1574Leading Change Through Research. Steve HixSomos I.docx

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4Leading Change Through Research
. Steve Hix/Somos Images/Corbis
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Outline the nature, purposes, benefits, and limitations of
action research and how it differs
from other types of research.
2. Understand how educational practitioners can use action
research to solve real-life problems
of practice.
3. Identify the steps of the action research project and
understand how to implement them in a
systematic way.
4. Understand how collaboration with colleagues, students, and
other stakeholders can
strengthen the action research process.
5. Explain how the results of action research projects can
contribute to knowledge on teaching
and learning.
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Chapter Introduction
Chapter Introduction
A new, fourth-grade teacher was anxious to use action research
in the school where she had
been hired. She had conducted a successful project in her field
placement, which had given
her great insight into student learning and her own practice.
However, in her new school, she
found herself overwhelmed by state mandates in preparing
students for the state assessment.
She knew the value of action research but wondered how she
could possibly carry it out given

the new pressures she was under.
Action research is the systematic study of a real-life problem, in
context, with the goal of inter-
vening into that problem. As action researchers, teachers
typically identify and study a problem
of practice in their classroom and use the knowledge generated
from the study to improve stu-
dent outcomes. Action research is a cyclical process of
gathering information, analyzing and
drawing conclusions from the data collected, devising an action
plan, and then repeating the
cycle to continually enhance practice (McNiff & Whitehead,
2006; Stringer, 2004, 2007). Unlike
other forms of research, action—and not simply knowledge
production—is the primary goal of
the research.
The term action research is often attributed to German
psychologist Kurt Lewin. Although
Lewin was not the first to use research to intervene into a
specific problem, he was the first to
organize a widely accepted theory on the action research (Herr
& Anderson, 2005). Initially,
action research was used to improve worker productivity, and
Lewin used it to address two spe-
cific workplace issues: (a) discrimination against minority
workers and (b) worker productivity.
Guided by organizational theory, Lewin believed that workers’
and managers’ behaviors could
be changed through action research, leading to improved
working conditions and increased
productivity.
In the United States, action research among educational
practitioners is grounded in the work

of John Dewey, who stressed the importance of human
experience in generating knowledge.
Dewey argued that classroom research would benefit from
merging educators’ everyday experi-
ential sources of knowledge with formalized research practices
as a way to more deeply under-
stand and improve student academic performance. Teacher
research, like other forms of action
research, declined in popularity in the United States in the mid-
to late 1950s due, in large part,
to criticisms among academic scholars that it was not rigorous.
However, with the recent focus
on the role of teachers in school reform, action research has
seen a marked resurgence in teacher
preparation programs and K–12 schools.
Positivistic and “hard” scientists have considered action
research to be a less valid and scientific
form of research, and they have negatively critiqued its overall
value. Because action research-
ers seek a particular outcome—for example, improved student
motivation—it is thought that
they cannot be objective. In reality, no research is bias-free and
the value of any research project
depends on the goals of the researcher(s). From its inception,
the objective of action research in
education has been to improve student outcomes and to
professionalize teaching. Rather than
depending on university-based researchers, teachers can use
their own research to “generate
new ideas, knowledge and theory” (McNiff & Whitehead, 2006,
p. 63) and contribute to “official”
knowledge about educational practice. The rigor with which the
researchers carry out the work
is what determines how useful the research will be in meeting
those goals.

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Section 4.1 Research in Professional and Public Life
This chapter focuses on the uses of action research for teachers
and other school-based prac-
titioners. It begins with a general discussion of action research
and an overview of the action
research process. The overview is followed by four sections that
provide more in-depth exami-
nations of the steps in the action research process, including
choosing a topic and designing a
study, collecting and analyzing data, developing an action plan,
and sharing research findings.

This is followed by examples of action research projects, which
further explicates the roles of
teachers and students. The final section describes how
practitioner-researchers can disseminate
their findings to broader audiences.
This chapter gives those who are new to research a sense of the
purposes, processes, and possi-
bilities of action research projects through descriptions of
research activities, examples of proj-
ects that have been implemented in schools, and critical
thinking questions. However, to become
a truly competent researcher, one must learn by doing and
continually practice and improve
one’s skills. As readers implement their own research projects,
this chapter can be used as
resource to guide them through the process.
Voices From the Field: Getting Started on an Action
Research Project
Kathy was a high school language arts teacher. She taught
“Introduction to 20th Century Litera-
ture” for 11th and 12th graders. In a discussion with her
students about what would help them
better understand literary concepts, the group identified “not
understanding the content of the
texts” as a major concern. Kathy knew that students often did
not fully understand; however,
because they rarely asked questions in class or came after
school for help, she had the impres-
sion that some were uninterested in the texts. She realized that
she had been mistaken and was
thrilled that her students shared her concern about their lack of
understanding and wanted to do
something about it.

Kathy decided to conduct an action research project on
“question asking” and “help seeking” and
the role of the teacher and the students in supporting and
encouraging help-seeking behaviors.
She reflected on the question: What do I need to know in order
to better understand student behav-
ior, and how can I and other students better support and
encourage help seeking? Kathy deter-
mined that she needed to know why students were not seeking
help and what would make them
more comfortable in doing so. Her next step was to figure out
how to get this information.
4.1 Research in Professional and Public Life,
by Ernest T. Stringer
Introduction
Stringer began his educational career as a K–12 classroom
teacher and a school principal in
Australia. He also worked with Aboriginal staff at Curtin’s
Centre for Aboriginal Studies to
create community development programs to improve the
experiences of the native people of
Australia. More recently, Stringer has been a visiting professor
at universities in New Mexico
and Texas, teaching graduate classes in action research and
community engagement. String-
er’s approach to action research is aligned with pedagogical
approaches adopted by Brazilian
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educator Paulo Freire. That is, his work is aimed at empowering
individuals and groups to iden-
tify and accomplish useful goals, and assess their progress
through the development of new skills
and knowledge.
The following excerpt is from Stringer’s book, Action Research,
one of many books and articles
he has written on the action research process, particularly in the
field of education. Although
many practitioners may perceive formal research as outside
their purview, Stringer points out
that research is a natural extension of their everyday activities.
That is, practitioners are always
inquiring into problems of practice, usually in informal ways. In
the excerpt, Stringer defines
research and its purpose and introduces the basic steps of action
research—the “‘look, think, act’
routine” (p. 8). This is an iterative cycle through which
practitioner-researchers observe what
is happening, devise and implement an intervention plan, and
then repeat the cycle. In this way
they are continually learning about and improving their
practice.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Stringer, E. T. (2007).
Research in public and professional life.
In Action research (3rd ed., pp. 1–18). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Research: Methodical Processes of Inquiry
Research is systematic and rigorous inquiry or investigation that
enables peo-

ple to understand the nature of problematic events or
phenomena. Research
can be characterized by the following:
• A problem or issue to be investigated
• A process of inquiry
• Explanations that enable individuals to understand the nature
of the
problem
Research can be visualized as nothing more than a natural
extension of the
activities in which we engage every day of our lives. Even for
simple prob-
lems—Where are my blue socks? Why did the cake burn?—we
ask questions
that enable us to analyze the situation more carefully. (I wore
my blue socks
yesterday; I probably put them with the laundry. Perhaps I
overheated the
oven, or maybe I left the cake in the oven longer than I should).
Tentative anal-
ysis enables us to understand the nature of the problem and to
work toward
a potential solution. (I looked in the laundry, and the socks
were there. Next
time I baked a cake, I lowered the temperature of the oven and
did not burn
the cake.)
Formal research is an extension of these day-to-day inquiries.
The success
of scientific research can be ascribed to its insistence on precise
and rigor-
ous formulation of description, observation, and explanation.

The meticulous
association of what is observed and what is explained provides
explanations
whose power and efficacy enable us to predict and control many
facets of the
physical world. The outcomes of scientific research are
embodied in the tech-
nical achievements that continue to transform our modern
world. The mira-
cles of construction, manufacture, communication, and transport
that have
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now entered the daily lives of those living in wealthy nations
are testament to
the huge advances in knowledge that have resulted from
science.
Less successful, however, have been the attempts of the social
and behavioral
sciences to emulate the accomplishments of the physical
sciences. Despite a
profusion of theory, the application of scientific method to
human events has
failed to provide a means for predicting and controlling
individual or social
behavior. Teachers, health workers, and human service
practitioners often
find that the theoretical knowledge of the academic world has
limited rele-
vance to the exacting demands of their everyday professional

lives. The objec-
tive and generalizable knowledge embodied in social and
behavioral research
often is only marginally relevant to the situations they
encounter in their daily
lives and has little application to the difficulties they face.
Action research, however, is based on the proposition that
generalized solu-
tions may not fit particular contexts or groups of people and
that the purpose
of inquiry is to find an appropriate solution for the particular
dynamics at
work in a local situation. A lesson plan, a care plan, or a self-
management plan
that fits the lifeworld of a middle-class suburban client group
may be only
tangentially relevant in poor rural or urban environments or to
people whose
cultural lives differ significantly from the people who serve
them. Generalized
solutions must be modified and adapted in order to fit the
context in which
they are used.
The wheel provides a good metaphor to understand the nature of
this process.
Wheels provide a general solution to the problem of
transporting objects from
one place to another though there are many different purposes
to which they
are put. Consider the different purposes, parameters, and
processes required
to use wheels for the following objects:
• A jumbo jet

