 33.3 23.1 20.0 50.0 33.3 20.0 Cuba 3 495 4 853 5 239 23.7 16.4 11.1 13.5 16.1 17.9 Dominica 26 27 29 34.6 25.9 20.7 22.2 28.6 16.7 Dominican Republic 1 834 2 925 4 491 31.7 20.8 10.5 9.6 11.5 31.2 Grenada 32 40 45 34.4 25.0 20.0 27.3 20.0 22.2 Guadeloupe 126 184 213 18.3 4.3 1.4 26.1 25.0 0.0 Haiti 2 344 2 692 3 940 70.9 67.1 58.8 38.4 26.7 24.8 Jamaica 951 1 177 1 218 31.1 22.5 17.5 27.0 28.3 27.7 Martinique 127 170 185 12.6 5.3 2.2 25.0 33.3 25.0 Montserrat 4 4 3 25.0 25.0 33.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 Netherlands Antilles 69 82 98 0.0 0.0 0.0 .. .. .. Puerto Rico 909 1 278 1 512 5.9 3.1 1.1 1.9 5.1 5.9 Saint Kitts and Nevis 15 17 23 33.3 23.5 21.7 20.0 25.0 20.0 Saint Lucia 39 61 84 33.3 24.6 20.2 23.1 26.7 23.5 Saint Vincent and 32 43 54 34.4 25.6 20.4 18.2 18.2 27.3 the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago 428 519 716 10.7 9.6 6.6 28.3 18.0 17.0 Turks and Caicos Islands 3 6 14 33.3 33.3 21.4 0.0 0.0 33.3 United States Virgin Islands 40 51 50 32.5 23.5 18.0 38.5 33.3 33.3
- 127. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 115 TABLE A4 (cont.) Economically active population Total Agricultural share Female share of economically (Thousands) (% of total) active in agriculture (%) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 Central America 29 939 46 462 64 495 37.5 26.8 18.6 15.0 11.7 11.9 Belize 39 75 131 41.0 29.3 23.7 6.3 4.5 3.2 Costa Rica 849 1 411 2 109 32.4 22.5 15.2 4.0 8.5 12.8 El Salvador 1 592 2 201 2 587 39.8 31.6 22.7 7.3 7.5 9.6 Guatemala 2 313 2 941 5 367 52.3 50.4 38.4 8.3 6.8 10.0 Honduras 1 144 1 999 2 782 56.8 35.9 24.0 18.9 19.9 20.7 Mexico 22 318 35 202 47 529 35.3 24.4 16.2 17.0 12.7 12.3 Nicaragua 1 016 1 531 2 395 37.7 25.4 14.7 13.8 8.0 7.6 Panama 668 1 102 1 595 28.6 23.4 15.5 5.2 3.9 3.6 South America 85 282 135 358 197 446 32.3 20.0 13.0 19.1 20.5 24.6 Argentina 10 231 14 320 19 094 12.8 10.2 7.4 6.9 9.3 10.7 Bolivia (Plurinational State of) 1 908 2 837 4 849 52.8 45.3 41.1 33.0 40.1 41.8 Brazil 44 710 70 889 101 026 36.5 19.5 11.0 21.2 21.2 24.5 Chile 3 756 5 632 7 302 20.4 17.2 13.2 9.2 10.6 14.2 Colombia 8 764 15 077 23 927 38.9 22.9 14.8 19.5 19.9 24.8 Ecuador 2 543 4 260 6 320 38.7 28.0 18.5 14.0 17.6 24.8 Falkland Islands (Malvinas) 1 1 2 0.0 0.0 0.0 French Guiana 29 56 91 31.0 19.6 13.2 22.2 27.3 25.0 Guyana 252 301 347 26.6 19.3 14.7 10.4 12.1 7.8 Paraguay 1 267 2 045 3 358 39.0 32.1 24.8 8.5 8.1 7.7 Peru 5 597 9 948 15 497 39.1 31.0 24.2 19.0 27.0 31.3 Suriname 106 142 195 23.6 19.7 16.9 28.0 25.0 24.2 Uruguay 1 242 1 511 1 654 15.4 13.3 11.2 9.4 11.9 14.0 Venezuela (Bolivarian 4 876 8 339 13 784 14.8 10.1 5.3 3.3 4.6 6.4 Republic of) OCEANIA EXCLUDING AUSTRALIA AND 1 903 3 018 4 415 72.1 65.8 59.0 43.8 49.1 52.0 NEW ZEALAND American Samoa 11 20 28 45.5 40.0 28.6 40.0 37.5 37.5 Cook Islands 6 7 8 50.0 42.9 25.0 33.3 33.3 50.0 Fiji 208 291 348 46.2 41.2 35.9 12.5 20.0 21.6 French Polynesia 56 89 122 48.2 38.2 27.0 33.3 35.3 36.4 Guam 43 67 88 37.2 29.9 22.7 25.0 25.0 25.0 Kiribati 22 35 48 36.4 28.6 22.9 25.0 30.0 27.3 Marshall Islands 23 31 30.4 22.6 28.6 28.6 Micronesia (Federated 49 54 28.6 22.2 28.6 25.0 States of) Nauru 3 5 5 33.3 20.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 New Caledonia 49 81 108 49.0 39.5 30.6 41.7 40.6 39.4 Niue 1 1 1 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Northern Mariana Islands 26 43 30.8 23.3 25.0 30.0 Palau 8 10 25.0 20.0 50.0 50.0
