0_psychology_all_topics.ppt for MEDICAL studies

MEDICAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOLOGY
(Mrs. LC Mazyopa BA, MSc Clinical Neuropsychology)

OBJECTIVES
• Identify the role of psychology and its
application to medical practice
• Identify the psychological processes and
utilize them in relation to motivation when
dealing with clients in clinical settings
• Apply the basic knowledge of psychological
development in their clinical practice

OBJECTIVES
• Recognize the concept of intelligence; the role of
genetics and environment in determining it, and
apply psychometric methods of assessing
intelligence
• Discuss the concept of personality, identify
approaches used to describe and outline the
development of personality
• Apply psychological knowledge, theories and
principles to various situations demanding
counselling in clinical practice

NATURE& SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
• Psychology comes from two Greek words:
Psyche and Logos. Psyche means mind, soul or
spirit. Logos means study or science. Literally,
Psychology is the study of the mind.
• However, Psychology is not defined as the
study of the mind but human behavior and
mental processes.(Atkinson & Hilgards, 2003)

Definition continued
• Behaviour refers to actions or reactions of an
individual. These actions if easily observable
such as laughing or crying are referred to as
overt behaviours. Actions that are not directly
observable but are inferred such as happiness
are called covert behaviours.
• Mental processes on the other hand are the
things that we do mentally like think, plan,
reason, interpret and assign meaning.

Historical Basis of Psychology
• Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) is considered to
be the father of psychology because he
formalized its beginning as a science by
establishing the first laboratory in 1879 in
Leipzig Germany.
• He emphasized on the study of the structures
of the mind thru self reports of clients.
• He influenced Edward Titchener (1867-1927)

Structuralism
• Structuralism was introduced by Edward
Titchener. It places importance on the study
of the mind structural component such as
feelings and sensations that the person
reports to you individually. This is done
through a procedure known as introspection
(meaning looking within you and reporting it
personally). It is also known as the study of
the conscious mind.

Structuralism
• One limitation of introspection is the lack of a
common answer to a problem. This made it
unreliable as individual experiences are
subjective. This led to the development
functionalism.

Functionalism
• This school of thought was introduced by
William James (1842-1910) in the United
States of America. He did not agree with
structuralism and its method of study
introspection. But instead he stressed the
importance of how behaviour functions allow
people to adapt to their environment. He
emphasized the use of direct observation of
behaviour in the natural settings of an
individual.

Gestalt
• This is the school of psychology that
emphasizes the perception of the whole
person rather than the individual elements of
conscious experiences. It was spearheaded by
Max Wertheimer in Germany. It assigns an
important role of mental activities in
organizing sensations into meaningful
interpretations or percepts.

Applications of Psychology
• Educational psychology
• Health psychology
• Industrial psychology
• Clinical psychology
• Counselling psychology
• Developmental psychology
• Social psychology
• Forensic psychology

Approaches to Studying Psychology
commonest models used in psychology include
the following:
• Neuro biological approach
• Humanistic approach
• Psychoanalysis
• Behaviourism
• Cognitive approach

Neuro biological approach
• This model tries to understand and explain
overt behaviour by describing it in terms of
underlying biochemical, neurological and
neuromuscular causes. It is assumed that the
nervous system, endocrine system and body
musculature have a lot to do with the way
human beings behave. Human behaviour
cannot be explained without exploring these
avenues to find the cause of the behaviour.

Humanistic approach
• Carl Rogers discusses human behaviour
largely as a result of the free will and
unconditional positive regard. The approach
emphasizes that a human being has the
capacity for personal growth and freedom to
choose his own destiny. It also emphasize on
the need for the significant other or parents
not to place condition on their children but
show unconditional love and positive regard.

Humanistic approach
• Humanistic psychologists take a stance that
individuals have the ability to control their
lives rather than being manipulated by the
environment. Humanistic psychologists argue
that human beings have a tremendous
potential for self-understanding and self-
destiny and self- direction as they move
towards self -actualization.

Psychoanalysis
• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is the founder of the
psychoanalytic theory of development. In this
model, the unconscious processes of the mind
are viewed as being the primary determinant of
behaviour influenced by early childhood
experiences. The approach suggests that hidden
conflicts or impulses in the unconscious realm
are responsible for human behaviour. He suggests
that human beings are born with instincts for
personal gratification (satisfaction) that are
opposed to the morals of society.

Psychoanalysis
• Society seeks to suppress these tendencies.
These suppressed impulses can have powerful
influence on behaviour. Freud suggests that,
these suppressed impulses can be expressed
through every day behaviour, dreams and
mental illnesses. The resultant behaviour is as
a result of the compromise the mind has to
unconsciously make to satisfy both the
personal needs and the expectations of
society.

Behaviourism
• The behavioral model was founded in 1930 by John B
Watson who emphasizes on the importance of the
environment and the effects of rewards and
punishments in determining behaviour. The
behaviorists stress the importance of dealing with
behaviours that are directly observable. The
environment is considered to be the primary
determinant of behaviour. According to the
behaviorists, the environment plays a significant role in
shaping human behaviour. For example, the home
environments, the school that one attends, all have
significant influence in the way someone behaves.

Behaviourism
• The behaviourists also suggest that we are forced
to work hard in school because of the rewards we
receive. These rewards are things like the marks
the teachers give pupils and the praise that goes
with good success. We also behave in a well-
mannered fashion for our parents because of the
controls they put in place and we work hard at
our places of work because of the money we
receive for our efforts. The prominent advocate
of this approach is B.F. Skinner.

Cognitive approach
• The cognitive theorists such as Albert Ellis
argue that we are not merely passive
receptors of stimuli but the mind actively
processes the information it receives and
transforms it into new forms and categories. It
focuses on the mental processes of thinking
and how thoughts influence our beliefs and
actions.

PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES
• major psychological processes considered are
sensation, perception and motivation.
• Sensation is defined as the process of
detecting a physical stimulus from the
environment through your sense organs.
• Sense organs include skin, nose, mouth, eyes
and ears.

