IS 139 Lecture 1 - 2015
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This document provides an overview of computer architecture. It discusses how computer architecture is the science of selecting and interconnecting hardware components to meet functional, performance and cost goals. The document then explains key concepts like instruction sets, components of computers like processors and memory, and design goals for architectures like performance, cost and reliability. It also covers the evolution of computer technologies over generations from mechanical to vacuum tube-based systems to today's integrated circuits.
![Why study computer
architecture?
Program optimization – understanding why a
program/algorithm runs slow
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IS 139 Lecture 1 - 2015
- 2. Overview - 1 How does a computer work? How components fit together Control signals, signaling methods, memory types How do I design a computer? Structure and behavior of computer systems ISA – instruction sets and formats, op codes, data types, no. and type of registers, addressing modes, memory access methods, I/O mechanisms
- 3. Overview - 2 It’s all about function & structure Structure => the way in which components are interrelated Function => the operation of each individual component
- 4. What is Computer Architecture Computer Architecture is the science and art of selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet functional, performance and cost goals.” - WWW Computer Architecture Page
- 5. What is Architecture The role of a building architect: Materials: Steel, Concrete, Brick, Wood, Glass Goals: Function, Cost, Safety, Ease of Construction, Energy Efficiency, Fast Build Time, Aesthetics Buildings: Houses, Offices, Apartments, Stadiums, Museums
- 6. What is Computer Architecture The role of a computer architect: Technology: Logic Gates, SRAM, DRAM, Circuit Techniques, Packaging, Magnetic Storage, Flash Memory Goals: Function, Performance, Reliability, Cost/Manufacturability, Energy Efficiency, Time to Market Computers: Desktops, Servers, Mobile Phones, Supercomputers, Game Consoles, Embedded
- 7. Architecture vs Organization Architecture vs organization Architecture = attributes visible to programmers e.g. instruction set, I/O mechanisms, addressing modes Organization = units & their interconnections that realize architectural specs e.g. control signals, I/O interfaces, memory technology used Manufacturers offer family of models => same architecture but different organizations
- 8. Why study computer architecture? Program optimization – understanding why a program/algorithm runs slow for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) { for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) { /* operate on A[i][j] ... */ } } for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) { for (int j = 0; i < n; i++) { /* operate on A[i][j] ... */ } }
- 9. Why study computer architecture? Understanding Floating Point arithmetic crucial for large, real world systems Javascript: 0.1 + 0.2 === 0.3 (True or False)? 1000 + 0.5 + 0.5 => (1000 + 0.5) +0.5 vs 1000 + (0.5 + 0.5)
- 10. Why study computer architecture? Design of peripheral systems i.e. device drivers How I/O is performed Interrupt mechanism Device interfaces
- 11. Why study computer architecture? Design tradeoffs of embedded systems System on a Chip (SoC) Performance vs Power Cost Size
- 12. Why study computer architecture? Benchmarking http://www.howtogeek.com/177790/why-you-cant-use-cpu-clock-speed-to-compare-computer-performance/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megahertz_myth Intel Core i3-4360 (3.7GHz) 8GB DDR3-2133 RAM Nvidia GeForce GTX 980 Samsung SSD 850 Pro 512GB SSD $900 AMD FX-8320E (4.6GHz) 8GB DDR3-2133 RAM Nvidia GeForce GTX 980 Samsung SSD 850 Pro 512GB SSD $1200 VS
- 13. Why study computer architecture? Building better compilers, OS’s Take advantage of new instructions Avoid costly instructions Better utilize memory/caches/registers
- 14. Why study computer architecture? Writing software that takes advantage of hardware features – parallelism Multi-threading
- 15. You should be able to Understand how programs written in high level languages get translated & executed by the H/W Determine the performance of programs and what affects them Understand techniques used by hardware designers to improve performance Evaluate and compare the performance of different computing systems
- 16. General purpose computers Software and hardware are interrelated “Anything that can be done with software can also been done with hardware, and anything that can be done with hardware can be done with software” – Principal of Equivalence of H/W and S/W This observation allows us to construct general purpose computing systems with simple instructions
- 17. Functions of general purpose computer Data processing Data can take various forms Data storage Temporarily or long term Data movement Between itself & outside world Control Orchestrates the different parts
- 18. Computer Organization & architecture - Stallings
- 19. What makes a computer? Processor – data path & control Memory Mechanism to communicate with the outside world Input Output
- 20. Organization of a computer Computer Organization & design - Patterson
- 21. Design Goals Functional Needs to be correct Reliable Does it continue to perform correctly? Hard fault vs transient fault Space satellites vs desktop vs server reliability High performance “Fast” is only meaningful in the context of a set of important tasks Not just “Gigahertz” – truck vs sports car analogy Impossible goal: fastest possible design for all programs
- 22. Design Goals Low cost Per unit manufacturing cost (wafer cost) Cost of making first chip after design (mask cost) Low power/energy Energy in (battery life, cost of electricity) Energy out (cooling and related costs) Cyclic problem, very much a problem today Challenge: balancing the relative importance of these goals And the balance is constantly changing No goal is absolutely important at expense of all others Our focus: performance, only touch on cost, power, reliability