- 128. 116 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A4 (cont.) Economically active population Total Agricultural share Female share of economically (Thousands) (% of total) active in agriculture (%) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 Papua New Guinea 1 278 1 987 3 054 82.7 77.9 69.4 47.9 53.5 55.8 Samoa 54 61 65 48.1 39.3 27.7 34.6 29.2 33.3 Solomon Islands 85 144 222 77.6 73.6 67.6 43.9 46.2 46.0 Tokelau 1 1 0 0.0 0.0 Tonga 25 33 41 48.0 39.4 26.8 25.0 30.8 45.5 Tuvalu 3 4 4 33.3 25.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Vanuatu 54 81 129 50.0 40.7 30.2 48.1 48.5 46.2 Wallis and Futuna Islands 4 5 6 50.0 40.0 33.3 50.0 50.0 50.0 COUNTRIES IN DEVELOPED 541 644 574 678 625 428 13.1 7.5 4.2 43.4 36.9 32.7 REGIONS ASIA AND OCEANIA 64 518 77 780 77 707 10.5 5.5 2.6 45.4 42.7 40.8 Australia 6 750 9 068 11 315 6.5 5.0 3.9 22.1 32.8 44.9 Japan 56 431 66 883 64 067 11.0 5.4 2.2 47.6 44.5 40.3 New Zealand 1 337 1 829 2 325 11.2 9.6 7.9 21.3 31.3 34.8 EUROPE 351 529 341 936 363 492 16.9 10.2 5.9 44.9 37.5 32.4 Eastern Europe 189 751 149 744 147 999 23.0 15.1 9.4 47.8 36.9 28.5 Belarus 5 016 4 880 16.2 8.9 28.8 18.7 Bulgaria 4 718 3 709 3 334 20.3 9.8 3.7 51.9 42.7 30.6 Czech Republic 5 160 5 242 9.7 6.2 32.1 23.1 Czechoslovakia (A) 8 116 13.3 40.7 Hungary 5 058 4 188 4 318 18.4 12.8 7.4 35.9 27.7 22.7 Poland 17 568 17 438 17 275 29.8 24.5 17.0 48.7 43.4 36.2 Republic of Moldova 1 962 1 343 27.5 14.9 37.2 30.0 Romania 10 508 12 122 9 307 35.0 19.2 9.2 60.6 51.4 43.2 Russian Federation 72 466 76 217 12.1 8.0 31.1 24.7 Slovakia 2 481 2 757 10.6 7.1 31.2 21.5 Ukraine 25 202 23 326 16.9 10.3 37.4 27.4 USSR (A) 137 459 21.8 46.2 Yugoslav SFR (A) 6 324 27.5 53.5 Northern Europe 40 445 46 413 51 420 4.6 4.0 2.5 23.7 26.3 25.4 Denmark 2 666 2 822 2 914 6.9 4.6 2.5 18.5 23.7 24.3 Estonia 713 688 12.9 8.9 33.7 26.2 Faroe Islands 22 22 26 4.5 4.5 3.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 Finland 2 468 2 490 2 724 12.1 6.8 3.6 39.3 35.3 36.1 Iceland 121 153 195 9.9 9.2 6.2 16.7 21.4 16.7 Ireland 1 246 1 466 2 328 18.6 11.5 6.6 9.1 8.3 7.2 Latvia 1 207 1 219 13.8 9.2 34.1 25.0 Lithuania 1 790 1 544 15.1 8.0 31.0 22.6
- 129. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 117 TABLE A4 (cont.) Economically active population Total Agricultural share Female share of economically (Thousands) (% of total) active in agriculture (%) 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 1980 1995 2010 Norway 2 006 2 234 2 616 8.2 5.3 3.4 30.3 31.1 39.8 Sweden 4 437 4 555 5 029 6.1 3.7 2.3 27.3 30.0 36.0 United Kingdom 27 479 28 961 32 137 2.6 2.0 1.5 20.6 21.7 24.9 Southern Europe 46 186 61 050 71 677 18.6 11.8 6.2 38.5 42.4 45.0 Albania 1 296 1 308 1 450 57.6 51.5 41.8 46.6 44.3 43.2 Andorra 16 28 41 18.8 10.7 4.9 33.3 33.3 50.0 Bosnia and Herzegovina 1 636 1 876 8.1 2.3 60.6 59.1 Croatia 2 104 1 938 11.7 4.4 38.1 29.4 Gibraltar 12 12 15 16.7 8.3 6.7 50.0 100.0 0.0 Greece 3 881 4 537 5 218 32.1 19.7 12.0 44.6 46.5 52.6 Holy See - - - Italy 22 134 23 058 25 775 12.6 6.8 3.3 38.5 38.9 45.2 Malta 120 140 172 8.3 2.1 1.2 10.0 0.0 0.0 Montenegro 305 12.8 38.5 Portugal 4 467 4 880 5 696 26.1 15.2 9.1 50.9 54.9 63.7 San Marino 9 11 15 22.2 9.1 6.7 50.0 0.0 0.0 Serbia (A) 4 806 12.8 38.1 Serbia and Montenegro (A) 4 893 24.5 46.5 Slovenia 949 1 025 3.4 0.7 50.0 42.9 Spain 14 251 16 688 22 439 18.4 9.3 4.4 28.0 33.2 37.7 The former Yugoslav 806 906 16.7 7.5 37.0 32.4 Republic of Macedonia Western Europe 75 147 84 729 92 396 7.1 3.7 1.9 38.9 38.0 36.8 Austria 3 244 3 845 4 295 9.8 6.3 3.4 47.6 47.5 45.8 Belgium 4 713 1.3 32.2 Belgium-Luxembourg (A) 4 040 4 337 3.0 2.2 24.6 28.1 France 24 001 25 382 28 232 8.3 4.3 2.0 35.7 35.6 33.6 Germany 35 415 39 754 41 914 6.9 3.2 1.6 44.9 40.9 36.8 Liechtenstein 11 15 18 9.1 6.