• A small, single-engine aircraft
• A truck
• A child’s tricycle
• A skateboard
* * *
A Basic Routine
Action research is a collaborative approach to inquiry or
investigation that
provides people with the means to take systematic action to
resolve specific
problems. Action research is not a panacea for all ills and does
not resolve all
problems, but provides a means for people to “get a handle” on
their situa-
tions and formulate effective solutions to problems they face in
their public
and professional lives. The basic action research routine
provides a simple
yet powerful framework—look, think, act (Table 4.1)—that
enables people
to commence their inquiries in a straightforward manner and
build greater
detail into procedures as the complexity of issues increases. The
terms in
parentheses in Table 4.1 show how the phases of the routine
relate to tradi-
tional research practices.
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Table 4.1: A basic action research routine
Phase Description
Look • Gather relevant information (Gather data)
• Build a picture: Describe the situation (Define and describe)
Think • Explore and analyze: What is happening here?
(Analyze)
• Interpret and explain: How/why are things as they are?
(Theorize)
Act • Plan (report)
• Implement
• Evaluate
The “look, think, act” routine is but one of a number of ways in
which action
research is envisaged. Kemmis and McTaggart (1999), for
instance, present
action research as a spiral of activity: plan, act, observe, reflect.
Different for-
mulations of action research reflect the diverse ways in which
the same set of
activities may be described, although the processes they
delineate are similar.
There are, after all, many ways of cutting a cake.
Although the “look, think, act” routine is presented in a linear
format through-
out this book, is should be read as a continually recycling set of
activities (see
Figure 4.1). As participants work through each of the major
stages, they will
explore the details of their activities through a constant process
of observa-

tion, reflection, and action. At the completion of each set of
activities, they will
review (look again), reflect (reanalyze), and re-act (modify their
actions). As
experience will show, action research is not a neat, orderly
activity that allows
participants to proceed step-by-step to the end of the process.
People will find
themselves working backward through the routines, repeating
processes,
revising procedures, rethinking interpretations, leapfrogging
steps or stages,
and sometimes making radical changes in direction.
Figure 4.1: Action research interacting spiral
LOOK
ACT
THINK
LOOK
ACT
THINK
LOOK
ACT
THINK
LOOK

ACT
THINK
LOOK
ACT
THINK
LOOK
ACT
THINK
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In practice, therefore, action research can be a complex process.
The routines
presented in this book, however, can be visualized as a road
map that provides
guidance to those who follow this less traveled way. Although
there may be
many routes to a destination, and although destinations may
change, travelers
on the journey will be able to maintain a clear idea of their
location and the
direction in which they are heading.
The procedures that follow are likely to be ineffective, however,
unless enacted

in ways that take into account the social, cultural, interactional,
and emotional
factors that affect all human activity. “The medium is the
message!” . . . [T]he
implicit values and underlying assumptions embedded in action
research pro-
vide a set of guiding principles that can facilitate a democratic,
participatory,
liberating, and life-enhancing approach to research.
Source: Stringer, E. T. (2007). Action research, 3rd Edition.
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Summary
Stringer defines formal (scientific) research as systematic and
rigorous investigation for the
purpose of better understanding the nature of a particular topic
or problem, and he describes
this as a natural extension of everyday inquiries and problem
solving. What distinguishes for-
mal research is the systematic processes that investigators use
to observe, explain, and provide
evidence of the problem or issue under investigation. Stringer
also highlights the collaborative
nature of action research and urges researchers to include in a
meaningful way all of those
affected by the issue under study as part of the investigation.
For example, rather than merely
serving as research “subjects,” students might also participate in
conceptualizing the problem
to be investigated.
According to Stringer, formal research has produced much
theoretical knowledge in the field of
education. However, teachers and other practitioners often find
that this knowledge is of little

use or has limited applicability to their immediate contexts and
everyday experiences. On the
contrary, in action research, practitioners select the specific
problems they wish to address,
and they investigate and create interventions into these
problems in their natural setting. This
significantly increases the applicability of the research to the
everyday experiences of teacher-
researchers and their students. As Stringer points out,
interventions into problems of practice
must take into consideration contextual factors and the
particular populations being served.
In the latter part of the excerpt, Stringer provides a model for
understanding the iterative, three-
step process of conducting action research. He calls this the
“‘look, think, act’ routine” (p. 8).
In the first “look” step, the researcher observes what is
happening in the context and gathers
information for the purpose of defining and describing the issue
under study. Next, in the “think”
step, the researcher analyzes the situation and comes up with
explanations for how and why
things are occurring as they are. In the third “act” step, the
researcher devises, implements, and
evaluates the outcomes of an intervention plan. The researcher
will then repeat the process:
observe the effects of intervention, explain the reasons for those
effects, and devise a subsequent
action plan to enhance the intervention. Researchers can cycle
through these steps indefinitely,
continually improving their practice.
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Section 4.2 Embarking on Action Research
Critical Thinking Questions
1. In order to solve problems of practice, Stringer suggests that
practitioners, at least in
some cases, conduct formal research rather than investigating
and intervening into these
problems informally. What are the fundamental differences
between everyday informal
inquiries and formal research? What are the advantages of the
latter compared with the
former in addressing problems of practice? Can you think of a
problem you might encoun-
ter in a school or classroom for which formal research might not
be an effective means to
understand the problem and find a solution? If yes, what is it?
In what ways would formal
research be ineffective, and what would be an effective
approach?
2. Stringer points out that educational practitioners often do not
find conventional forms of
educational research helpful in finding solutions to the specific
challenges they face in their
schools and classrooms, because theories developed from this
research tend to be general-
ized and not specific to particular contexts and populations.
Action research, in which those
directly affected by the topic under study choose the focus,
conduct the study, and assess the
outcomes, can be more applicable to a practitioner’s specific
needs. If this is the case, what
is the value of more generalized research on educational topics?
In what ways can teachers

use this research to inform their own practice?
3. Stringer is a strong advocate of collaborative research and of
including in the research
process those affected by the topic under study. He suggests
that practitioner-researchers
consider action research as a community effort, which can
include teachers, administrators,
students, and parents. Think of a possible problem for
investigation in your academic disci-
pline or grade level of interest. It can be an issue that is of
particular interest or concern to
you or one that has gained attention at the national level. List
all the constituencies that are
affected by the problem and how they are affected. Next, think
of ways that members of each
constituency could contribute a deeper understanding of and
solutions to the problem.
4.2 Embarking on Action Research,
by Catherine M. Brighton
Introduction
Catherine Brighton is an associate professor in the Department
of Educational Leadership Foun-
dations and Policy and the director of the Institutes on
Academic Diversity at the University of
Virginia. Prior to becoming a university professor, Brighton
worked in K–12 education in North
Carolina as an assistant principal, a curriculum coordinator, a
teacher of gifted students, and a
classroom teacher. Brighton’s areas of focus include teacher
change and school reform, and dif-
ferentiated curriculum, instruction, and assessment. She is
particularly interested in the impact
of practitioner action research on teacher practice.

In the following excerpt, Brighton describes how a middle-
school mathematics teacher inves-
tigates and intervenes into student disengagement. In doing so,
Brighton outlines the action
research process, which begins with identifying an issue of
concern and developing a system-
atic plan for learning more about that issue. Next, the teacher-
researcher collects and analyzes
various forms of data that will help her to better understand the
issue or problem. She looks
for patterns or similarities in the data and uses the information
gathered from the study to
draw conclusions that will guide her in changing her practice in
ways that increase student
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engagement. Finally, the results of the research are shared with
others at the school and dis-
trict levels. This is an example of what Brighton calls “first-
person” research, when the research-
er’s own practice is the focus of her research. Ultimately, in
this article, Brighton shows how
classroom teachers can use action research, focused on their
own practice, to improve student
outcomes.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Brighton, C. M. (2009).
Embarking on action research. Educa-
tional Leadership, 66(5), 40–44.

Janice Templeton, a 6th grade math teacher at Marshall Middle
School is wor-
ried about her students. Marshall’s students come from a wide
range of eth-
nic and economic backgrounds and present highly varied
academic needs.
Some of Janice’s learners readily engage with math content, but
others are
singularly uninterested in studying math and aren’t mastering
basic concepts.
These disengaged students are predominantly female, black, or
English lan-
guage learners.
Janice worries that this pattern of disengagement fits in with the
underrepre-
sentation of females and minority groups in high-level math at
the high school
and college levels. She’s been reflecting on reasons for this
problem and the
steps she, as a middle-grade teacher, could take to stem the
attrition of under-
represented students from math classes. But she feels unclear on
what steps
or changes will be most productive.
It might seem that this teacher is in an unenviable position
because she’s
unsure what to do next. In fact, as a teacher who has identified a
specific area
of classroom practice that warrants additional inquiry, Janice is
in an excellent
position to embark on an action research study. Action research
is a reflective,
systematic inquiry that focuses on a relevant problem in

teaching or teaming
for the purpose of enacting meaningful change to address that
problem.
Action research is distinct from other research designs in that it
emerges
from stakeholders themselves. Like other types of empirical
research, action
research has clear procedures that practitioners must follow,
albeit more flu-
idly, to arrive at sound conclusions. Let’s look at how Janice’s
action research
project exploring how to better serve her underachieving
students used tools
common to action research and progressed through the seven
basic steps of
the action research process.
Step 1: Identify a Focus
Action research can be done by one practitioner or in
collaboration with
others. . . .
• First-person action research usually involves one teacher
studying his
or her own classroom to better understand his or her own
behaviors,
attitudes, practices, or context. The goal is often personal
change.
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• Second-person action research is collaborative and aims to
better
understand the issues or phenomena of a group. The goal of
second-
person action research is often to improve the dynamics of a
group of
interrelated individuals, such as a teacher team.
• Third-person action research studies a phenomenon or issue
more
globally to develop a generalization about the issue’s causes or
the
effect of solutions across varied settings.
With any of these models, the first step is simple: Identify an
area of teach-
ing or learning that you are concerned about. You should then
become more
familiar with this topic, focus on a specific issue that is causing
problems with
your practice, and specify the research question that will guide
the study.
Janice’s focus emerged over several months as she watched
specific groups
of students disengage. She noticed many girls hesitating to
answer questions
aloud during discussions and avoiding exploration and risk
taking in indepen-
dent assignments. She noticed that many students who had
attended East-
side Elementary—many of whom were black, Hispanic, or from
low-income
families—seemed to completely tune out each day’s lesson. She
watched the