Sensation continued
• In order for information/ detection to be
complete at the sensory receptors, the physical
energy from the physical stimulus is converted
into a neutral signal then sent to the brain for
interpretation. The process of transforming the
physical energy into neutral energy is called
transduction.
• In order for sensation to occur, the physical
stimulus must stimulate your particular sense
organ up to a certain threshold called sensory
threshold.

Sensation continued
• particular stimulation must meet the following
thresholds in order to be detected:
a. Absolute threshold- this is the smallest
possible strength of stimulus required for it to
be detected. Absolute threshold differs from
individual to individual, for example you might
hear someone calling in a whisper while your
neighbour might not.

Sensation continued
b. Difference threshold- this is the smallest
possible difference required for you to
distinguish between two stimuli, for example
the minimum difference that allows you to
differentiate between the scent of a rose
flower and a night Lilly.

Sensation continued
Sensory adaptation- this means the decline
insensitivity to a constant stimulus for
example if you move to an area that is near a
sewerage pond you will smell it instantly but
the long you stay there the more the smell
diminishes and eventually will not be
detected. This does not however, that the
smell is gone, you have just adapted to it.

Perception
• Hockenbury (1998) defines perception as the
process of integrating, organising, and
interpreting sensory information in a way that
is meaningful.
• The assigning of meaning or interpretation of
information is based on previous learning
from the environment, it depends on memory
as well and founded on gestalt principles.

Perception
• Gestalt principles or perceptual organizations
include:
• Depth perception
• Perception of shape
• Perceptual groupings
• Perceptual illusions

Depth perception
This is the ability to interpret things that are at a
distance. Am sure you are able to recognise
you friend coming in a distance at any time.
This is because of depth perception. We
identify different things through:
• Relative size; if you assume that two objects
are of the same size, then the object that
looks smaller is thought to be further from
where you are.

Depth perception
• Overlap: this is the assumption that the object
that is partially blocked or hidden by another
object is perceived as being far away. For
example when you are looking at a distance
and you see a tree that looks like it’s on top of
the house, the interpretation you will make is
that the tree is further from the house.

Depth perception
• Linear perspective: Find a straight road or a
railway line and look in the distance at the
road or railway line. What do you see? The
parallel lines seem to meet at the distance.
The closer together the lines appear to be, the
greater the perception of distance.

Perception of shape
• The figure-ground relationship is a perceptual
principle that tries to explain they way we
interpret pictures. It refers to the fact that
when we see a picture, we automatically
separate the picture from its background. The
guiding principles are that the figure has a
definite shape, stands out clearly and gives
meaning whereas the ground is hazy, less
defined and appears to be further away. Eg
vase.

Perceptual groupings
• This concept tries to explain the interpretation
we make. We tend to organise things in a
particular order, for example what is the next
number in the sequence: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. ----.--.
Am positive you said 6 not 20. This is because
you used a principal of groupings. The general
principle used in groups is refered to as the
law of pragnanz or the law or similarity

Law of pragnanz
• Law of closure; this is the tendency to see
things as complete.

Law of pragnanz
• Law of similarity; this is the tendency to group
things according to similarity for example:
A $ @ 2
A $ @ 2
A $ @ 2
A $ @ 2

Law of pragnanz
• Law of proximity: this is the tendency to
assume that things that are next to each other
belong to the same group whereas the things
those are far apart are independent of each
other. For example when you find people
standing next to each other at a bus terminus,
you might think they are getting on the same
bus and the person standing alone further
way is getting on a different bus.

Perceptual illusions
• Perceptual illusions are defined as
misinterpretations of the true characteristics
of an image or object (Hockenbury, 1998). In
short these are wrong or faulty interpretations
we make about the object because of what we
think we have seen. Magicians use this
concepts a lot as they do their magic tricks.
These illusions occur because we misinterpret
the true characteristics of the object.

• Muller-Lyer illusion-
Which line is longer?

Moon illusion- When you view the moon as it is
rising in the evening, it looks larger or bigger
that when it is over head. This does not mean
the moon has shrunk. The size of the moon is
constant.
• These illusion are used by magicians and trick
stars on individuals for example the famous
card games on the streets use these principles

motivation
• Motivation is defined as something which
prompts, compels and energies an individual
to act or behave in a particular fashion at a
particular time to attain some specific goal or
purpose. Motivation is made possible through
needs, drives and motives.
•

Definition of terms
• Need -These can be defined in general as
wants or desires. They are also defined as
things we must have in order to survive. Every
human being strives to satisfy these basic
needs so as to maintain and enhance himself
in this world. Needs are broadly divided into
two broad categories namely:
• biological and
• socio-psychological needs.

Definition of terms
• Biological needs-These include all our bodily
needs such as the need for food, water and
oxygen. They are the most fundamental needs
for our survival and they include the need for
rest, activity, sleep, elimination of waste
products, maintaining an internal body
temperature, protection from threats, sexual
desires and the demands of our senses.

Definition of terms
• Socio-psychological needs- These are needs
that are associated with the socio- cultural
environment. They are acquired thru social
learning and these needs are not necessarily
linked to survival yet their deprivation may
lead to psychological malfunction. These
needs include the need for freedom, security,
love and affection, achievement, social
recognition, social company, social assertion
and self- expression

Definition of terms
• Drives
• This is the aroused reaction tendency or a state of
heightened tension that sets up activities in in
individual and sustains them for increasing his
general activity level. They are caused by needs
which move us towards action to meet the need.
The desire to achieve something depends upon
the strength of the stimuli involving the related
needs. Drives are divided into two broad
categories:

Definition of terms
• Biological or primary drives-This is the desire to
satisfy needs such as hunger, thirst, and escape
from pain and sex drive. They are unlearnt and
come about by a biological mechanism known as
homeostasis or according to W.B Cannon the
body system’s constant work towards maintaining
an optimum level of functioning maintaining a
normal state of balance.
•

Definition of terms
• Socio-psychological or secondary drives-These
are drives such as fear, anxiety and desire for
approval, achievement, aggression and
dependence. These are acquired thru social
learning as a result of one’s interaction with the
socio-cultural environment. They move an
individual to act for the environment. They move
an individual to act for the satisfaction of his
socio-psychological needs which acts as a
reinforcement of behaviour for continuity.