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 Luxembourg 228 1.3 33.3 Monaco 11 14 16 9.1 7.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 Netherlands 5 388 7 454 8 713 5.6 3.9 2.5 16.7 30.9 36.4 Switzerland 3 037 3 928 4 267 6.2 4.8 3.2 26.1 35.8 43.4 NORTHERN AMERICA 125 597 154 962 184 229 3.8 2.5 1.6 22.5 24.4 28.9 Bermuda 28 32 34 3.6 3.1 2.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 Canada 12 102 15 023 19 320 6.7 2.8 1.7 36.2 37.1 52.6 Greenland 25 29 30 4.0 3.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 .. Saint Pierre and Miquelon 3 3 3 0.0 0.0 0.0 .. .. .. United States of America 113 439 139 875 164 842 3.5 2.4 1.6 19.7 22.8 25.9
- 130. 118 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A5 Share of households in rural areas that are female-headed, most recent and earliest observations, and total agricultural holders and female share of agricultural holders, most recent observations Share of rural households Agricultural holders that are female headed (%) (Thousands) (% of total) Most recent Earliest Total Female share observation observation WORLD COUNTRIES IN DEVELOPING REGIONS AFRICA 25.5 Sub-Saharan Africa 26.2 Eastern Africa 29.9 Burundi .. .. .. .. Comoros 31.9 .. 52 464 32.6 Djibouti .. .. .. .. Eritrea 43.2 25.9 .. .. Ethiopia 20.1 21.3 11 507 442 18.7 Ethiopia PDR .. .. .. .. Kenya 33.8 35.3 .. .. Madagascar 20.6 20.8 2 428 492 15.3 Malawi 26.3 26.1 1 561 416 32.1 Mauritius .. .. .. .. Mozambique 26.3 28.2 3 064 195 23.1 Réunion .. .. .. .. Rwanda 34.0 20.8 .. .. Seychelles .. .. .. .. Somalia .. .. .. .. Uganda 29.3 23.8 1 704 721 16.3 United Republic of Tanzania (B) 25.0 17.2 4 901 837 19.7 Zambia 25.4 18.7 1 305 783 19.2 Zimbabwe 42.6 39.4 .. .. Middle Africa 21.6 Angola 21.8 .. .. .. Cameroon 22.9 16.8 .. .. Central African Republic 18.8 .. .. .. Chad 19.1 21.5 .. .. Congo 23.4 .. .. .. Democratic Republic of the Congo 20.0 .. 4 479 600 8.9 Equatorial Guinea .. .. .. .. Gabon 25.4 .. .. .. Sao Tome and Principe .. .. .. ..
- 131. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 119 TABLE A5 (cont.) Share of rural households Agricultural holders that are female headed (%) (Thousands) (% of total) Most recent Earliest Total Female share observation observation Northern Africa Algeria .. .. 1 023 799 4.1 Egypt 12.0 10.9 4 537 319 5.2 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya .. .. .. .. Morocco 12.0 13.3 1 492 844 4.4 Sudan .. .. .. .. Tunisia .. .. .. .. Western Sahara .. .. .. .. Southern Africa 46.5 Botswana .. .. 51 264 33.9 Lesotho 36.3 .. 337 795 30.8 Namibia 47.4 30.6 .. .. South Africa 50.0 .. .. .. Swaziland 52.1 .. .. .. Western Africa 19.2 14.6 Benin 21.1 14.2 .. .. Burkina Faso 7.5 5.0 886 638 8.4 Cape Verde .. .. 44 450 50.5 Côte d’Ivoire 13.3 13.2 1 117 667 10.1 Gambia .. .. 69 140 8.3 Ghana 30.8 34.6 .. .. Guinea 15.8 10.8 840 454 5.7 Guinea-Bissau .. .. .. .. Liberia 26.6 28.8 .. .. Mali 11.5 7.0 805 194 3.1 Mauritania 31.7 .. .. .. Niger 18.8 8.5 .. .. Nigeria 18.6 12.9 .. .. Saint Helena .. .. .. .. Senegal 10.7 10.5 437 036 9.1 Sierra Leone 20.7 .. .. .. Togo 22.1 .. .. .. ASIA EXCLUDING JAPAN Central Asia 17.6 Kazakhstan 22.0 23.4 .. .. Kyrgyzstan (2) 18.0 .. 246 901 12.3 Tajikistan .. .. .. ..