pattern of decreasing homework completion, increasing apathy
toward class
activities, and escalating off-task behaviors spread in segments
of her classes.
To gain more insight into the concept of math disengagement,
Janice read arti-
cles from education journals, spoke with other middle school
math teachers,
and joined online discussion groups. She attended an institute
on differentiat-
ing instruction in mixed-ability classrooms, which gave her
practical ideas for
how to set up a classroom more focused on authentic tasks.
Through this information gathering, Janice gained a wider view
of the issue
and formulated two questions: Why do students from
underrepresented
groups frequently disengage from studying math? and What
specific strate-
gies increase students’ willingness to study math?
She enlisted the help of other math teachers within her district.
Because she
noticed that students who had come from Eastside Elementary
were particu-
larly disengaged, Janice contacted 5th grade teachers there for
their insights.
She invited teachers from the high school to join the discussion.
Most col-
leagues she contacted were eager to participate, and a core
group agreed to
meet every two weeks to investigate the issue of math
disengagement and
demographics, which gave Janice’s inquiry elements of second-

person action
research.
Step 2: Develop a Plan of Action
The teacher formulates a plan, laying out what actions and
measurements to
take and what data to gather at various points—and who will do
which tasks.
Because the lineup of specific tasks may change as any project
gains traction,
this plan should include both tasks tied to specific classroom
practices and
goals connected to examining the issue in general.
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Janice created a time line detailing when—over the course of a
five-week unit
on probability and statistics—she planned to collect information
about stu-
dents’ perceptions of math and mastery of math concepts and
when she antic-
ipated that students with differing readiness levels would need
to have guid-
ance and support embedded in lessons. She knew that some
students easily
transferred data from numerical to graphical representations, for
example,
whereas others struggled mightily. So she planned lessons for
both groups.

To create differentiated lessons tied to the same overarching
learning goals,
Janice looked over the 13 skills and objectives for this unit
listed in the state
standards and extracted four generalizations to guide the unit:
• Data can be represented in multiple forms.
• The functions of fractions, decimals, and percents are
interrelated.
• Specific sampling strategies increase how well any findings
can be
generalized to a population from a smaller sample.
• Researchers can make effective predictions by following
systematic
procedures of probability and sampling.
Janice used these foundational principles to develop lessons that
she hoped
would increase student engagement and understanding of math.
The research team discussed how to begin the unit in an
authentic manner,
pointing out situations in which students might need to
understand prob-
ability and statistics, such as in reporting sports players’
achievements. Par-
ticipants identified skills within the unit for which students’
readiness levels
varied widely, so that some would need more support and others
would need
opportunities to extend their learning. Together they designed a
preassess-
ment that enabled Janice to gather data on her students’
attitudes, experi-

ences, and familiarity with the skills she was about to teach.
To make this assessment nonthreatening, they designed it as a
puzzle and
gave it to students to complete well in advance of beginning the
unit. Students
matched puzzle pieces containing key vocabulary with pieces
containing
appropriate definitions and matched word problems with their
correspond-
ing solutions. Students also identified their favorite hobbies and
interests.
The first differentiated lesson Janice developed focused on
understanding,
creating, and using tree diagrams to determine probability in a
given situation.
The lesson involved group work and offered students a choice
of participating
in one of three groups connected to their reported interests. One
activity situ-
ated the question within the context of race cars. This group
designed a tree
diagram for all the possibilities (and therefore the probability)
of race cars
with various body styles, colors, and accessories. Another posed
a scenario
from the fashion industry (“Calculate the probability of two
models wearing
the same combination of fashion accessories when each is
provided the same
limited options for headwear, shirts, and shoes”). A third tapped
into students’
interests in pets.
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Members of the research team were committed to observing
Janice teach this
lesson and other newly designed lessons within the unit, and
they helped her
determine how to assess what students had learned through
these lessons.
Step 3: Collect Data
At key points in the project, the teacher gathers the data
identified in the
action plan. As with other types of research, the findings will be
stronger if
the researcher examines multiple types of data.
Janice collected student artifacts from all her learners,
including preassess-
ments of students’ math skills, interest inventories, and work
samples. Other
artifacts included exit cards (containing each student’s answer
to an ungraded
question used to check for understanding) and student products
created
as part of an end-of-unit performance assessment. As the unit
progressed,
she discussed these artifacts with her research team. Her
colleagues helped
her use insights she gained from examining student work to
shape how she
embedded students’ interests within subsequent lessons.

Janice also used her personal reflections as data. While she
planned and taught
the new lessons, she kept a reflective journal noting which
students showed
increasing engagement and skill (and which strategies fed such
improvement)
and which learners still languished. After the tree diagram
lesson, she wrote,
It was invigorating to have students work actively in teams of
their
choosing. The noise in the room was productive but lively, and
stu-
dents seemed much more invested in the study of math than they
have
been in recent days! The topics seemed to align well with their
inter-
ests, and they all got involved. However, I have the nagging
sense that
some students aren’t as challenged as they could be, so I need to
go
back to the team and get new ideas to extend the learning for
those
who are ready to go.
Janice noticed patterns in content and activities that students
preferred. She
found herself brainstorming additional ways she could tap into
these prefer-
ences throughout the year.
Peer observations and student interviews rounded out the data
gathering.
Janice’s team members visited her classroom, observed her
guiding the newly
developed lessons, noted students’ responses, and shared their

observations,
which Janice recorded. These alternative perspectives to her
recollections of
how lessons transpired strengthened the validity of her findings.
Through informal focus group sessions, she also collected and
acted on stu-
dent feedback about the new instructional approaches. Feedback
revealed
that although many students liked working in groups (and she
noted which
ones those were), others yearned for the opportunity to work on
tasks by
themselves.
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 168 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Step 4: Organize the Data
Only a highly systemized method of organizing the volume of
data gathered
during an action research project will reap the project’s full
benefits, This
organizational system must be efficient, practical, and
protective of sensitive
or confidential information about specific students. Janice used
only the stu-
dents’ initials and school identification number when she shared
test scores
during her team’s sessions. She created a spreadsheet with cells
such as pre-
test score, interest areas, proficiency level, exit card score, and

post-test score
to reveal patterns across students and class sections. She
calculated average
scores for classroom tasks and plotted them on a chart, noting
where clusters
of students formed to inform her flexible grouping
configurations.
Step 5: Analyze the Data and Draw Conclusions
This step of the process is ongoing as the teacher researcher
continues to
collect data. Use whatever analytic methods are appropriate to
the research
question(s)—both qualitative and quantitative—to interpret
data. This step
may require additional collaboration with guidance counselors,
assessment
specialists, or others within the school district who have
expertise.
Janice and her team put their heads together to analyze the
individual data
components and discern a pattern across data sources. They laid
out student
work samples and discussed what these artifacts brought to light
in combina-
tion with Janice’s self-reflections and peer observers’ notes.
This closer look
at the data indicated that tapping into students’ interests
increased their will-
ingness to engage in math activities and consequently their
achievement on
the probability and statistics unit’s post-test.
Engaging students was the first step: Once a tie-in to their

interests got learn-
ers actually attending to what Janice was teaching, they
followed a series of
steps that led to the end result of more solid learning. Students
who were
more actively involved in lessons during the unit were more
willing to ask
questions of one another and the teacher when they encountered
difficulty,
and those who asked such questions and posed alternative
answers or ways
to solve whole-group questions subsequently showed greater
understanding
of content as measured by exit cards, performance assessments,
and pencil-
and-paper tests. Also, students who had the chance to work in
small groups
on a shared task were more willing to discuss their
mathematical thinking.
The team concluded that designing new lessons and strategies to
tap into
students’ interests increased all students’ understanding of the
math topics
under investigation, including formerly resistant or struggling
learners. They
believed the project supported the hypothesis that students must
first be
engaged before they are willing to persist and achieve.
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 169 5/21/14 3:15 PM

Step 6: Disseminate Findings
Janice and her team first shared their preliminary findings with
the adminis-
trators at Marshall Middle School. They discussed the
overarching principles
of tapping into students’ interests to boost their zeal for math
and punctuated
these insights with anecdotes from Janice’s journal and her
peers’ observa-
tions of these principles in action.
To put a human face on how the project threaded math skills
into students’
life pursuits in a way that ignited learning passion, they
described José, a quiet
young man, largely uninterested in math in September. When
Janice created
probability lessons formulated around his passion for race cars,
José opened
up and shared with his classmates in math. For one marketing
project, stu-
dents collected survey data on classmates’ perceptions and
displayed their
findings in an appropriate format. José selected the topic of
students’ interest
in competitive racing. When faced with the challenge of skewed
results, he
successfully tackled the sophisticated technique of purposeful
sampling.
School leaders were intrigued and suggested that the team share
its findings
at a professional learning community meeting that was
investigating curricu-
lum reform within the district.