Definition of terms
• Motive-These are basic activating forces behind a
particular behaviour. Fisher defines a motive as
an inclination or impulse to action. They are
actually drives but psychologists prefer to use the
term motive as it include in it the degree of
orientation or direction and it denotes an inner
state of mind generated thru basic needs and
drives which compel an individual to respond by
creating a kind of tension that leads to acting in a
selective way to satisfy a related need.

Definition of terms
• Incentive -These also influence drives and are
based on the need for reinforcement for
behaviour to occur. They include praise,
appreciation, rewards, bonuses, fulfilment of
needs and getting desired objectives. They
work as a reinforcing agent as they add more
force to a drive. They act as fuel to an already
ignited fire. Both primary and secondary
drives are strongly influenced by incentives.

Physiological and Non-physiological
Basis of Motivation
• Physiological Factors
1. Genetics
• Heredity plays a significant role in determining
a person’s behaviour. There are certain traits
that we inherit from our parents that are
responsible in determining our behaviour. In
some ways, we may have a lot of similarities
with our parents.

Basis of Motivation
2. Hormonal
• Hormones are chemical messengers secreted
by the endocrine glands. They influence many
aspects of human life like growth and
activities. Hormones like adrenaline, when
released in the blood stream increases energy
for fight and flight when in danger.

Basis of Motivation
3. Neural
• This involves the nervous system which is the
electro chemical system that enables human
beings to think, feel, act or behave in a certain
way. For example, a pin prick will cause
someone to feel and the impulse will be sent
to the brain to be interpreted. This will result
in moving away from the prick (behaviour)

Basis of Motivation
• Non Physiological Factors
1. Thought process
• Thought processes have a lot to do with concept
formation, reasoning and generally how an
individual is able to draw conclusions from
observations and facts. It also involves problem
solving skills and language acquisition. These
processes can largely influence one’s behaviour

Basis of Motivation
2. Emotional basis
• Emotions are feelings of pleasantness or
unpleasantness. Human beings are moved by
feelings, if someone is happy, it may be reflected
in the behaviour and this is also true with
sadness. When one is angry, he is likely to be
aggressive. Therefore, one’s emotional state will
determine his actions.
•

Basis of Motivation
3. Attitudes
• An attitude is a stance an individual takes towards
an object, people or events. One’s attitude will
influence who to play with, how to pass time and
the career to take. Attitude may also determine
how one behaves towards other people. The
nurse’s attitude will influence the way she looks
after clients.

Basis of Motivation
4. Social and cultural factors
• Values are freely chosen principles, ideals or
standards held by an individual, class or group of
people that give meaning and direction to life.
Each and every society has values and these
values help the members to make day to day
choices. Everything that we do, every decision we
make and course of action we take is based on
our consciously and unconsciously chosen beliefs,
attitudes and values.

Theories of motivation
• A theory is defined as a set of ideas or statements
meant to explain a phenomenon.
1. Instinct theory by Sigmund Freud
• According to this theory motivation is as a result
of the life and death instincts. The life instinct
known as EROS is the urge for self- preservation.
It is responsible for reproduction and
maintenance of life. Death instinct or THANATOS
is the instinct that pushes us toward destruction
for example beer drinking, sexual immorality and
boxing.

• 2. Drives and incentive theories by Watson,
Skinner, Tolman and Hull
• These are based on the principles of behaviorism
and learning. Needs and drives work as stimuli to
evoke responses in the form motivational
behavior. Behaviourists such as Watson and
Skinner argue that need stimulation gives birth to
a drive which sets the motivational behavior in
motion. The reduction of the need and
associated drive works as reinforcement for
maintaining the behavior.

Skinner, Tolman and Hull.
• Behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce
internal tension. If the desire or need is satisfied
then there is a reduction in the drive. When a
particular behavior successfully reduces a need,
that behavior is more likely to be repeated when
the same need arises again. Hull says this
mechanism is caused by homeostasis.

Skinner, Tolman and Hull.
• Drives can be motivated by external goals
such as rewards which are known as
incentives. Incentives are based on learning
principles such as reinforcement and cognitive
factors such as expectation of a particular
behavior leading to attainment of a particular
goal as important in motivation.

3. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
• According to Maslow human needs are arranged
in a hierarchy meaning that the appearance of
one need generally depends on the satisfaction of
another. Needs are closely related and arranged
from the lowest to the highest
• You come to learn that this theory has five main
hierarchies of needs (Hockenbury 1998) namely:

• Physiologic needs/ biological needs
• Safety/Security needs
• Social/belonging needs
• Esteem needs
• Self -actualisation.

A). Physiological needs
• These are needs that must be satisfied to maintain life.
The body needs water, food, oxygen, sleep, sex, shelter
and protection. People have a strong drive for self-
preservation, and whenever these physiological needs
are threatened, the need become a necessity and
demand immediate solutions. You must have heard of
people cooking poisonous weeds for food during
droughts that is an example of how physiological needs
require satisfaction

B). Safety/security needs
• These include the need for physical, emotional
and financial safety. It entails an individual feeling
secure, stable and out of danger. People do not
want to worry about low income, accidents, ill
health, or old age. It is for this reason that when
you complete your course, you will look for stable
employment that is more permanent and meets
your safety requirements.

C). Social/belonging needs
• These needs include a feeling of belonging,
need to love and to be loved, acceptance by
one’s peers, giving and receiving friendship,
and affectionate relations with others. It is for
this reason that we all long for friendship and
companionship.

D). Esteem needs
• These needs include the need to gain self-esteem and
self-confidence. Factors that may contribute to
attainment of these needs include achievement,
competence, status, recognition prestige, appreciation
and respect. Satisfaction of an individual’s self -esteem
needs is the best motivator. A promotion for example
from just a clinical officer to principal clinical officer is a
strong motivation than a salary increment because it
comes with status change.

E). Self-actualization
• This is the need to achieve one’s fullest potential.
One no longer lives for himself but for others.
Feelings of accomplishment, responsibility,
importance, challenge, advancement, and new
experiences and opportunities for growth will
significantly contribute to self-fulfilment. A
person at this level begins to look for
opportunities to help other people reach where
they are.