- 132. 120 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A5 (cont.) Share of rural households Agricultural holders that are female headed (%) (Thousands) (% of total) Most recent Earliest Total Female share observation observation Turkmenistan 18.6 .. .. .. Uzbekistan 11.6 .. .. .. Eastern Asia excluding Japan .. .. .. .. China .. .. .. .. China, Hong Kong SAR .. .. .. .. China, Macao SAR .. .. .. .. China, mainland .. .. .. .. Democratic People’s Republic of Korea .. .. .. .. Mongolia .. .. .. .. Republic of Korea .. .. .. .. Southeastern Asia 35 581 830 13.3 Brunei Darussalam .. .. .. .. Cambodia 23.0 25.0 .. .. Indonesia (B) 12.3 12.8 20 331 746 8.8 Lao People’s Democratic Republic .. .. 667 900 9.1 Malaysia (B) .. .. 500 307 13.1 Myanmar .. .. 3 464 769 15.0 Philippines 14.4 12.1 4 768 317 10.8 Singapore .. .. .. .. Thailand .. .. 5 787 774 27.4 Timor-Leste .. .. .. .. Viet Nam (3) (B) 22.4 20.7 61 017 8.8 Southern Asia Afghanistan .. .. .. .. Bangladesh (4)(5) 13.2 8.7 .. .. Bhutan .. .. .. .. India (6) 14.9 9.1 119 621 000 10.9 Iran (Islamic Republic of) .. .. .. .. Maldives .. .. .. .. Nepal 24.0 12.4 3 364 139 8.1 Pakistan 11.0 6.8 .. .. Sri Lanka .. .. .. .. Western Asia Armenia 33.1 25.1 .. .. Azerbaijan 24.4 .. .. .. Bahrain .. .. .. .. Cyprus .. .. 44 752 25.5 Georgia .. .. 728 950 29.1
- 133. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 121 TABLE A5 (cont.) Share of rural households Agricultural holders that are female headed (%) (Thousands) (% of total) Most recent Earliest Total Female share observation observation Iraq .. .. .. .. Israel .. .. .. .. Jordan 10.9 9.0 91 585 3.0 Kuwait .. .. .. .. Lebanon (2) .. .. 194 264 7.1 Occupied Palestinian Territory .. .. .. .. Oman .. .. .. .. Qatar .. .. .. .. Saudi Arabia .. .. 242 267 0.8 Syrian Arab Republic .. .. .. .. Turkey 9.1 8.6 .. .. United Arab Emirates .. .. .. .. Yemen 9.5 12.8 .. .. LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN Caribbean Anguilla .. .. .. .. Antigua and Barbuda .. .. .. .. Aruba .. .. .. .. Bahamas .. .. .. .. Barbados .. .. .. .. British Virgin Islands .. .. .. .. Cayman Islands .. .. .. .. Cuba .. .. .. .. Dominica .. .. .. .. Dominican Republic (B) 29.7 18.0 243 104 10.2 Grenada .. .. .. .. Guadeloupe .. .. .. .. Haiti 38.6 32.9 .. .. Jamaica (B) .. .. 182 169 19.3 Martinique .. .. .. .. Montserrat .. .. .. .. Netherlands Antilles .. .. .. .. Puerto Rico .. .. 17 659 8.8 Saint Kitts & Nevis .. .. 3 046 27.9 Saint Lucia .. .. .. .. Saint Vincent and the Grenadines .. .. .. .. Trinidad & Tobago .. .. 19 051 14.7 Turks and Caicos Islands .. .. .. .. United States Virgin Islands .. .. .. ..
- 134. 122 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A5 (cont.) Share of rural households Agricultural holders that are female headed (%) (Thousands) (% of total) Most recent Earliest Total Female share observation observation Central America Belize (B) .. .. 9 697 8.1 Costa Rica .. .. .. .. El Salvador .. .. .. .. Guatemala 16.1 18.0 819 162 7.8 Honduras 20.2 .. .. .. Mexico .. .. .. .. Nicaragua 19.3 20.0 196 909 18.1 Panama (B) .. .. 232 464 29.3 South America Argentina (B) .. .. 202 423 18.2 Bolivia (Plurinational State of) 17.1 17.3 .. .. Brazil (1) 13.7 16.8 .. .. Chile (B) .. .. 268 787 29.9 Colombia 21.7 16.7 .. .. Ecuador .. .. 842 882 25.4 Falkland Islands (Malvinas) .. .. .. .. French Guiana .. .. .. .. Guyana .. .. .. .. Paraguay 13.4 .. .. .. Peru (B) 16.3 13.3 1 750 640 20.4 Suriname .. .. .. .. Uruguay (B) .. .. 49 302 18.1 Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) .. .. .. .. OCEANIA EXCLUDING AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND American Samoa .. .. 7 094 20.6 Cook Islands .. .. .. .. Fiji .. .. .. .. French Polynesia .. .. .. .. Guam .. .. .. .. Kiribati .. .. .. .. Marshall Islands .. .. .. .. Micronesia (Federated States of) .. .. .. .. Nauru .. .. .. .. New Caledonia .. .. .. .. Niue .. .. .. .. Northern Mariana Islands .. .. 214 9.3 Palau .. .. .. .. Papua New Guinea .. .. .. .. Samoa .. .. 14 778 1.7
- 135. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 123 TABLE A5 (cont.) Share of rural households Agricultural holders that are female headed (%) (Thousands) (% of total) Most recent Earliest Total Female share observation observation Solomon Islands .. .. .. .. Tokelau .. .. .. .. Tonga .. .. .. .. Tuvalu .. .. .. .. Vanuatu .. .. .. .. Wallis and Futuna Islands .. .. .. .. COUNTRIES IN DEVELOPED REGIONS ASIA AND OCEANIA Australia .. .. .. .. Japan .. .. .. .. New Zealand .. .. .. .. EUROPE Eastern Europe Belarus .. .. .. .. Bulgaria .. .. .. .. Czech Republic .. .. .. .. Czechoslovakia .. .. .. .. Hungary .. .. 958 534 23.9 Poland .. .. .. .. Republic of Moldova 30.8 .. .. .. Romania .. .. .. .. Russian Federation .. .. .. .. Slovakia .. .. .. .. Ukraine 47.9 .. .. .. USSR .. .. .. .. Yugoslav SFR .. .. .. .. Northern Europe 703 649 12.0 Denmark (7) .. .. 57 310 8.7 Estonia .. .. .. .. Faroe Islands .. .. .. .. Finland (7) .. .. 75 740 10.8 Iceland (7) .. .. .. .. Ireland (7) .. .. 141 340 10.7 Latvia .. .. .. .. Lithuania .. .. .. .. Norway (7) .. .. 69 959 12.9 Sweden (7) .. .. 75 910 10.0 United Kingdom (B) .. .. 283 390 18.8
- 136. 124 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A5 (cont.) Share of rural households Agricultural holders that are female headed (%) (Thousands) (% of total) Most recent Earliest Total Female share observation observation Southern Europe Albania .. .. .. .. Andorra .. .. .. .. Bosnia and Herzegovina .. .. .. .. Croatia .. .. .. .. Gibraltar .. .. .. .. Greece (7) .. .. 816 530 25.1 Holy See .. .. .. .. Italy (B) .. .. 1 663 510 32.2 Malta .. .. .. .. Montenegro .. .. .. .. Portugal (7) .. .. 409 308 23.2 San Marino .. .. .. .. Serbia .. .. 778 891 18.1 Serbia and Montenegro .. .. .. .. Slovenia .. .. .. .. Spain (B) .. .. 988 060 28.8 The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia .. .. .. .. Western Europe 1 219 730 17.3 Austria (7) .. .. 194 910 29.5 Belgium (7) .. .. 59 280 15.0 Belgium-Luxembourg .. .. .. .. France (B) .. .. 427 630 23.1 Germany (7) .. .. 440 060 8.8 Liechtenstein .. .. .. .. Luxembourg (7) .. .. 2 750 19.6 Monaco .. .. .. .. Netherlands (7) .. .. 95 100 7.8 Switzerland .. .. .. .. NORTHERN AMERICA Bermuda .. .. .. .. Canada .. .. .. .. Greenland .. .. .. .. Saint Pierre and Miquelon .. .. .. .. United States of America .. .. .. ..