Step 7: Develop a New Plan of Action
Ideally, the action research process results in the discovery of
new infor-
mation about improving learning conditions. Once this new
information is
acquired, the action researcher makes decisions about how to
change prac-
tices to include this new learning—or whether to launch
additional investiga-
tion. Janice and her team elected to revise additional math units
to incorpo-
rate more avenues for students’ interests.
Action Research and Teacher Growth
The action research process facilitates meaningful teacher
change. The first
two steps Janice Templeton took—identifying a problem and
developing a
plan of action to investigate it—were necessary precursors to
deep changes
in her approach and effectiveness with learners like José.
Janice moved beyond harboring an intuition that something
needed to shift
to capture tuned-out learners to reaching data-supported
conclusions that
ultimately changed her conceptual frameworks about teaching.
She not only
helped students in one school district cultivate a taste for math
but also grew
in her understanding of how to confront achievement gaps.
All names in this article are pseudonyms.

Source: Brighton, C. M. (2009). Embarking on action research.
Educational Leadership, 66(5): 40–44. Alexandria, VA:
Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 170 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Summary
According to Brighton, action research, which has clear steps, is
prompted and conducted by
stakeholders who are directly affected by the issue under study.
Its purpose is to improve the
practices of educators or other practitioners. In this article,
Brighton provided a concrete exam-
ple of the classroom-based action research process, which often
begins with a teacher’s concern
about her or his students as related to academics or social
interactions. The next step in the
process is to learn more about the issue of concern, which
includes paying closer attention to
and documenting the phenomenon (e.g., disengagement) in the
school or classroom context
and understanding it more deeply through literature, Internet
resources, discussions with col-
leagues, and professional conferences.
As Brighton describes, after gaining a broader and more
complex understanding of the problem,
the teacher then develops an intervention. During
implementation, the teacher collects data,
which will provide insight into how changes in instructional
practice can effectively address

the problem. In the case described, the teacher specifically
incorporates students’ interests and
choices into her mathematics instruction. The teacher enlists her
colleagues to observe and doc-
ument her teaching and student responses and to help analyze
the data. Multiple forms of data,
including classroom observations, student work and feedback,
and a reflective journal, helped
the teacher-researcher gain a complex understanding of
engagement among her students. She
found that incorporating students’ interests into her math
lessons increased their classroom
engagement and, in turn, their understanding of mathematical
concepts. As a result, she and her
colleagues incorporated this strategy into their teaching.
Ultimately, action research provided a
means for improving instructional practice and student
outcomes and enhancing the teacher’s
professional growth.
1. Much research on teaching and learning has been conducted
by outside researchers—often
university researchers—who use K–12 classrooms as “research
sites.” As Brighton points
out, what distinguishes action research is that it is prompted and
conducted by stakeholders
who are directly affected by the problem or issue under study.
In what ways might educa-
tional practitioners be better positioned than university
researchers to study problems in
their own setting? What challenges related to conducting
research in your own school or
classroom might arise, and how can they be addressed?

2. Teachers often make changes to their practice and try out
new ideas, informally, in order
to address academic or social challenges they see among their
students. According to the
article, how and why would it be advantageous for teachers to
engage in a more formal and
systematic process of addressing instructional and learning
problems in the classroom?
3. Identify a specific problem related to student learning that
you have experienced in your own
classroom or that is common in your discipline or grade level.
For example, many students
experience challenges in the transition from concrete to abstract
thinking in mathematics in
elementary school. Drawing from the example in the article,
develop a plan for learning more
about the nature of the problem in classroom context. What
would you want to examine
more closely in a classroom? How might you document your
observations? What other types
of data could you collect to give you additional insight into the
problem?
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 171 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Section 4.3 The Process Begins
4.3 The Process Begins, by Dorothy Valcarcel Craig
Introduction
Dorothy Craig is a full professor in the Department of
Educational Leadership at Middle Ten-
nessee State University. Before becoming a university

instructor, Craig was a K–12 classroom
teacher, teaching kindergarten through sixth grade. She worked
with migrant students in rural
and urban schools, teaching English as a second language. Craig
also served as a curriculum
writer for a K–12 school district. Her current research interests
include literacy learning, the use
of educational technology and online learning, and action
research.
In the following excerpt, Craig provides two helpful rubrics to
identify a suitable problem or topic
for an action research project. The first helps practitioner-
researchers to determine whether a
potential topic is worthy of immediate action, should be pursued
at a later date, or should be
abandoned altogether. The second outlines potential sources,
both inside and outside of schools
and classrooms, from which to identify research problems and
topics. Finally, Craig addresses
how to narrow and refine a research topic. Overall, this excerpt
helps practitioner-researchers
to determine the value and enhance the feasibility of an action
research topic.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Craig, D. V. (2009). The
Process Begins. In Action research
essentials (pp. 29–54 ). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Identifying Problems Suitable for Action Research
People who are already working in the classroom or other
environment are
aware of abundant problems and critical issues that might be
considered as

a focus for action research. Graduate students—who are not
already in the
classroom—find it a bit more difficult to determine which
problem or criti-
cal issue is worth pursuing. In both cases, the interests of the
research typi-
cally drive problem selection. Because the classroom is also an
environment
where naturally occurring events take place, numerous problems
arise that
might be suitable for action research. Also present in the
classroom environ-
ment are outside influences—such as school improvement goals,
the need to
improve test scores, new program implementation, and
systemwide goals—
that may require research. Researchers must remember,
however, that not all
problems will demand that an action plan be put in place to
achieve improved
conditions.
When deliberating on problems for research, be sure to consider
the follow-
ing points.
• Is the topic of interest to the researcher, and if so, will
pursuing the
problem via action research enhance knowledge, build research
skills, and contribute to improvement? It is very important that
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 172 5/21/14 3:15 PM

graduate students consider this question first and foremost. The
degree of interest must be considered first. If the problem exists
but
is of little or no interest to the researcher, it should not be
pursued.
Lack of interest will have a negative impact on critically
evaluating
the data, keeping the research on track, and completing the
study.
The same holds true to some degree for teachers and
practitioners.
However, the nature of teaching and the structure of schooling
may
in some cases demand that a teacher or practitioner pursue a
study
that is not of great interest but is critical to improving practice
and
effecting change.
• Can the researcher provide a convincing explanation for the
choice of
problem? If not, a different problem should be selected.
• What impact will the findings have on the teaching and
learning pro-
cess, and will the findings lead to change and improvement?
There
is no point in pursuing action research if the findings will have
little
effect on improving the environment.
• Are there adequate resources in place to support the action
research,
and are there others who deem the problem important enough to
pursue? For example, if the research requires resources that are

beyond the scope of the researcher, it will become burdensome
and
may not be effective. The action research process promotes
collabo-
ration, so if resources are scarce, consider teaming up with
another
researcher, administrator, or colleague.
• Is the problem integrated and related to existing goals or
objectives?
Although pursuing a problem related to schoolwide or
departmen-
tal goals is always a good idea, there may be times when a
problem
specific to one particular learning environment is so consistent
that it demands a solution. In cases such as this, action research
is a
natural process, as a solution is within the realm of possibility
for the
practitioner.
For teachers, more often than not, it is difficult to determine
which of many
problems is worth pursuing through the research process. Full-
time graduate
students have an equally difficult quandary because they may
not be oper-
ating in the practicing environment on a regular basis. Table 4.2
provides a
simple rubric that may help with problem identification and
determining if
the problem should be pursued immediately, be placed on hold
for the time
being, or discarded as a potential action research project.
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 173 5/21/14 3:15 PM

Table 4.2: Problem identification rubric
Criterion Take immediate action Place on hold Discard
Interest High degree of interest
Excellent potential to enhance
knowledge
Interest sparks the develop-
ment of skills
Inquiry will contribute to
improvement
Some interest
Good potential to enhance
knowledge
May help with developing
research skills
May assist in promoting
improvement
Little interest
Explanation Problem choice can easily be
explained and supported
Researcher feels comfort-
able explaining problem
selection to colleagues and
administrators
Researcher is passionate
about the problem

Problem choice can be
explained
Researcher is somewhat
comfortable providing an
explanation
Researcher has
trouble explaining
why this problem
should be selected
Impact Findings have great potential
for contributing to the exist-
ing body of knowledge
Findings have potential to
effect change and improve
practice
Findings have potential to
inform those in decision-
making positions
Findings have some potential
for adding to the existing
body of knowledge and effect-
ing change.
Finding may have
some potential for
adding to the existing
body of knowledge
Resources The research does not require
resources that are beyond the
researcher’s environment
The research may require

resources outside the
researcher’s environment
Pursing this problem
will require more
resources than are
available
Existing goals The problem is related to
existing goals and objectives
Findings may be beneficial
to specific environments and
may be applied to other situa-
tions to improve practice
The problem is somewhat
related to existing goals and
objectives
Findings may be ben-
eficial to others in the same
environment
The problem has
little relationship to
specific classroom
goals or schoolwide
or systematic goals
Sources for Problems or Research Topics
* * *
Even if the problem is easily identifiable, there are several
excellent sources of
help in refining research topics. Consider the teacher or
practitioner who is in
the process of identifying a problem. Several problems have the

potential to
develop into an action research project. To help narrow the
problem, consider
a brief literature review. Conducting a preliminary review of
literature via
an Internet search can help by prioritizing a list of topics. New
ideas may be
gathered in addition to a variety of sources that may be
consulted later when
developing the action research plan. Discussions with
colleagues—and in the
case of graduate students, with peers, professors, and
administrators—may
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 174 5/21/14 3:15 PM
reveal information and opinions that aid problem identification
and deter-
mining the potential for the research to improve practice.
Observations in the
classroom or work environment lead to additional insights and
may prompt
pursuing a specific problem whose findings may affect universal
change
among similar environments. Considering other researcher
projects is also a
way to view a problem from multiple perspectives. The process
in itself pro-
vides the researcher with another practitioner’s viewpoint on a
similar prob-
lem or situation.