E). Self-actualization
Self-actualization(self
esteem and self
actualization)
Social needs(belonging needs)
Physiological needs (biological, safety need)

4. Herzberg’s Theory (Two factor theory)
• This theory is attributed to Frederick Herzberg.
He looked at motivation in work places and
suggested that work motivators are divided into
two parts namely hygiene and motivation
factors, Hence the name of his theory.
• Herzberg looked at Hygiene factors and stated
that these factors are preventive and
environmental in nature.

• Hygiene factors continued)
They can prevent people from being dissatisfied,
however they cannot motivate them. The hygiene
factors may bring motivation up to a certain level,
then after a short while, people will go back to
their previous state. For example a salary
increment is a hygiene factor because workers
may be motivated for the first few months and
soon begin to complain about low salaries

• Motivation factors on the other hand
motivate people for a long time, they include
achievement, growth, responsibility,
advancement, recognition and a job with a
challenging content. According to Herzberg,
the motivators motivate workers. This level of
motivation can be sustained for a long time.

HYGIENIC FACTORS MOTIVATIONFACTORS
Company policy Achievement
Supervision Recognition
Relationship with the boss Work
Work conditions with the other Responsibility
Relationship peers or workmate Advancement
Growth
Factor theory summary

Reasons for Motivation
Past events
• A person’s present behaviour may be as a
result of past experiences. If the experience
provided a positive or negative reward, it may
help to determine current behavior. For adults
their behaviours are determined by childhood
experiences.

Purpose
• This can either be extrinsic or intrinsic
motivation. Extrinsic motivation is initiated by
external rewards and punishments, for
example a child who is showered with a lot of
praises and gifts because of his good grades
may continue to strive to work hard. The
behaviour will persist as long as the reward or
punishment lasts.

Purpose
• Intrinsic motivation is behaviour taken simply
for its sake, for enjoyment and satisfaction.
Intrinsic behaviour persists despite setbacks
and frustrations.
• Most of our daily behaviours result from a
mixture of both intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation.

Emotional state
• The way we behave is largely dependent on
our feelings. When we are not feeling well,
our ability to think clearly and logically may
disappear. This may result in behaviour that is
not socially acceptable and the opposite is
also true.

HUMAN PSYCHOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT
Unit Objectives
• Define key terms used in human
development.
• Describe the process of attachment and
bonding.
• Apply theories of human development.
• Recognize the gender role of development.

HUMAN PSYCHOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT
Definitions of key terms
• Human development- defined as a process of
growth that human beings go through. This
process begins from conception till death.
• Growth refers to physical and psychological
changes in the individual or developmental
stages.

HUMAN PSYCHOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT
Definitions of key terms
• Attachment and bonding-The emotional bond
that is formed between a baby and the
caregiver before the age of one year is what
referred to as attachment.

HUMAN PSYCHOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT
Attachment continued
• Caregiver refers to either the mother, father
and anyone who is responsible for taking care
of the child during this critical period. Children
are capable for forming these attachments
with more than one person at the same time.

HUMAN PSYCHOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT
Types of attachment.
1. Secure attachment- caregivers must be
consistently warm, responsive and sensitive to the
child’s needs. A child raised in this fashion will use
her secure foundation to explore any new
environment and will be easily soothed by the
caregiver. Children who have secure attachments
have the ability to trust and tolerate others.
• Shows signs of separation anxiety when the
caregiver goes away from 6mths to 3 years.

HUMAN PSYCHOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT
Types of attachment.
2. Insecure attachment- achild raised by
inconsistent, insensitive caregivers to his or
her moods and neglected will not explore
their environment even when the mother is
present, will appear anxious and may even
ignore the caregiver or refuse to be easily
soothed by them.

HUMAN PSYCHOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT
According to Hockenbury (1998), the quality of
attachment is associated with many long term
effects. For example, children who were
securely attached tend to be more social,
empathic and socially competent, than those
that experienced insecure attachments.
Secure attachments also leads to formation of
successful relationships in adolescence and
adulthood.

Theories of human development
1. Psychosexual stages of development- by
Sigmund Freud.
• Freud believed that during the first five years
of life, the child passes through several stages
of development that affect his/her future
personality. At each stage, focus is on pleasure
seeking activities on the parts of the body
which are highly sensitive due to their
endowment with many nerve cells.

1. Psychosexual stages of development- by
Sigmund Freud.
• Freud called these areas erogenous (causing
sexual excitement) zones. Gratification in
these areas or zones is necessary for
emotional well-being. Lack of gratification
leads to negative effects on the behaviour and
will interfere with psychological development.

1. Psychosexual stages of development- by Sigmund
Freud.( 5 stages)
A. Oral stage – 0 – 2 years -The center of
gratification is the mouth and upper gastro-
intestinal tract. Infants obtain gratification
through stimulation of the mouth, as they suck
and bite. The object of gratification is the
mother’s nipples, child’s thumb and fingers. The
child’s bite, sucking and eating are not only a way
of feeding but also as a way of satisfying sexual
pleasure (Libido).

1. Psychosexual stages of development- by Sigmund
Freud.( 5 stages)
Freud suggested that if infants were over indulged
(being fed every time) or frustrated in their search
for gratification, they might become fixed at this
stage meaning insufficiently gratified infants
compensate that by drinking, smoking, eating a lot
when they grow up and sucking of a thumb. Over
gratified children may become over dependent.

B. Anal stage – 2 – 3 years- the center of
gratifications is the anus. The child becomes aware of
the other end of the alimentary canal (anus). The
child finds pleasure in playing with the anus or
elimination functions associated with it. The child
derives pleasure from aggressively expelling feacal
matter and later from withholding feaces.
Toilet training is done during this phase, hash toilet
training leads to perfectionism, low self esteem and
OCD where as no training leads to the opposite.
Psychosexual stages continued

C. Phallic stage – 4 – 7 years - Phallic comes from a
Greek word phallus which means penis. Freud used
the term penis to carter for both sexes. During this
stage, the child center of gratification and awareness
are the genital organs. The child enjoys fondling with
the private parts. During this stage, children begin to
be closer to the parent of the opposite sex and
antagonize the parent of the same sex.