- 137. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 125 Table A6 Share of adult population with chronic energy deficiency (CED – body mass index less than 18.5) by sex and share of children underweight by sex, residence and household wealth quintile, most recent observations Share of adult Share of children population with CED underweight (% of total) (% of total) By sex By residence By household wealth quintile Women Men Male Female Urban Rural Poorest Richest WORLD COUNTRIES IN DEVELOPING REGIONS 18.0 17.3 14.0 19.6 AFRICA 12.5 20.6 19.2 14.5 20.8 27.8 13.5 Sub-Saharan Africa 13.0 23.1 21.6 16.8 24.0 28.8 15.3 Eastern Africa 14.5 27.6 25.3 19.3 27.3 32.3 15.5 Burundi .. .. .. .. 22.0 41.0 .. .. Comoros 10.3 .. 28.0 21.0 .. .. .. .. Djibouti (1) .. .. 34.0 33.0 30.0 42.0 .. .. Eritrea 37.3 .. 41.0 39.0 29.0 45.0 49.0 20.0 Ethiopia (C) 26.5 36.7 39.0 38.0 23.0 40.0 43.0 29.0 Ethiopia PDR .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Kenya (1) 12.3 .. 23.0 19.0 23.0 13.0 .. .. Madagascar 19.2 .. 41.0 38.0 35.0 41.0 46.0 29.0 Malawi 9.2 .. 20.0 19.0 16.0 20.0 23.0 14.0 Mauritius .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Mozambique 8.6 .. 20.0 15.0 13.0 19.0 23.0 7.0 Réunion .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Rwanda 9.8 .. 23.0 22.0 16.0 24.0 31.0 10.0 Seychelles .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Somalia .. .. 37.0 34.0 23.0 43.0 48.0 16.0 Uganda 12.1 .. 21.0 20.0 14.0 21.0 25.0 11.0 United Republic of Tanzania 10.4 .. 22.0 22.0 17.0 23.0 25.0 12.0 Zambia 9.6 .. 21.0 18.0 17.0 20.0 21.0 14.0 Zimbabwe (C) 9.2 15.5 17.0 16.0 11.0 18.0 21.0 9.0 Middle Africa 13.4 23.3 21.2 18.2 25.4 29.8 14.5 Angola .. .. 32.0 29.0 30.0 32.0 .. .. Cameroon 6.7 .. 21.0 17.0 11.0 26.0 35.0 6.0 Central African Republic 15.3 .. 31.0 26.0 26.0 30.0 30.0 22.0 Chad 20.3 .. 37.0 37.0 30.0 38.0 48.0 29.0 Congo 13.2 .. 15.0 14.0 10.0 18.0 19.0 5.0 Democratic Republic of the Congo 18.5 .. 33.0 30.0 24.0 36.0 34.0 20.0 Equatorial Guinea .. .. 19.0 18.0 15.0 21.0 .. .. Gabon 6.6 .. 13.0 11.0 10.0 17.0 .. .. Sao Tome and Principe .. .. 9.0 9.0 8.0 11.0 13.0 5.0
- 138. 126 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A6 (cont.) Share of adult Share of children population with CED underweight (% of total) (% of total) By sex By residence By household wealth quintile Women Men Male Female Urban Rural Poorest Richest Northern Africa 10.3 9.7 5.3 8.0 16.8 8.0 Algeria .. .. 4.0 4.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 3.0 Egypt 1.6 3.2 8.0 7.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 7.0 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya .. .. 5.0 4.0 4.0 6.0 .. .. Morocco (C) 7.3 5.7 10.0 10.0 7.0 14.0 17.0 4.0 Sudan .. .. 32.0 30.0 .. .. 36.0 18.0 Tunisia .. .. 3.0 3.0 .. .. .. .. Western Sahara .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Southern Africa 7.8 14.4 14.2 12.0 15.2 Botswana .. .. 13.0 13.0 12.0 14.0 .. .. Lesotho 5.7 .. 19.0 21.0 16.0 20.0 27.0 11.0 Namibia 15.9 .. 21.0 21.0 15.0 25.0 27.0 9.0 South Africa 6.2 12.5 13.0 11.0 12.0 11.0 .. .. Swaziland 3.2 10.1 6.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 4.0 Western Africa 12.9 27.1 25.8 17.7 28.1 32.4 15.8 Benin 9.2 .. 