One of the greatest resources for help with problem
identification and selec-
tion is professional conference sessions that focus on
practitioner research.
Formal research presentations conducted by other researchers
may spark
interest in a particular problem or topic. For graduate students,
professional
conference sessions provide a wealth of ideas and research
possibilities that
may be adapted to a more specific situation. National trends and
critical issues
noted by professional organizations may also be present in local
classrooms.
The need to address the trends and issues at the individual or
systemic level
may prompt the need for an action research study in order to
improve the
situation at hand. Examining existing problems or revisiting old
problems is
always worthwhile, for a more specific focus for action research
may emerge.
Finally, examining test scores, classroom grades, student
products, writing
samples, and other classroom artifacts may help in prioritizing
and determin-
ing which problem or issue to pursue for action research.
Whether you are just beginning the research process or a
seasoned
researcher, look to the environment first; however, keep in mind
that there
are other sources to assist with problem identification, topic
selection, and
refining focus. Table 4.3 provides an overview of the sources
discussed.

Table 4.3: Sources for selecting problems and research topics
In the classroom or work environment Outside the classroom or
work environment
School or system goals Brief review of literature
School improvement plans Professional literature
Specific problems related to teaching and learning Conference
presentations
Curriculum development or content Professor or peer research
Professional development initiatives Professional organizations
Specific methods or materials Websites and blogs related to
practice
Programs implementation Professional workshops
Testing and student achievement National trends and critical
issues
Student products and artifacts National initiatives
Observations National data related to practice
(continued)
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 175 5/21/14 3:15 PM

In the classroom or work environment Outside the classroom or
work environment
Discussions and dialogue with colleagues Discussions with
professors and peers
Existing or revisited problems Informal interviews with
colleagues
Researcher interests Researcher interests
Team or school interests Previous studies completed that relate
to a specific
problem or issue
Observations
* * *
Narrowing the Focus
In typical research studies, once a problem, issue, or concern
has been identi-
fied, the researcher faces the task of narrowing the focus of the
inquiry. The
process of refining a broad problem into a specific focus flows
naturally in
action research because the researcher draws on expertise and
observations
while working in the classroom environment. The events of the
classroom
occur on a continuum such that the practitioner researcher is
generally aware
of the events that led to the current situation, the events or
activities that

contributed to the problem, and behaviors that preceded the
problem. Even
if the problem or concern is identified at the beginning of the
school year,
the researcher has resources in the form of conversations with
colleagues,
cumulative records, previous school improvement plans, and
results from
standardized tests that may be reviewed and examined. The
data-rich envi-
ronment provides the means to construct a timeline or
continuum of events
that led to or contributed to the identified problem, which in
turn guides the
researcher in refining and narrowing the focus of any action
research study.
* * *
The disconnection between home and school and lack of
parental communi-
cation is too broad a topic in that it does not lead the researcher
to a specific
research question. However, after examining the available
sources of data, the
researcher may see a pattern emerge that will help narrow the
focus. For exam-
ple, the student contact information may reveal that every
parent or guardian
who has a student enrolled in the fifth grade also has e-mail
either at home or
at work. In addition, discussions and informal conversations
with fourth- and
sixth-grade teachers may reveal that parents respond a little
better to e-mail
than to other contacts. Finally, the researcher may discover,
after attending

one or two PTA meetings, that attendance records indicate that
most parents
provide an e-mail address instead of a phone number. Based on
available data
sources, the researcher may draw the conclusion that
communicating with
parents electronically, via e-mail and an electronic newsletter,
may help build
a stronger connection between home and school. The problem
now has a good,
strong focus from which specific research questions could be
designed.
Source: Craig, D. V. (2009). Action research essentials.
Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Table 4.3: Sources for selecting problems and research topics
(continued)
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 176 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Summary
Craig points out that as an environment in which “naturally
occurring events take place” (p. 31),
the classroom is a context in which multiple problems that are
suitable for action research can
arise. However, action research, as an intervention, is not
appropriate for all classroom-based
problems. Thus, Craig outlines a series of criteria for
determining the value and feasibility of
research topics. As she describes, suitable topics must be of
interest to the researcher, be relevant

to existing instructional or learning goals, and have potential to
lead to the improvement of the
teaching and learning environment. Practitioner-researchers
must also be sure that there are
adequate resources to support the investigation of the topic. For
example, although it may affect
student learning, family poverty is likely outside the purview of
classroom teachers.
Once identified, the next step is to refine the issue or problem
to arrive at a researchable topic.
For example, Craig points out that “The disconnection between
home and school and lack of
parental communication is too broad a topic” (p. 37), because
this problem has multiple dimen-
sions. She offers multiple suggestions for narrowing the focus
of a broad research focus, includ-
ing: (a) conducting a literature review and Internet search that
includes prior research on
the topic, (b) discussing the issue with colleagues, (c)
conducting classroom observations,
(d) examining student products and records, (e) attending
conferences on practitioner action
research, and (f ) considering topics identified as significant at
the national level. For example,
increasing the representation of racial or ethnic minorities and
females in science, engineering,
mathematics, and technology is a national priority, which
teachers in these disciplines may want
to address. As Craig describes, assessing the value and refining
focus of problems of practice is
essential to identifying an appropriate and feasible topic for an
action research project.
1. Craig asserts that any topic pursued for an action research

project should be of high inter-
est to the teacher researcher. She contends that interest
promotes the development of skills.
Drawing on what you know about K–12 student learning, in
what ways do you believe that
interest and skill development are related? According to the
article, what types of skills do
teachers learn through the action research process, and how are
they valuable to the work
of teachers?
2. Craig points out that educational trends and issues that are of
concern at the national level
can be valuable topics for action research projects. Identify
such a trend or issue within
your academic discipline or grade level. What do you currently
know about this topic (e.g.,
the nature of related problems and their implications for
learners and for society), and from
what sources can you learn more?
3. It is important to refine and narrow a broad or general topic
so that it is feasible for an
action research project. Consider the topic you identified for
Question #2. Using Craig’s
example of narrowing the topic of disconnection between home
and school, think of ways to
refine your topic so that it is feasible for an action research
project at the school or classroom
level. Once you have a more focused topic, identify sources of
data that a teacher could collect
in her or his classroom or school to learn more about the topic.
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 177 5/21/14 3:15 PM

Section 4.4 Phase 2: Collecting Data
4.4 Phase 2: Collecting Data, by Emily F. Calhoun
Introduction
Emily F. Calhoun is the director of the Phoenix Alliance in
Saint Simons Island, Georgia, which
supports school districts and state and regional agencies in
improving student achievement
through staff development. Prior to joining the Phoenix
Alliance, Calhoun was a elementary- and
secondary-level classroom teacher, a curriculum consultant, a
district language arts coordina-
tor, and coordinator of the Georgia League of Professional
Schools. Calhoun focuses on helping
educational practitioners to study the effects of curriculum and
instruction on student learning.
As a longtime advocate of action research, she has conducted
extensive studies on the school-
based action research process, particularly in the area of
literacy learning.
The following excerpt is taken from Calhoun’s book, which is
intended for educational practi-
tioners who want to learn more about students’ academic and
social experiences in order to
improve their schooling outcomes. It explains how to conduct
action research at both the class-
room and schoolwide levels. The excerpt focuses on identifying
data that will help the researcher
learn more about his or her chosen topic. She discusses the use
of three specific types of data—
existing archival data, conventional sources, and inventive
data—to understand student perfor-

mance and its relationship to the school environment. This
approach enables researchers to gain
a multifaceted understanding of the problem under study.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Calhoun, E. F. (Ed.). (2002).
Phase 2: Collecting Data. In How
to use action research in the self-renewing school (pp. 50–70).
Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Your selection of a focus area and a clear, shared statement of it
are important
first steps in action research. Next, if it has not begun already,
is the data-
gathering phase. Somebody (task force, facilitation team, or
entire school
staff ) decides what data will be collected in the area under
investigation and
how the data will be collected, from whom, and how often.
Collection of base-
line data is only the beginning—action research is a formative
study of prog-
ress, requiring regular and frequent data collection so that
changes and trends
can be seen. For vital areas of interest, such as the effect of the
new math-
ematics curriculum on students’ achievement and attitude in
mathematics or
grades being made by at-risk students, data collection may
occur as often as
biweekly for a year or more.
What Data Do We Collect?
The first task in the data-collection phase is to decide what data

will be col-
lected. This decision has two substantive aspects: (1) What data
do we collect
about the learner? and (2) What data do we collect about the
learning envi-
ronment provided by the school? First, let’s consider data about
the student
as learner.
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 178 5/21/14 3:15 PM
The big question is, What sources will provide the faculty with
information
about student learning? How are students doing in the academic,
social, and
personal domains of our focus area?
In the academic domain, we need to find out how well students
are learning
how to learn. For example, are they learning how to explore the
world of math-
ematics and use the concepts of the discipline to solve new
problems, and are
they learning how to teach themselves mathematics? In terms of
productiv-
ity in mathematics, what do grades indicate about student
performance, and
what do standardized test scores indicate?
In the social domain, we need to know whether students know
how to use
the social system for support as learners. In the personal

domain, we need
information on how students feel about mathematics, and how
they feel about
themselves as students of mathematics. What is their academic
self-esteem in
relation to mathematics?
As the faculty inquires into student learning in their area of
interest and gath-
ers information in response to these questions, they will use
student data
from a variety of sources.
Once the faculty has identified data sources that provide a
picture of how
students are performing, then faculty members need to develop
a picture of
how their school influences student learning in their focus area.
The big data-
collection question here is, What sources will provide
information about the
learning environment of the school? Here are a few questions a
faculty can ask
as they generate possible sources of information.
• How do schools affect learning?
• What experiences are sanctioned and provided by our school
as an
organization to enhance student learning?
• What is happening in curriculum and instruction—or, more
specifi-
cally, what are we teaching and how are we teaching it?
• What do our actions look like?
• What are we doing as a learning community?