- In boys it is called as OEDIPUS complex and
ELECTRA complex in girls should resolve at some
point in life to have a mentally healthy adult. If not
resolved leads to homosexuality, inadequate
development of masculine and feminine identity,
impotence etc.

D. Latent phase – 7 – 11 years- At this stage,
children’s sexual urges are submerged, sexual
thoughts are replaced and children direct their
energy towards intellectual achievement and coping
with their expanding environment. Children try to
identify people of their own sex until they reach
puberty.

E. Genital stage – 12 years and above
The focus of excitation is heterosexuality. Stories
about sex are common during this stage. The
reproductive system is active. Sexual desires are
experienced. How these desires are resolved is
cardinal. Masturbation is also common during this
stage. Watching pornographic materials and reading
romantic books is common. If this stage is not
handled properly, it may result in sexual perversion.

Erik Homburger Erikson has developed one
important theory or psychosocial development. He
puts considerable psychological importance to the
period of human childhood. He stresses the
psychosocial aspects of development and that
childhood conflicts and crisis have a significant
influence on the adult personality and its
development.
He came up with 8 stages
Erikson’s psychosocial stages of
development

1. Age 0-1 Basic Trust versus Mistrust
The first psychosocial stage centres on the oral zone
and concerns the process of incorporation, to take in.
The first thing the infant learns is to take in, not only
through the mouth during feeding and sucking, both
also through the eyes and other senses. The nursing
and cuddling represents the infant's first interaction
with another person. If significant others provide for
basic physical and emotional needs, the infant
develops a sense of trust.
development

1. Age 0-1 Basic Trust versus Mistrust
The sense of trust establishes the first groundwork
for mutuality and capacity of giving to others. If basic
needs are not met, if the painful state of hunger is
often ignored, or if the mother is anxious or
ineffective, an attitude of mistrust toward the world,
especially toward interpersonal relationships, can be
the result.
development

2. Age 1-3 Early childhood Autonomy versus Shame
and Doubt- This is a time for the child to develop and
exert autonomy. The development of musculature
makes it possible for the child to, to a certain extent,
control its environment. The child needs to explore
and experiment, to make mistakes and to test limits.
The basic struggle is between a sense of self-reliance
and a sense of self-doubt.
development

• If parents during this stage are reassuring and
encouraging, the child develops a positive attitude
about its autonomy. But if the child is
overprotected or parents are negative towards the
child making mistakes or experimenting with the
environment, the child's expressions of autonomy
will be associated with feelings of shame and
doubt. The child is also toilet trained during this
stage.
development

3. Age 3-6 Preschool age Initiative versus Guilt
• In the third stage the development of locomotor
abilities as walking and running take place. It is also
during this stage that the child becomes aware of
the difference between the sexes, and begins to
experience vague, rudimentary urges associated
with the penis or the vagina.
development

Often the child sees the parent of the same sex as a
"rival". This evokes fantasies of sex and aggression,
which can cause deep feelings of guilt. The child
learns how to divert these dangerous feelings, for
example by playing with toys and pretend play. This
provides the child with a sense of competence and
initiative.
development

4. Age 6-12 School age Industry versus Inferiority
• The latency stage is characterised by an intense
curiosity and wish to learn and the child is seeking
to win recognition by producing things. The basic
task here is to achieve a sense of industry, which
refers to setting and attaining personal goals.
Failures result in feelings of inadequacy or
inferiority. Appreciating even the smallest effort
made by a child is very important otherwise as
adults such children may lack self confidence.
development

5. Age 12-18 Adolescence Identity versus Role
Conflict
• This is a stage of considerable importance
according to Erikson. This is a transitional stage
between childhood and adulthood. Childhood
eventually comes to an end and puberty makes its
entrance. This a time for testing limits, for breaking
dependent ties, and for establishing a new identity.
Major conflicts centre on clarification of self-
identity, life goals, and life's meaning.
development

A positive sense of identity depends partly on
establishing an appropriate sexual role, and partly on
achieving satisfaction in one's school work or
occupation. Failure to achieve a sense of identity
results in identity and role confusion.
development

6. Age 18-35 Young Adulthood Intimacy versus
Isolation
• This stage represents the beginning of adulthood,
and entails responsibilities as work and marriage.
The development task is to form intimate
relationships. The newly formed identity in the
former stage must to some extent be risked in order
to make the compromises that permit close
relationships with others. Failure can lead to
alienation and isolation. The capacity to love and to
form loving relationships belongs to this stage.
development

7. Age 35-60 Adulthood Generativity versus
Stagnation
• The need to go beyond self and family belongs to
this stage. This is a time of generativity, which refers
primarily to procreation and guiding the next
generation. It also includes productivity and
creativity. This is a time of adjusting to the
discrepancy between one's dreams and one's actual
accomplishments. Failure to achieve a sense of
productivity often leads to psychological stagnation.
development

• 8. Age 60+ Old age Integrity versus Despair
• If one has successfully resolved the crisis entailed in
the preceding seven stages and looks back on life
with few regrets, one achieves ego integrity, which
is a deep feeling of affirmation concerning the life
one has lived. The opposite of ego integrity is
despair, hopelessness, guilt, self-resentment and
self-rejection.
development

Quiz 10 minutes
1. List the four stages of cognitive development.
2. Lack of awareness of objects not in sight is
referred to as _________________
3. Viewing of the world from your one
perspective is called_________________
4. Principle of reversibility is found in the ____
stage.
5. Ability to solve problems hypothetically is
called _________________ reasoning.

• Cognitive development is defined as: The process
by which a child understanding of the world
changes as a function of age and experience.
• Piaget believed that human beings go through four
stages in their attempt to understand the world
from infancy to adulthood.
• Each of the stage is age-related and consists of
distinct ways of thinking and doing things.
Piaget’s stages of cognitive
development theory.

A. Sensory motor stage (0 – 2 years)- Sensory
reflexes set the course for the baby’s first exploration
of the world. The baby learns how to fling arms
towards the crib, turns towards the breast, and grasps
objects close to it. The child after some months
develops increasing control over movements. The
child usually has no awareness of objects or people
who are not immediately present at a given time.
They lack object permanence. Object permanence is
the awareness that objects and people continue to
exist even if they are out of sight.
development theory.