24.0 21.0 18.0 25.0 .. .. Burkina Faso 20.8 .. 38.0 37.0 26.0 41.0 44.0 24.0 Cape Verde (1) .. .. .. .. 9.0 9.0 .. .. Côte d’Ivoire 8.2 .. 22.0 19.0 13.0 24.0 26.0 10.0 Gambia .. .. 21.0 20.0 15.0 23.0 26.0 14.0 Ghana (C) 8.6 16.2 18.0 17.0 12.0 21.0 25.0 8.0 Guinea 13.2 .. 27.0 26.0 20.0 29.0 30.0 24.0 Guinea-Bissau .. .. 19.0 20.0 13.0 22.0 21.0 10.0 Liberia 10.0 .. 25.0 23.0 21.0 25.0 27.0 18.0 Mali 13.5 .. 33.0 31.0 .. .. .. .. Mauritania 13.0 .. 31.0 29.0 20.0 37.0 40.0 13.0 Niger 19.2 .. 45.0 44.0 27.0 47.0 48.0 30.0 Nigeria 12.2 .. 29.0 28.0 22.0 32.0 35.0 13.0 Saint Helena .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Senegal 18.2 .. 16.0 18.0 10.0 22.0 26.0 6.0 Sierra Leone 11.2 .. 32.0 29.0 23.0 33.0 36.0 21.0 Togo 10.9 .. 27.0 25.0 16.0 32.0 37.0 15.0 ASIA EXCLUDING JAPAN 13.3 15.6 19.4 14.7 19.5 Central Asia 6.9 8.6 7.8 7.4 8.4 9.6 5.2 Kazakhstan 7.4 .. 4.0 4.0 3.0 5.0 5.0 1.0 Kyrgyzstan 4.2 3.2 4.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 Tajikistan .. .. 18.0 17.0 17.0 17.0 22.0 14.0
- 139. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 127 TABLE A6 (cont.) Share of adult Share of children population with CED underweight (% of total) (% of total) By sex By residence By household wealth quintile Women Men Male Female Urban Rural Poorest Richest Turkmenistan 9.9 .. 12.0 10.0 9.0 12.0 12.0 5.0 Uzbekistan 5.9 3.8 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 3.0 Eastern Asia excluding Japan 6.3 6.0 4.0 8.0 China (C) 8.5 9.2 .. .. 2.0 9.0 .. .. China, Hong Kong SAR .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. China, Macao SAR .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. China, mainland .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (2) .. .. 24.0 23.0 .. .. .. .. Mongolia 3.9 5.9 6.0 7.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 4.0 Republic of Korea 6.5 2.8 .. .. .. .. .. .. Southeastern Asia 18.2 14.1 25.3 25.3 23.4 30.4 Brunei Darussalam .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Cambodia 16.1 .. 35.0 36.0 35.0 36.0 43.0 23.0 Indonesia .. .. .. .. 25.0 30.0 .. .. Lao People’s Democratic Republic 14.8 12.1 37.0 38.0 26.0 39.0 44.0 18.0 Malaysia 10.0 9.2 19.0 19.0 16.0 23.0 .. .. Myanmar .. .. 31.0 32.0 25.0 34.0 .. .. Philippines 14.2 10.6 .. .. .. .. .. .. Singapore 14.6 4.4 4.0 3.0 .. .. .. .. Thailand 9.6 11.6 9.0 10.0 6.0 11.0 15.0 4.0 Timor-Leste 37.7 26.4 46.0 45.0 42.0 48.0 18.0 10.0 Viet Nam 28.3 24.4 21.0 19.0 12.0 22.0 29.0 10.0 Southern Asia 23.8 32.9 33.4 30.3 39.3 Afghanistan (1) .. .. 38.0 40.0 47.0 50.0 .. .. Bangladesh 29.7 .. 44.0 49.0 40.0 48.0 56.0 32.0 Bhutan .. .. 20.0 17.0 .. .. .. .. India 35.6 33.7 46.0 49.0 38.0 51.0 61.0 25.0 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 5.4 6.0 12.0 10.0 10.0 14.0 .. .. Maldives .. .. 31.0 30.0 .. .. .. .. Nepal 24.4 .. 38.0 40.0 23.0 41.0 47.0 19.0 Pakistan 31.6 30.8 38.0 36.0 35.0 39.0 .. .. Sri Lanka (3) 16.2 .. 29.0 30.0 19.0 32.0 .. .. Western Asia 11.4 11.1 Armenia 5.2 .. 2.0 6.0 4.0 4.0 5.0 1.0 Azerbaijan 4.8 2.1 9.0 10.0 6.0 13.0 17.0 4.0 Bahrain .. .. 7.0 11.0 .. .. .. .. Cyprus 6.9 1.7 .. .. .. .. .. ..