Again, keeping the collective attention firmly on what the
faculty can control
and on what has been shown to pay off in terms of student
learning, the fac-
ulty and facilitation team will need to select multiple data
sources as they
inquire into the experiences they are providing for students.
During the first action research cycle, the question of what data
we collect
to inform us about student learning is primary. In fact, a
complete cycle can
be conducted to answer this question, followed immediately by
a second
cycle, during which the faculty looks at the experiences the
school provides
for students in the focus area. When student learning and the
experience of
schooling are investigated separately, the first two cycles
function as needs
assessment: the first cycle assesses student learning in the focus
area, and the
second cycle assesses the learning environment in the focus
area. However,
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 179 5/21/14 3:15 PM
if the faculty spends too much time studying on-site data
without taking any
action to improve student learning, the energy of the faculty can
dissipate.

My recommendation is to gather information on some aspects of
both these
questions during the first action research cycle: What is the
status of student
learning? and What is the status of schooling in our focus area?
During recur-
ring cycles of Phases 2–4, the faculty can collect additional
information in
response to each question.
Identifying Sources of Data for Action Research
What sources of information will help us develop a schoolwide
response
to the two major data-collection questions—how are students
performing
in our area of interest and what experiences of schooling might
affect that
performance?
The facilitation team and faculty seek data sources that will
provide an accu-
rate picture of the student behavior they wish to influence.
Where do they
start? To get action research and collective study going, it’s a
good idea to use
existing archival data sources immediately, conventional data
sources next, and
then more inventive and elaborate data sources (see Table 4.4).
These three
categories of data sources provide a useful framework to school
faculties as
they develop their data-collection schedule. The categories
serve as a bank of
ideas; they can stimulate reflections about why we collect
information from

a particular source; and they can serve as a filter to prevent a
data-collection
overload that overwhelms the faculty, thus preventing collective
action.
Table 4.4: Sources of data for action research
Existing archival sources Conventional sources Inventive
sources
Student grades Surveys Exhibits
Attendance Simple interviews Portfolios
Referrals Number of books read Expositions
Retentions Writing samples Videotapes
Number/percentage of students
in special programs
Variety of materials used
Standardized test results Observations
Journals
Think about these three sources on a continuum, with existing
sources at one
end and inventive sources at the other. The depth of information
increases as
one moves across the continuum from existing sources to
inventive sources.
Generally, in data collection, organization, and analysis, the
time investment
increases as one moves from existing to conventional and from

conventional
to inventive.
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 180 5/21/14 3:15 PM
1. Existing Archival Sources. Existing sources of data are those
items currently
available in the files or archives of the school or of individual
staff members.
Data about the school population can be gathered and organized
directly from
these records. Some examples are student grades, discipline
referrals, stan-
dardized test results, and demographics. The collection of data
from these
sources requires little effort and time from the faculty, but
information from
them provides the faculty with an immediate picture of the
educational cli-
mate of the school.
Within the category of existing, archival sources are several
indicators of stu-
dent behavior that we call fate-control variables. These
indicators of student
behavior are so critical to student learning that each member of
the school
faculty needs to have a clear, schoolwide picture of them,
because they pro-
vide a rough map of the academic and social climate of the
school. Variables
such as attendance, referrals, grades, and courses taken indicate

how many
students are present or absent for instruction, how many
students are moving
successfully or unsuccessfully through school, and how many
students are mak-
ing use of the educational opportunities being offered. We call
them fate-control
variables because they have so much influence on the fate of
each student who
enters our school.
* * *
2. Conventional Sources. Conventional sources of data are items
that require
communication, observation, or follow-up with members of the
population
and that often require instrumentation to standardize the
information col-
lected. Therefore, the collection of data from these sources
requires the selec-
tion or development of data-collection instruments. Examples of
conventional
data sources are surveys, interviews, observations, samples of
student work,
journals, and logs of performance. Information from these
sources can be eas-
ily acquired and organized in a brief span of time.
With existing data sources, we gather information from school
archives and
staff records; with conventional data sources, we gather
information directly
from individuals, from samples of their work, and from
documents that require
study. We seek information from these sources when we want to

know more
about the behaviors and attitudes of students in our area of
interest.
* * *
Avoid overreliance on perceptual data sources. I am addressing
the overuse of
surveys and attitudinal measures specifically because it is so
common. I have
seen faculties select excellent student learning goals, then (1)
identify as their
primary data source a survey of themselves with student
achievement and
attitude about school as the content or (2) develop and
administer three long
surveys to parents, students, and staff. The goals focused on
student learning,
yet no behavioral data on student learning were collected. Part
of the faculty’s
picture of student learning was missing in both cases because
the data did not
include any direct indicators of student performance, such as
grades, quality of
writing, skill in problem-solving, or standardized test results.
Using surveys or
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 181 5/21/14 3:15 PM
questionnaires to collect perceptions about what is and beliefs
about how one-
self or others operate provides useful information to pour into

our decision-
making funnel; however, what individuals and groups are
actually doing (the
behavioral part of the picture) provides even more useful
information.
* * *
3. Inventive Data Sources. Inventive data sources are usually
examples of
products or performance. We use these sources when we want
even more
in-depth information about performance than we can gain from
existing and
conventional sources. For student products and performances,
these items
are directly linked to the learning goals of the school; their
purpose is to pro-
vide the student and the larger school community with an
accurate and more
direct measure of what students know and how they think, as
individuals.
These items require the development of criteria for analyzing
the products
and performances and a greater investment of faculty time in
the collection,
organization, and analysis phases. Examples of inventive data
sources related
to student products and performances include portfolios,
exhibits, and video-
tapes. Many of us associate these data sources with “authentic
assessment.”
For collecting data about faculty products and performances, the
sources used
are directly linked to the goals of the schoolwide initiative;

their purpose is to
provide the individual and the faculty with an accurate and
more direct (than
surveys and perceptual data) measure of staff performance in
terms of the
actions or innovations being implemented. Examples of
inventive data sources
related to staff products and performances include units and
materials devel-
oped to support an instructional strategy and videotapes of
instruction.
Source: Calhoun, E. F. (2002). How to use action research in
the self-renewing school. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision
and Curriculum Development.
Summary
In this excerpt, Calhoun discusses the process of identifying
appropriate data sources for inves-
tigating and enhancing student learning through action research.
At the outset of an action
research project on student learning, Calhoun suggests two
small studies (e.g., each cycling once
through the “look, think, act” routine, as described by Stringer):
one on the status of student
learning and one on how the school contributes (or does not
contribute) to learning. These ini-
tial investigations serve as needs assessments, providing
baseline data on these two phenom-
ena and the relationship between them.
To understand student learning as it pertains to the research
topic and the factors that have
an impact on learning, Calhoun suggests that practitioners
collect data in the academic, social,

and personal domains. The academic domain pertains to how
well students are learning how
to learn, which includes their ability to apply disciplinary
concepts to solve new problems. The
social domain pertains to students’ use of social support
systems, including help seeking. Finally,
the personal domain refers to how students feel about and
identify with academics. Within the
three domains, researchers can collect three types of data. The
first is existing archival data,
which includes test scores, grades, discipline and attendance
records, and demographic informa-
tion. Within this data, Calhoun asserts that school staff
members should “have a clear, school-
wide picture” (p. 53) of what she calls “fate-control variables”
(p. 53). These variables, such as
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 182 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Section 4.5 Combining Rigor and Respect
data on attendance, grades, and disciplinary infractions, provide
a broad picture of the school’s
academic and social climate.
Practitioner-researchers should also collect data from
conventional sources, such as observa-
tions, interviews, student work, journals, and performance logs.
Unlike archival data, research-
ers must develop data collection instruments (lists of questions
to be asked and topics to be
investigated) to collect these data. Calhoun also suggests using
inventive data sources, which
include student products and performances related to curricular

innovations linked to specific
learning goals. It is vital that practitioner-researchers develop
specific criteria to guide the
analysis of these data. For example, what counts as evidence of
student understanding and the
effectiveness of the curriculum or instruction? Finally, data
should capture both behaviors and
perceptions. In collecting various forms of data on different
aspects of learning, the practitioner-
researcher will get a more complex understanding of the
problem under study and how it can it
can be addressed.
1. In the field of K–12 education, significant emphasis is
currently placed on archival academic
data, particularly standardized test scores, in efforts to reform
schools and improve student
outcomes. Calhoun suggests that practitioner-researchers also
use data from the personal
domain in order to understand students’ learning challenges and
how to intervene into
them. In what ways are emotions and identity related to
academic outcomes? In conducting
research on a topic pertinent to your academic discipline or
grade level, what types of data
within the personal domain could you collect to better
understand student performance?
What insights might you gain from this data?
2. Calhoun believes that all staff should be familiar with their
school’s archival data on what
she calls “fate-control variables,” which pertain to student
attendance, course taking, test
scores, grades, and behavior. She asserts that these factors have

a great deal of influence on
students’ success and failure. How could these factors, both
individually and in combination,
affect the fate of a student both in and beyond school? Can you
think of any other factors—
inside or outside of school—that have a similarly important
influence?
3. Calhoun points out the importance of collecting data from
both behavioral and perceptional
sources. Identify a specific problem of practice or student
learning within an academic disci-
pline or grade level that is of interest to you. What types of data
could you collect from both
sources that would give further insight into the problem? From
whom would you collect the
data, and how?
4.5 Combining Rigor and Respect, by Viviane Robinson
and Mei Kuin Lai
Introduction
Viviane Robinson is a professor in the School of Education at
the University of Auckland. She is
also the director of master’s program in educational
management and the academic leader of
the induction program for school principals in New Zealand.
Her interests include educational
leadership, policy, management, organizational learning, and
using research to improve educa-
tional practice. Mei Kuin Lai is also a professor in the School
of Education at the University of
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 183 5/21/14 3:15 PM