B. Pre- operational stage (2 – 7 years)
• Pre-operational stage is the period from 2 to 7 years
of age. It is characterized by language
development. Children at this stage are able to
describe people, events and feelings.
Children in this stage are also engrossed in
egocentric thoughts. This is a way of thinking in
which the child views the world entirely from his or
her own perspective. The child thinks that everyone
shares their own perspective and knowledge.
development theory.

C.Concrete operational stage (7-12 years)
• During this stage, the child becomes capable of
limiting logical thought processes as in seeing
relationships and classifying as long as manipulating
concrete materials are available e.g. a 7year old
child may be able to sort out objects regardless of
their colour. He is able to conserve such quantities
as volume, length, weight by application of
principles as reversibility.
development theory.

C. Concrete operational stage (7-12 years)
• He becomes aware that some aspects of things
remain the same despite changes in appearance
(conservation).He can focus on aspects of a
situation at a time. He can deduce how
relationships form. He can order other things in
sequence (seriation) and can group objects on the
basis of common features (classification)
development theory.

D. Formal operational stage (above 12 years)
• During this stage, the child can think in abstract
terms. The child can reason by hypothesis. The
child thinks about the future, career and religion.
During this stage, the child (adolescent)
experiments a number of things like alcohol, sex
and other vices. Personality is fully developed. The
child learns how to plan and solve problems
systematically.
development theory.

Gender role Development
What is Gender?
• This is the social and cultural assignment of males
and females, it takes into account the cultural
interpretation of what is expected of a man and a
woman.
• While Sex on the other hand means the biological
state of being a man and a woman.

• Gender roles
• According to Hockenbury (1998), gender roles are
the socially assigned responsibilities of men and
women. For example a woman’s role is in the
kitchen while a male role is to go out there to work.
It includes behaviours, attitudes and personality
traits that are given by a particular culture. It can
also be said to be the femininity or masculinity of a
person.

• Sex role on the other hand are those duties that
only a particular sex can do. For example only
females can breast feed children while only males
can impregnate women. These are biological roles.

• Gender identity
• Gender identity refers to a person’s psychological
sense of being either male or female. It is personal
acceptance of ones socially accepted roles and
living by them.

Personality development
• Definition of Personality
• Personality refers to enduring attributes or
characteristics about one self that distinguishes one
from others. It can also be defined as patterns of
behaviour that makes us unique.

• Levels of consciousness according to Freud-
1. unconscious- largest part of the mind. Contains all
things forgotten and terrible experiences but affect
personality.
2. Preconscious- things on the verge of awareness
and can easy be remembered.
3. Conscious- things we are aware of.

Common Approaches Used to Describe Personality
• Psychodynamic approach by Sigmund Freud
• Behavioural approach by Watson and Skinner
• Humanistic approach by Carl Rogers

Psychodynamic approach
• According to the psychodynamic view, personality
consists of three systems, namely the id, ego and
superego- also known as psychic energies
• The dynamics of personality consists of the ways in
which this energy is distributed to the systems
mentioned above. The amount of psychic energy in
the human being is limited. Behaviour is
determined by the amount and distribution of this
energy into the three different systems.

The Id (the biological component)-first and most
fundamental part of the mind. It is the only part that
is present at birth. The basic function of the id is to
ensure that the individual remains in a comfortable
state of physical satisfaction. The id contains drives
that motivate people to satisfy their basic instincts
that are, primarily sexual (libido) and aggressive.
• Demands immediate gratification and is based on
the pleasure principle. It is the selfish part of
personality and acts on the unconscious level.

The Ego (the psychological component)
• The Ego develops out of the id in the second six
months of life that is modified by the direct
influence of the environment through interaction.
• It deals with reality and hence often attempts to
delay the immediate gratification desired by the id.
• Operates on reality principle using secondary
processes of reasoning and problem solving.
• Mediates between the demands of the id and
superego. Operates on all levels of consciousness.

The Superego(the social, moral component
conscience,)
• essentially the carrier of society's morale standards
as interpreted by the child's parents also known as
conscience. Develops out of resolution of the phallic
stage and operates on morality principle.
• Always in direct conflict with the id. The superego
represents what is ideal within the individual. It
strives for perfection. Failure by the ego to balance
the id and super ego leads to anxiety.

The Superego (the social, moral component)
• essentially the carrier of society's morale standards
as interpreted by the child's parents also known as
conscience. Develops out of resolution of the phallic
stage and operates on morality principle.
• Always in direct conflict with the id. The superego
represents what is ideal within the individual. It
strives for perfection.
• Failure by the ego to balance the id and super ego
leads to anxiety.

Defense mechanisms- are a means through which the
ego uses to protect itself from anxiety.
• Defense mechanisms operate unconsciously and
influence human behaviour and personality
characteristics.
• Examples of defense mechanisms include denial,
projection, reaction formation, rationalization,
sublimation and displacement.
• Reaction formation involves acting opposite to
what one feels or thinks about something.

• Denial- denying the perceptions that would involve
acknowledging the reality of the situation. Denial
generally operates at preconscious and conscious
levels. Denial of reality is perhaps the simplest of all
defense mechanisms. It consists of defending
against anxiety by "closing one's eyes" to the
existence of the threatening reality.

• Projection- the ego deals with the threat of
unacceptable impulses by externalising them.
Projection hides dangerous or forbidden impulses
by unconsciously attributing them to other people
or things. For example, projected anger leads to the
belief that one is hated or persecuted by other.
• Displacement- feelings or behaviours are
transferred from one object to another that is less
threatening, "a safer target". It is redirecting
emotional responses from dangerous objects to a

• Rationalisation- Using superficially plausible
explanations in order to justify illicit behaviour,
failure, losses and hereby reduce feelings of guilt.
For example a student who says I failed the exam
because the font on the handouts was not clear.
• Sublimation- involves displacing instinctual sexual
impulses into socially more acceptable channels.
For instance, a painter may be expressing her
sexuality in displaced form in her art. Sublimation is
not necessarily pathological and the only true

Behaviourist approach
• This approach emphasises the role of the
environment in personality development. The
environment modes you into whatever you become
through the learning principles of rewards and
punishment. Behaviourists argue that they can
make you became a thief or a doctor by using
reinforcement. Personality is learned through
observation of the way others in the environment
behave. For example if a child has grown up in a
violent environment, the personality of this child is

Humanistic approach
• this is a theoretical viewpoint that emphasises the
inherent goodness of people, self-concept and
freewill. Carl Rogers’s points out that you choose to
become the kind of person you are. Unconditional
positive regard by the significant people in our lives
is the key to developing a balanced personality.