- 140. 128 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A6 (cont.) Share of adult Share of children population with CED underweight (% of total) (% of total) By sex By residence By household wealth quintile Women Men Male Female Urban Rural Poorest Richest Georgia .. .. 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 Iraq .. .. 8.0 7.0 7.0 8.0 .. .. Israel .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Jordan 3.9 .. 4.0 5.0 4.0 7.0 .. .. Kuwait 2.3 2.7 10.0 9.0 .. .. .. .. Lebanon .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Occupied Palestinian Territory .. .. 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 .. .. Oman .. .. 18.0 18.0 .. .. .. .. Qatar (2) .. .. 7.0 5.0 .. .. .. .. Saudi Arabia 4.9 5.9 17.0 12.0 .. .. .. .. Syrian Arab Republic .. .. 11.0 9.0 9.0 10.0 13.0 8.0 Turkey (C) 1.6 1.5 .. .. 2.0 5.0 .. .. United Arab Emirates 10.0 .. 16.0 13.0 .. .. .. .. Yemen 25.2 .. 46.0 45.0 37.0 48.0 .. .. LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN Caribbean Anguilla .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Antigua and Barbuda .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Aruba .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Bahamas .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Barbados 3.3 3.1 .. .. .. .. .. .. British Virgin Islands .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Cayman Islands .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Cuba 6.2 5.3 .. .. 4.0 5.0 .. .. Dominica .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Dominican Republic 5.1 .. 4.0 4.0 4.0 5.0 7.0 2.0 Grenada .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Guadeloupe .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Haiti 15.5 .. 22.0 22.0 15.0 26.0 27.0 8.0 Jamaica .. .. 4.0 4.0 .. 5.0 .. .. Martinique .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Montserrat .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Netherlands Antilles .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Puerto Rico .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Saint Kitts & Nevis .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Saint Lucia .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Saint Vincent and the Grenadines .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Trinidad & Tobago .. .. 7.0 5.0 .. .. .. .. Turks and Caicos Islands .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. United States Virgin Islands .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
- 141. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 129 TABLE A6 (cont.) Share of adult Share of children population with CED underweight (% of total) (% of total) By sex By residence By household wealth quintile Women Men Male Female Urban Rural Poorest Richest Central America 2.9 9.8 9.9 6.9 12.9 Belize .. .. 5.0 7.0 4.0 8.0 .. .. Costa Rica (2) .. .. 6.0 4.0 4.0 7.0 .. .. El Salvador .. .. 10.0 11.0 7.0 13.0 .. .. Guatemala (3) 2.0 .. 23.0 23.0 16.0 26.0 .. .. Honduras 4.0 .. 11.0 12.0 6.0 15.0 22.0 2.0 Mexico 1.4 1.5 8.0 7.0 6.0 12.0 .. .. Nicaragua 3.7 .. 7.0 7.0 5.0 9.0 11.0 2.0 Panama 3.6 2.6 8.0 8.0 .. .. .. .. South America 7.2 6.9 5.4 9.9 Argentina (1) 3.4 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Bolivia (Plurinational State of) 2.0 .. 6.0 6.0 4.0 9.0 .. .. Brazil (C) 3.5 2.8 6.0 5.0 5.0 9.0 .. .. Chile (2) 1.1 0.6 .. .. .. .. .. .. Colombia (3) 3.9 3.7 7.0 7.0 6.0 10.0 12.0 3.0 Ecuador .. .. 9.0 10.0 8.0 11.0 .. .. Falkland Islands (Malvinas) .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. French Guiana .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Guyana .. .. 14.0 13.0 10.0 15.0 .. .. Paraguay .. .. 5.0 3.0 3.0 6.0 9.0 0.0 Peru 1.9 .. 6.0 5.0 2.0 9.0 12.0 1.0 Suriname .. .. 10.0 10.0 .. .. 12.0 8.0 Uruguay .. .. 4.0 5.0 .. .. .. .. Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) .. .. 5.0 5.0 .. .. .. .. OCEANIA EXCLUDING AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND American Samoa 0.2 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Cook Islands .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Fiji 5.6 6.6 .. .. .. .. .. .. French Polynesia .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Guam .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Kiribati 0.6 0.3 .. .. .. .. .. .. Marshall Islands .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Micronesia (Federated States of) .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Nauru .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. New Caledonia .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Niue .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Northern Mariana Islands .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Palau .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Papua New Guinea (1) .. .. 28.0 25.0 18.0 28.0 .. .. Samoa .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
- 142. 130 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 TABLE A6 (cont.) Share of adult Share of children population with CED underweight (% of total) (% of total) By sex By residence By household wealth quintile Women Men Male Female Urban Rural Poorest Richest Solomon Islands .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Tokelau .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Tonga .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Tuvalu .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Vanuatu 2.9 1.0 18.0 13.0 15.0 16.0 18.0 13.0 Wallis and Futuna Islands .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. COUNTRIES IN DEVELOPED REGIONS ASIA AND OCEANIA 5.1 2.3 Australia 2.8 1.3 .. .. .. .. .. .. Japan 10.8 4.3 .. .. .. .. .. .. New Zealand 1.6 1.3 .. .. .. .. .. .. EUROPE Eastern Europe 4.9 1.1 Belarus .. .. 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 Bulgaria 5.9 1.6 .. .. .. .. .. .. Czech Republic 3.7 1.0 .. .. .. .. .. .. Czechoslovakia .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Hungary 3.0 0.4 .. .. .. .. .. .. Poland 3.2 1.0 .. .. .. .. .. .. Republic of Moldova 5.9 .. 3.0 5.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 1.0 Romania 4.8 1.1 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 .. .. Russian Federation .. .. 3.0 3.0 .. .. .. .. Slovakia 7.4 1.6 .. .. .. .. .. .. Ukraine (4) 5.4 .. 1.0 1.0 .. .. .. .. USSR .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Yugoslav SFR .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Northern Europe 3.9 1.7 Denmark 3.7 0.8 .. .. .. .. .. .. Estonia 4.4 1.3 .. .. .. .. .. .. Faroe Islands .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Finland 3.1 1.6 .. .. .. .. .. .. Iceland 3.0 1.6 .. .. .. .. .. .. Ireland 1.0 2.0 .. .. .. .. .. .. Latvia 5.3 1.2 .. .. .. .. .. .. Lithuania 3.0 1.6 .. .. .. .. .. .. Norway 7.0 2.0 .. .. .. .. .. ..