Auckland as well as an educational consultant, helping teachers,
administrators, and officials
to improve school practice. She currently focuses on school–
university partnerships that help
school practitioners integrate research into their everyday
practices.
The following excerpt is taken from Robinson and Lai’s book,
designed to guide educational
practitioners through each stage of the action research process.
The authors believe that ongo-
ing and sustainable school change requires that practitioners
inquire into their practice and use
what they learn to improve instruction. They use “problem-
based methodology (PBM)” (p. 53),
in which researchers focus on solving a particular problem of
practice through research.
The excerpt focuses on the interrelated issues of reliability and
validity in research. The for-
mer refers to the accuracy of the information (e.g., data) within
a research project, and the
latter refers to logic and plausibility of claims made by
researchers. Robinson and Lai offer a
framework for understanding validity at different stages of the
research process, beginning
with the reliability of the data. As they explain, although
practitioners may be reluctant explore
such abstract, theoretical concepts, validity is essential to
producing research that can lead to
improvements in practice. Further, educational practitioners
confront issues of reliability and
validity when making everyday decisions about their practice;

however, it is usually in informal
ways. Through the action research process, Robinson and Lai
help practitioners formalize and
think more deeply about the trustworthiness of the information
and ideas on which they base
instructional approaches.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Robinson, V., & Lia, M. K.
(2006). Combining rigor and respect. In
Practitioner research for educators: A guide to improving
classrooms and schools (pp. 53–72).
Thousand Oakes, CA: Corwin Press.
The Concept of Validity
There are many types of claim to know something, and
questions of validity
are relevant to all of them. In Chapter 3 we discussed some of
these different
types of claim as we went up the ladder of inference. The
bottom rungs have
the more straightforward claims, such as descriptions of what is
happening in
a classroom. The validity of such claims depends on their
accuracy. For exam-
ple, if a teacher claims that he talks to male students as much as
his female
students, the validity of the claim depends on whether relevant
evidence, such
as observations of his classroom, shows this to be true.
Further up the ladder we have interpretations of what is
happening. The valid-
ity of an interpretation is established by showing how it is more
plausible than

other possible interpretations. For example, a teacher might
interpret a stu-
dent’s refusal to participate in a group activity as
rebelliousness. The validity of
the teacher’s interpretation (rebelliousness) is established by
showing that this
particular interpretation is more plausible than other possible
interpretations
(for example, student objection to the peer culture in this
particular group).
Near the top of the ladder are theories of action. In professional
discussion,
people seldom express all the claims that make up their theories
of action.
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 184 5/21/14 3:15 PM
They may talk, for example, about what works in their
classroom or make a
claim about the fact that one curriculum is preferable to
another. The valid-
ity of these claims depends on the validity of the implicit theory
from which
they are derived. This becomes clear if you think about how you
would debate
a colleague’s claim that one curriculum was better than another.
You would
probably ask your colleague for the basis of his comparison. If
he said he
thought one curriculum was more up to date, or more interesting
for students,

or provided better explanations of key concepts, you would
probably want
to ask further questions about what led your colleague to make
these par-
ticular claims. If the validity of these supporting claims proves
to be doubtful,
then the validity of the conclusion about which curriculum is
better is also in
doubt. In summary, the validity of the claim that one curriculum
is preferable
to another depends on the validity of a network of interrelated
claims. That is
why checking the validity of such claims involves uncovering
and evaluating
the whole theory.
Busy practitioners can be impatient with abstract theoretical
discussion
about concepts such as validity. Yet, in our experience, even
though teachers
may not use the term “validity;” they often have strong and
divergent views
about the idea. In addition, teachers’ views have powerful
consequences for
the way they react to research findings and professional
opinions. It is essen-
tial, therefore, that we tackle the issue of validity in PBM. In
order to avoid
abstract discussion, we begin with the story of a hypothetical
high school sci-
ence department, whose members have decided to work together
to improve
their teaching of science.
* * *

Procedures for Increasing Validity
As a teacher-researcher, your primary job is to make theories of
action explicit
and to involve others in their evaluation and revision. We turn
now to the
approaches that you can use throughout your study to increase
the validity
of your account of the theory of action you are investigating.
The better your
research design, methods, and analysis, the stronger the
argument you can
make for the validity of your description of the relevant theory
of action.
The key to improving validity is being skilled in noticing when
you are
wrong—when assumptions, hunches, and initial understandings
turn out
to be mistakes. Therefore, it is important to design your study
in ways that
increase the chances that you will avoid error and detect those
that you may
have made. This does not mean that your work will be error
free. Research
findings should always be expressed with tentativeness and
open-minded-
ness, since there is always the possibility of error. The best you
can do in the
face of inevitable fallibility is to describe the steps you took to
increase the
validity of your research.
In Chapter 3, we introduced the ladder of inference—a tool for
representing
how people make claims about the world. We discussed how

people can leap
to conclusions that may not be warranted by the information at
the bottom of
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 185 5/21/14 3:15 PM
the ladder. The adequacy of such conclusions is established by
examining how
people reasoned their way up the ladder, from the information at
the bottom
to the conclusions at the top. Exactly the same principle applies
to demon-
strating the validity of your own research. The four key
strategies for increas-
ing validity are portrayed diagrammatically in Figure 4.2.
Procedures are
needed to (1) reduce bias in how you select information, (2)
increase the
accuracy of your description of what you have selected, (3)
increase the plau-
sibility of your interpretations through audit trials and
triangulation, and
(4) establish the reasonableness of your conclusions through
seeking partici-
pant feedback. The validity of your research findings will
depend on how well
you complete each of these procedures.
Figure 4.2: Using the ladder of inference to increase validity
Draw
conclusions Seek feedback on draft

conclusions and consider
objections to them
Establish audit trails,
use triangulation
Keep accurate records
and check descriptions
Reduce selection bias
Evaluate
information
Interpret
information
Select information
Pool of viable information
Name and describe
selected information
Theorize
Reducing Selection Bias
At every stage of your research, you select from the available
pool of informa-
tion—you select who to talk to or observe, and what questions
to ask or obser-
vations to make. Selection is an inevitable part of doing
research and does
not, in itself, threaten its validity. After all, you must select
what is relevant to

your research question and set aside what is not. It is wrong to
believe that
the mere selection of a question, research approach, and
theoretical frame-
work produces bias. Bias is produced when the manner in which
you select
favors answers to your research questions that fit your existing
political or
Draw
conclusions Seek feedback on draft
conclusions and consider
objections to them
Establish audit trails,
use triangulation
Keep accurate records
and check descriptions
Reduce selection bias
Evaluate
information
Interpret
information
Select information
Pool of viable information
Name and describe
selected information

Theorize
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 186 5/21/14 3:15 PM
practical commitments (Hammersley, 2000). This means that
you pay insuf-
ficient attention to evidence that challenges or questions your
existing views.
* * *
Improving Accuracy of Description
The validity of research findings can be compromised by
inaccurate descrip-
tion. Accuracy requires careful record keeping and attention to
detail. For
example, if you are interviewing, you will increase accuracy if
you use a tape
recorder as you will not have to rely on notes or your memory.
If you are not able to make audio or video recordings, you can
ensure your
field or interview notes are accurate by checking them with the
colleagues
you observed or interviewed. The purpose of the check is to
establish that you
are working with data that are reliable; that is, all the relevant
parties agree
the records accurately capture what occurred or was said. An
additional strat-
egy for increasing accuracy of description is through use of a
second observer

or interviewer.
* * *
Triangulation
An important procedure for the validation of interpretations is
that of trian-
gulation. This refers to a navigational and survey technique
where the precise
location of a point is established by the convergence of
observations taken
from different angles. When applied to educational research, it
means that a
conclusion reached on the basis of one set of methods or
sources of evidence is
confirmed by the use of at least one additional method or source
of evidence.
In the example given, triangulation could be used to check the
interpretation
that the principal is “democratic” by interviewing teachers
about how they
experience him as leading the meetings in a democratic fashion,
then the con-
clusion that the principal has a democratic style is strengthened.
Triangula-
tion has increased the validity of this conclusion by showing
how two different
methods (observation of staff meetings and teacher interviews)
have indepen-
dently produced the same conclusion. The point of triangulation
is not simply
to employ different methods, but to check whether each of these
diverse meth-
ods leads to a similar conclusion (Hammersley & Atkinson,
1995).