• Psychological development- emphasis is placed on
infancy, childhood and adolescence influenced by
attachment and bonding.
• Physiological development- the role of the
endocrine glands and the central nervous system in
personality development based on secretion of
hormones and perceptions of impulses.
• Socio cultural development- Personality is
considerably affected by the environment in which
one lives and it is modified by socio cultural factors.
Forms of personality development

• Heredity- Genes are passed on from parents to
children that cause them to behave in a certain way.
Heredity sets the pace. It dictates one’s physical
development, complexion, intelligence and our
behaviour in general. Heredity predetermines what
we are supposed to be.
Determinants of personality

Environment
• In most cases, we are different from what the genes
say we are supposed to be because of the
environment. The area or home where an individual
grows up has a significant impact on one’s
behaviour. The school where a person goes and
generally the circle of interaction will influence ones
personality. Therefore, shaping of a person’s
personality is mainly done by the environment.
Determinants of personality

• Can be done through the use of :
1. Objective tests such as personality inventories eg.
MMPI
2. Projective tests such as Rorschach or TAT- have no
right answers and are subjective
3. Structured self report questionnaires/
unstructured
4. Direct observation.
Personality assessments

• OBJECTIVES
1. Define intelligence
2. Describe the nature of intelligence
3. Identify the role of genetics and the environment in
determining intelligence
INTELLIGENCE

• DEFINITION- Intelligence is the capacity to
understand the world, think rationally and use
resources effectively when faced with challenges
(Feldman, 1996). Hockenbury (1998) defines
intelligence as the global capacity to think
rationally, act purposefully and deal with the
environment.
INTELLIGENCE

• NATURE-the nature of intelligence centres on two
major issues, namely, whether intelligence is a
single factor and how intelligence can be clearly
defined using theories.
INTELLIGENCE

• THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
1. Charles Spearman: Intelligence is a General Ability
• The assumption in this theory is that intelligence is
a general ability in that a person’s performance on a
variety of tests of different mental abilities tends to
be the same or similar. The intelligence factor that
makes this possible is known as the ‘g” factor or
general intelligence factor.
INTELLIGENCE

2. Louis L. Thurstone: Intelligence is a cluster of
abilities.
• This theory assumes that there are seven different
primary mental abilities which are relatively
independent of intelligence. These include verbal
comprehension, mathematical abilities, reasoning
and perceptual speed. According to Thurstone
individual abilities are more important in measuring
intelligence than Spearman’s “g” factor which is the
average score of independent abilities.
INTELLIGENCE

3. Howard Gardner: “Multiple Intelligences”
• He too believed that mental abilities are
independent and distinct and cannot be compared
to a single measure like an IQ score. He believed in
multiple intelligences. Gardner defined intelligence
as the ability to solve problems or create products
that are valued within the cultural setting. Gardner
brings in another important aspect of intelligence
which is the contribution of culture to the way of
doing things
INTELLIGENCE

• He also points out that other intelligences such as
linguistic and mathematical intelligence can easily
be measured by standard intelligence tests while
the others like interpersonal and musical
intelligence are difficult to measure but appreciated
by many cultures if not all cultures.
INTELLIGENCE

• Type of Intelligence according to Gardner
• Linguistic
• Logical-mathematical
• Musical
• Bodily-kinaesthetic
• Interpersonal
• Intrapersonal
• Spatial
INTELLIGENCE

Measurement of intelligence- Intelligence is one of
the psychological constructs that is difficult to
measured precisely. Intelligent tests do not
measure intellectual capacities directly; instead
they measure the manifestation of intellectual
capacity in action or behaviour.
INTELLIGENCE

• The level of intelligence of an individual is measured
by:
1. The difficulty of the tasks he/she can perform
2. The range or worthy of the action he/she can
perform
3. The speed with which he/she can do or perform an
activity
4. The harder the task a person can perform the
greater is his/her intelligence and the more tasks an
individual can do the more the intelligence.
INTELLIGENCE

• Binet used the intelligence Quotient (IQ) to
measure intelligence. The intelligence Quotient is
the ratio formed by dividing mental age, by
chronological age and multiplying (x) by 100.
• IQ = Mental age x100
• Chronological age ( actual age of the person
Mental Age
• This is a measurement of intelligence in which an
individual’s mental level is expressed in terms of the
average ability of any given age group.
INTELLIGENCE

• Chronological age- is the actual age of the person
or the biological.
• Intelligence Quotient (IQ)- This is a global measure
of intelligence obtained by comparing the scores of
an individual to that of others in the same age
group.
INTELLIGENCE

• A child with a mental age of 6 and chronological age
of 5 will have an IQ of 120.
• IQ = Mental Age x 100
• Chronological
• = 6/5 x 100
• =120
INTELLIGENCE

• A child with mental age of 5 and chronological age
of 10 will have an IQ of
• IQ=Mental age x 100
• Chronological age
• =5/10 x100
• =50
INTELLIGENCE

• Psychometric Methods of Assessing Intelligence
1. Individual Tests
• These are tests meant to measure individual ability
one at a time. They are time consuming and the
tester has to spend a lot of time with the test taker.
1. Stanford-Binet intelligence test
2. Wechsler adult intelligence scale: this test
measures different abilities: verbal& performance
3. Wechsler intelligence scale for children
INTELLIGENCE

• Psychometric Methods of Assessing Intelligence
2. Group tests
• These are intelligence tests aimed at testing a
number of people at the same time. Examples of
group tests are:
• 1. Aptitude tests
• 2. SAT
INTELLIGENCE