- 23. Classes of computers Desktop computers Familiar to most people i.e. Intel Core 2 Duo, Core i7, AMD Athlon Features: good performance, single user, execution of third party software Need: integer, memory bandwidth, integrated graphics/network? Servers Hidden from most users – accessible via a network – Cloud computing – in data centers Features: handling large workloads, dependability, expandability From cheap low ends to extreme super computers with thousands of processors used for forecasting, oil exploration Embedded computers The largest class – wide range of applications & performance In cars, cell phones, video game consoles, planes Need: low power, low cost
- 24. Tons of features
- 25. A look inside
- 26. How did we get here? A lot has happened in the 60+ year life span E.g. if transportation industry developed at same pace – here to London in 1 sec for a few cents Different generations in the evolution of computers Each generation defined by a distinct technology used to build a computer at that time Why? – gives perspective & context into design decisions, understand why things are as they are
- 27. Generation 0: Mechanical Calculating Machines - 1 Defining characteristic - mechanical 1500s There was a need to make decimal calculations faster Mechanical calculator (Pascaline) – Blaise Pascal No memory, not programmable Used well into 20th century Difference Engine – Charles Babbage “Father of Computing” Used method of difference to solve polynomial functions Was still a calculator
- 28. Generation 0: Mechanical Calculating Machines - 2 Analytical engine – an improvement over “Difference Engine” – It was a significant development More versatile – capable of performing any math operation Similar to modern computers – mill (processor), store (memory) & input/output devices Conditioning branch op – next instruction depending on previous Ada, Countess of Lovelace suggested a plan for how the machine should calculate numbers – The first programmer Used punch cards for input & programming – this method survived for a long time
- 30. Generation 0 Drawbacks Slow – limited by the inertia of moving parts (gears & pulleys) Cumbersome, unreliable & expensive
- 31. 1st Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945 -1953) Defining characteristic: use of vacuum tubes as switching technology Previous generations were mechanical but not electrical Konrad Zuse – in 1930s added electrical tech & other improvements to Babbage’s design Z1 used electromechanical relays – was programmable, had memory, arithmetic unit, control unit Used discarded film for input
- 32. 1st Generation John Atanasoff, John Mauchly, J. Presper Eckert – credited with the invention of digital computers; However many others contributed Their work resulted in ENIAC (Electronic numerical Integrator and Computer) in 1946 – the first all electronic, general purpose digital computer Was built to facilitate weather prediction but ended up being financed & by the US army for ballistic trajection calculations
- 34. 2nd Generation: Transistorized Computers (1954 – 1965) Defining characteristic: Use of transistor as switching technology Vacuum tube tech was not very dependable – they tended to burn out In 1948 at Bell Laboratories – John Bardeen, Walter Brattain & William Shockley invented the TRANSISTOR Was a revolution – Transistors are smaller, more reliable, consume less power Caused circuitry to become more smaller & more reliable Emergence of companies such as IBM, DEC & Unisys
- 35. 3rd Generation: Integrated Circuit Computers (1965 – 1980) Defining characteristic: Integration of dozens of transistors on a single silicon/germanium piece – “microchip” or “chip” Kibly started with germanium, Robert Noyce eventually used silicon Led to the silicon chip => “Silicon Valley” Allowed dozens of transistors to exist on a single chip smaller than a single discrete transistor Effect: Computers became faster, smaller & cheaper E.g. IBM System/360, DEC’s PDP-8 and PDP-11
- 37. 4th Generation: VLSI (1980 - ) Defining characteristic: Integration of very large numbers of transistors on a single chip 3rd generation had only multiple transistors on a chip No. increased as manufacturing techniques improved: SSI (<100) => MSI (<1000) => LSI (<10,000) => VLSI (>10,000) Led to the development of first microprocessor (4004) by Intel in 1971 Effect: allowed computers to be cheaper, smaller & faster – led to development of microprocessors Computers for consumers: Altair 8800 => Apple I & II => IBM’s PC
- 38. 5th Generation? Quantum computing Artificial Intelligence Massively parallel machines Non Von Neumann architectures
- 39. Common themes in evolution of computers The same underlying fundamental concepts Obsession with Increase in performance Decrease in size Decrease in cost
- 40. Moore’s Law How small can we make transistors? How densely can we pack them In 1965, Intel founder Gordon Moore stated “the density of transistors in an integrated circuit will double every year” – Moore’s Law Ended up being every after every 18 months Has hold up for almost 40 years However cannot hold forever – physical & financial limits Rock’s Law: “The cost of capital equipment to build semiconductors will double every for years”
- 41. Moore’s Law
- 42. Moore’s Law Implications Cost of a chip remained almost unchanged Cost of components decreased Higher packing density, shorter electrical paths Higher speeds Smaller size Increased flexibility Reduced power & cooling requirements Fewer interconnections Increased reliability
- 43. Uniprocessor to Multiprocessor Because of physical limits – power limits Clock rates cannot increase forever Power = capacitive load x V^2 x frequency Multiple processors per chip – “cores” Programmers have to take advantage of multiple processors Parallelism – similar to instruction level parallelism
- 44. Resources Readings Computer Organization and Architecture (Stallings) – Chapter 1 & Chapter 2.1 Computer Architecture Lectures https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4TzMyXmzL8M&li st=PL59E5B57A04EAE09C https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TS2odp6rQHU&in dex=2&list=PL59E5B57A04EAE09C