- 143. S t a t is t ic a l a n n ex 131 TABLE A6 (cont.) Share of adult Share of children population with CED underweight (% of total) (% of total) By sex By residence By household wealth quintile Women Men Male Female Urban Rural Poorest Richest Sweden 3.0 1.0 .. .. .. .. .. .. United Kingdom 5.9 4.1 .. .. .. .. .. .. Southern Europe Albania .. .. 8.0 7.0 5.0 9.0 13.0 3.0 Andorra .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Bosnia and Herzegovina .. .. 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 Croatia 0.2 0.1 .. .. .. .. .. .. Gibraltar .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Greece .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Holy See .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Italy 5.8 0.9 .. .. .. .. .. .. Malta 3.8 1.3 .. .. .. .. .. .. Montenegro .. .. 4.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 6.0 2.0 Portugal 3.4 0.9 .. .. .. .. .. .. San Marino .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Serbia .. .. 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 4.0 2.0 Serbia and Montenegro .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Slovenia .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Spain 3.0 0.5 .. .. .. .. .. .. The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 6.4 .. 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 1.0 Western Europe Austria 4.0 1.0 .. .. .. .. .. .. Belgium 5.3 2.6 .. .. .. .. .. .. Belgium-Luxembourg .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. France .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Germany .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Liechtenstein .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Luxembourg .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Monaco .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Netherlands .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Switzerland 5.9 1.0 .. .. .. .. .. .. NORTHERN AMERICA 3.7 1.4 Bermuda .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Canada 4.1 1.2 .. .. .. .. .. .. Greenland .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Saint Pierre and Miquelon .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. United States of America (5) 3.3 1.5 2.0 1.0 .. .. .. ..
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- 158. 146 Special chapters of The State of Food and Agriculture In addition to the usual review of the recent world food and agricultural situation, each issue of this report since 1957 has included one or more special studies on problems of longer-term interest. Special chapters in earlier issues have covered the following subjects: 1957 Factors influencing the trend of food consumption Postwar changes in some institutional factors affecting agriculture 1958 Food and agricultural developments in Africa south of the Sahara The growth of forest industries and their impact on the world’s forests 1959 Agricultural incomes and levels of living in countries at different stages of economic development Some general problems of agricultural development in less-developed countries in the light of postwar experience 1960 Programming for agricultural development 1961 Land reform and institutional change Agricultural extension, education and research in Africa, Asia and Latin America 1962 The role of forest industries in the attack on economic underdevelopment The livestock industry in less-developed countries 1963 Basic factors affecting the growth of productivity in agriculture Fertilizer use: spearhead of agricultural development 1964 Protein nutrition: needs and prospects Synthetics and their effects on agricultural trade 1966 Agriculture and industrialization Rice in the world food economy 1967 Incentives and disincentives for farmers in developing countries The management of fishery resources 1968 Raising agricultural productivity in developing countries through technological improvement Improved storage and its contribution to world food supplies 1969 Agricultural marketing improvement programmes: some lessons from recent experience Modernizing institutions to promote forestry development 1970 Agriculture at the threshold of the Second Development Decade 1971 Water pollution and its effects on living aquatic resources and fisheries 1972 Education and training for development Accelerating agricultural research in the developing countries 1973 Agricultural employment in developing countries 1974 Population, food supply and agricultural development 1975 The Second United Nations Development Decade: mid-term review and appraisal 1976 Energy and agriculture 1977 The state of natural resources and the human environment for food and agriculture 1978 Problems and strategies in developing regions 1979 Forestry and rural development 1980 Marine fisheries in the new era of national jurisdiction 1981 Rural poverty in developing countries and means of poverty alleviation 1982 Livestock production: a world perspective 1983 Women in developing agriculture 1984 Urbanization, agriculture and food systems
- 159. 147 1985 Energy use in agricultural production Environmental trends in food and agriculture Agricultural marketing and development 1986 Financing agricultural development 1987–88 Changing priorities for agricultural science and technology in developing countries 1989 Sustainable development and natural resource management 1990 Structural adjustment and agriculture 1991 Agricultural policies and issues: lessons from the 1980s and prospects for the 1990s 1992 Marine fisheries and the law of the sea: a decade of change 1993 Water policies and agriculture 1994 Forest development and policy dilemmas 1995 Agricultural trade: entering a new era? 1996 Food security: some macroeconomic dimensions 1997 The agroprocessing industry and economic development 1998 Rural non-farm income in developing countries 2000 World food and agriculture: lessons from the past 50 years 2001 Economic impacts of transboundary plant pests and animal diseases 2002 Agriculture and global public goods ten years after the Earth Summit 2003–04 Agricultural biotechnology: meeting the needs of the poor? 2005 Agriculture trade and poverty: can trade work for the poor? 2006 Food aid for food security? 2007 Paying farmers for environmental services 2008 Biofuels: prospects, risks and opportunities 2009 Livestock in the balance
- 160. THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE Women make significant contributions to the rural economy in all developing country regions. Their roles differ across regions, yet they consistently have less access than men to the resources and opportunities they need to be more productive. Increasing women’s access to land, livestock, education, financial services, extension, technol- ogy and rural employment would boost their productivity and generate gains in terms of agricultural production, food security, economic growth and social welfare. Closing the gender gap in agricultural inputs alone could lift 100–- 150 million people out of hunger. No blueprint exists for closing the gender gap, but some basic principles are universal: governments, the international community and civil society should work together to eliminate discrimina- tion under the law, to promote equal access to resources and opportunities, to ensure that agricultural policies and programmes are gender-aware, and to make women’s voices heard as equal partners for sustainable develop- ment. Achieving gender equality and empowering women in agriculture is not only the right thing to do. It is also crucial for agricultural development and food security. ISBN 978-92-5-106768-0 ISSN 0081-4539 9 789251 067680 I2050E/1/01.11