• Genetics vs Environment- This is also refered to as
the Nature-Nurture controversy.
• Genetics refers to inheritance of certain
characteristics from your parents, while the
environment refers to factors that promote
intelligence from society such as going to a good
school. The interaction between genetics and the
environment is a necessary ingredient in
determining intelligent.
INTELLIGENCE

• Twin studies have been conducted in both identical
twins and fraternal twins in similar and different
environments. The results showed that identical
twins raised in different environments will have a
similar IQ whereas fraternal twins raised in different
environments will have very different IQs.
• This has been attributed to the fact that identical
twins share 99% of the genes whereas fraternal
twins share 50% as any other siblings.
INTELLIGENCE

• These studies support the assumption that
intelligence is genetic.
• Studies have also been done where people from
poor environment have been put in enabling ones
and their intelligence has increased. These studies
also show that the environment is a necessary
factor to developing intelligence.
INTELLIGENCE

• Objectives
1. Define the term counselling
2. Identify important variables related to counselling
3. Outline the process of counselling
4. Mention the benefits of counselling
5. Describe qualities of a counsellor
6. Explain a therapeutic environment
COUNSELLING

Definition-Counselling is a process by which a
TROUBLED PERSON (client) is helped to feel and
behave in a more personally satisfying manner
through interaction with a SKILLED HELPER
(counsellor), who provides information and reactions
which stimulate the client to develop behaviours
which enable him/her to deal more effectively with
himself and his environment (Lewis, 1970).
COUNSELLING

• The word "process" implies that counselling is
progressive, dynamic, methodical and employs
special skills and techniques.
• The word "interaction “refers to the dialogue,
relationship and communication between the
counsellor and the client.
• Counselling is NOT advice giving but the client
makes an informed decision on their own
COUNSELLING

Important variables
1. Helping relationship/ therapeutic relationship
• The word “helping” means willingness to facilitate
meaningful change and motivate client think
rationally. The role of the counsellor is that of a
helper, facilitator and motivator. Therefore, a
helping relationship refers to the interaction
between a counsellor and a client that facilitates
the client’s return to normal life.
COUNSELLING

Important variables
A mutually accepted relationship in counselling entails
that the counsellor should exhibit a reasonable
degree of personal qualities or attitudes in relation to
the client. These would be expressed by way of
feeling (affect), reactions towards the client
(behaviour) and thoughts or beliefs (cognition) about
the client.
COUNSELLING

Core conditions of counselling:
• Genuineness (Congruence): The counsellor should
be real, and not hiding behind a mask or
professional impersonality, or indeed, not merely
playing a role. Genuineness also implies that the
counsellor is aware of his/her competences and
ability to interact not only with clients, but other
people too. She wears many roles as a member of
the community
COUNSELLING

• Empathic understanding: Refers to the accurate
moment by moment awareness of the client’s feelings,
behaviour and cognition as expressed and experienced in
the "here and now" frame of reference. It refers to the
counsellor's ability of intellectual and emotional
identification with the client as well as appreciations of the
client's problem situation. Accurate empathy coupled with
genuineness enables the client to explore freely and deeply
and, thus to develop a better understanding of himself and
his concerns.
COUNSELLING

• Acceptance (unconditional position regard): Refers
to a condition in which the counsellor values or
prizes all aspects of the client, including his conflicts
and inconsistencies, good and bad points, or parts
appear wrong in the eyes of society. Such an
attitudes or quality is more than a neutral
acceptance. It is an unconditional positive regard or
respect for the client as a person of worth.
COUNSELLING

Therapeutic environment- The counsellor should
create an atmosphere of warmth and acceptance in
which clients can dismiss their fears of expressing
themselves; and come into increasingly closer contact
with their experience.
• The major responsibility for change during
counselling is on the client, it is the clients who
must discover his/her own inner experiencing. Ours
as Counsellor is to facilitate for change in this
relationship in a non- threatening atmosphere.
COUNSELLING

• The Process of Counselling according to Gerald
Egan.
• Also known as the three stage model:
1. Current scenario: This is the stage at which the
client is given space to elaborate his/her problems
and during which the counsellor clarifies issues. It is
also known as the story telling or problem
identification stage.
COUNSELLING

2. Preferred scenario: During this stage the counsellor
helps the client to think of possible solutions or
options that would assist resolving the problem at
hand.
3. Action plan: This is the implementation stage
during which the counsellor helps the client to plan
how he/she is going to go about working on the
problem. The counsellor also ensures that the client is
committed to the action plan and time bound.
COUNSELLING

Benefits of counselling.
1. It helps clients to return to their normal state of
functioning
2. It gives the client insight into their problems
3. It allows clients to develop new coping mechanisms
4. It allows clients to appreciate that they have the
ability to solve their own problems.
5. It helps people make sound judgement in a crisis.
COUNSELLING

Qualities of a counsellor.
1. Responsible
2. Reliable
3. Professional
4. Humble
5. Non-judgemental
6. Honest
7. Confidential
8. Good listener
COUNSELLING

Counselling skills.
1. Attending skills
• These involve such elements as friendliness,
courtesy, eye contact, relaxed postures, body
language and vocal tones. Attending skills also
encompasses commitment to time and contractual
obligations, and how the counseling room is
arranged. These skills are helpful in making the
client feel at easy and relaxed.
COUNSELLING

2. Listening skills
• Listening is used to gather information about the
client. It is a tool that involves getting the actual
words of the client and also involves listening to the
mood, the feelings and the underlying messages
that are conveyed through the actual words that
the client uses and the body language. Listening
also involves paying attention to the client’s
nonverbal communication as well as the context in
which the client is speaking.
COUNSELLING

3. Empathy skills
• Empathy is a form of communication which involves
listening to the client, clarifying his concerns and
communicating this understanding to the client.
This helps the client to discover new meaning and
perception in relation to his situation. A great deal
of the discussion in empathy centres on the kind of
observing and listening needed to develop an
understanding of the client and his world. It
involves entering another person’s perceptual world
COUNSELLING

4. Questioning skills
• Ask closed ended questions such as ‘what is your
name?’ to obtain factual information
• Ask open ended questions to allow the client
explain their problem such as ‘would you kindly
narrate to me how the problem started’?
COUNSELLING

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