Seeking Participant Feedback
Finally, an important way of increasing the validity of your
research is to
check whether the participants recognize the validity of your
accounts. This
type of validity check is called “member checks” (Lincoln &
Guba, 1985) or
“respondent validation” (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995). These
latter authors
describe the purpose of respondent validation as follows:
The value of respondent validation lies in the fact that the
participants
involved in the events documented in the data may have access
to
additional knowledge of the context—of other relevant events,
of tem-
poral framework, of others’ ulterior motives for example—that
is not
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 187 5/21/14 3:15 PM
available to the [researcher]. . . . In addition, they have access
to their
own experience of events, which may be of considerable
importance.
Such additional evidence may materially alter the plausibility of
dif-
ferent possible interpretations of the data. (Hammersley &
Atkinson,
1995, p. 228)

It is important to note that the purpose of such checking is to
increase validity
and not simply to gain agreement. As Denis Phillips, the
philosopher of social
science, has noted, it is possible to find people who agree with a
claim regard-
less of its validity (Phillips, 1987). For example, a principal
may claim that
bullying in the playground is decreasing, and his teachers may
agree with him.
However, both principal and teachers may be wrong. Gaining
agreement will
only increase validity if it is the result of careful consideration
of the grounds
on which the claims are made.
In gaining participant feedback, you must be clear about what is
being checked,
because different procedures are required for different types of
evidence and
analysis. A draft research report in PBM will often include both
a description
and an evaluation of teachers’ theories of action. Teachers are
unlikely to find
an evaluation of a theory of action credible if they believe your
account of
the theory is wrong. The first step, therefore, is to check the
accuracy of the
description of the relevant theory or theories of action. This
involves check-
ing that you have accurately understood the constraints and how
they explain
the actions you are studying. The links you are claiming
between actions and
intended and unintended consequences should also be checked.

References
Hammersley, M. (2000). Taking sides in social research: Essays
on partnership and bias. New
York: Routledge.
Hammersley, M., & Atkinson, P. (1995). Ethnography. London:
Routledge.
Lincoln, Y. & Gupta, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury
Park, CA: SAGE Publications.
Phillips, D. (1987). Quality in child care: What does research
tell us? (Vol. 1). Washington, DC:
National Association for the Education of Young Children.
Source: Robinson, V., & Lia, M. K. (2006). Practitioner
research for educators: A guide to improving classrooms and
schools.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Summary
This excerpt examines the issue of validity in practitioner-led
action research—or the degree to
which the researchers’ ideas and theories that develop from the
research are logical and plau-
sible. The authors propose three levels of validity corresponding
to what they call the “ladder
of inference” (p. 54). The first level pertains to the accuracy of
descriptions of the phenomena
under study, otherwise known as data reliability. The next level
pertains to interpretations of
what is happening: Validity is based on the plausibility of one
explanation, as compared with
others. For example, one teacher might interpret a mother’s

failure to attend parents’ night as
evidence that she does not care about her child’s education.
Another teacher, however, might
know that the parent works in the evening and cannot afford to
miss work. Given this informa-
tion, which explanation for the parent’s absence is most
plausible?
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 188 5/21/14 3:15 PM
The third level of validity pertains to theories of action or the
ideas behind why a practitioner
believes a particular approach is better than others. For
example, proponents of phonics and
proponents of whole-language approaches to literacy each have
theories or claims to support
their approach. As the authors point out, if the validity of one’s
claims are doubtful, instructional
approach based on those claims will also be in doubt. If a
curriculum is based on a theory of
student learning that is supported by little or no evidence,
practitioners are likely to be skeptical
of it or to reject it outright.
Robinson and Lai discuss several ways that practitioner-
researchers can strengthen the valid-
ity or trustworthiness of their research. First and foremost, the
research design and methods of
data collection and analysis must be sound. As discussed in the
previous section, it is important
to keep accurate records, pay attention to details, and keep data
organized. The authors also

point out that preconceived ideas can shape how researchers go
about their research and inter-
pret the information they gather. For example, a researcher who
assumes that English learners’
academic difficulties occur solely because of language barriers
might not consider the impact of
students’ prior education in the subject area. Although
researchers cannot completely eliminate
all preconceived ideas, they should reduce the impact of bias
and actively look for ways in which
they might be wrong. Ultimately, in this excerpt, Robinson and
Lai argue that validity is vital to
ensuring that action research leads to applicable and effective
improvements in school practice.
1. As discussed by Robinson and Lai, it is vital that researchers
are aware of their assumptions
and biases and employ strategies to reduce their influence on
the research. In what specific
ways can researcher bias threaten the validity of research at
different stages of the research
project (use Figure 4.2 as a guide)? Name at least one strategy
not mentioned in the excerpt
that practitioner-researchers can use to identify or reduce the
effect of bias.
2. Practitioners’ theories of action are beliefs about the efficacy
of their practice—why they
think a particular strategy is more effective than others—that
are based on supporting
claims. For example, a teacher may use games in which students
compete against each
other based on the claim that competition motivates the students
to learn. Robinson and Lai

point out that the validity of the theory of action depends on the
validity of the supporting
claim(s). Write down a theory of action pertaining to student
learning that you feel is effec-
tive in your classroom, your academic discipline, or the age
group you serve. List all of the
claims or beliefs that you can think of that support that theory
of action. Describe evidence
that establishes the validity of each claim. Which claims are
easier or more difficult to
establish as valid? Why?
3. At the data collection stage, accurately describing and
recording information is imperative.
If the data is not accurate, then subsequent interpretations,
evaluations, and conclusions
made about the phenomenon under study will be invalid.
Imagine that you are conducting
an action research project on some aspect of student learning in
an academic discipline or
grade level that is of interest to you. One form of data
collection in the project is an observa-
tion of your teaching and the students’ responses. Given that
you will be engaged in teaching
the lesson, what are some strategies you can use to ensure that
what is happening during the
lesson is recorded accurately?
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 189 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Section 4.6 Giving Voice: Interpretive and Qualitative Data
Analysis
4.6 Giving Voice: Interpretive and Qualitative Data Analysis,

by Ernest Stringer
Introduction
The following excerpt is taken from Ernest Stringer’s book,
Action Research in Education. Unlike
Action Research, previously excerpted, this book is designed
specifically for educational practi-
tioners. Stringer explains that although many educators may
initially believe that it is outside
the scope of their work, research is a useful tool for improving
schools as learning and working
environments. Unlike other forms of research, action research is
particularly well suited to the
work of educators who are concerned with practical outcomes.
As Stringer explains, in addi-
tion to solving problems, educational practitioners also improve
their knowledge and skills and
enhance their professionalism.
In the following excerpt, Stringer discusses the data analysis
process, which he describes as
reflecting on and making judgments about the information
gathered and distilling it into a set
of ideas that can be applied to the problem(s) under study.
Researchers must evaluate their
data and determine which are most pertinent to the study. That
is, which data will help them
to better understand the issue they are examining, and how. To
do this, Stringer explains the
use of “epiphanic moments (Denzin, 1989b)—illuminative or
significant experiences” (p. 97)
to guide analysis. Unlike analysis intended to develop
generalized theories of human behavior,
the form of interpretive data analysis described by Stringer
focuses on individuals’ and groups’
subjectivities and meaning-making processes in context,

otherwise known as an emic perspec-
tive. This approach is effective in understanding how to
intervene into problems of practice in
particular settings and with particular individuals and groups.
Because it is focused on mean-
ing making, interpretive analysis is suited to qualitative data
such as interviews, observations,
and work products, rather than grades, attendance records, test
scores, and other forms of
quantitative data.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Stringer, E. T. (2004). Giving
Voice: Interpretive and Quali-
tative Data Analysis. In Action research in education (pp. 96–
122). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson.
The diagram shown in Figure 4.3 signals the move from data
gathering to data
analysis. In terms of the simple Look-Think-Act of action
research, the Think
component indicates the need for participants to reflect on the
information
they have gathered, and transform the sometimes large and
unwieldy body of
information into a relatively compact system of ideas and
concepts that can be
applied to solutions to the problem at hand.
The process or data analysis requires participants to sift through
the accu-
mulated data to identify that information most pertinent to the
problem
they are investigating. This process of distillation provides the
material for

bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 190 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Analysis
an organized set of concepts and ideas that enable them to
achieve greater
insight, understanding, or clarity about events of interest. The
intent is to
accomplish common-sense solutions to problems by finding
concepts and
ideas that make sense to the stakeholders involved. One of the
essential fea-
tures of action research is the move to directly engage the
experience and
perspective of all participants to ensure that the sense made of
the data is
common to all.
This differs from common research practice in which
researchers analyze
data in isolation from the research context and subjects and
formulate cat-
egories and schema that appear to make sense when applied to a
particular
theory. In much research, therefore, theoretical formulations
often domi-
nate proceedings by inscribing academic perspectives into the
process and
silencing the voices and perspectives of other participants.
Though there is
still a need for objective research that engages these types of
practice,

action research tends to focus on a more phenomenological
approach to
analysis.
This chapter, therefore, first presents
an approach to data analysis that
seeks to preserve participant perspec-
tives by using epiphanic moments
(Denzin, 1989b)—illuminative or
significant experiences—as primary
units of analysis. The ultimate intent
is to give voice to those participants
and provide a body of ideas and con-
cepts that clearly mesh with impor-
tant elements of their experience
and provide the basis for action. The
second process presented is a more
traditional form of qualitative analy-
sis categorizing and coding data that
distills large amounts of data into a
more manageable body of ideas. The
purpose of this process is to reveal
patterns and themes within the data
that expose the key features of events
and settings.
Teachers rarely have time during the busy and demanding
routines of
everyday life in their classrooms to stand back and reflect on
their work.
Having the luxury to sit back, talk about, and reflect on their
classroom
practices often provides them with opportunities to gain
significant
Figure 4.3: Reflection in action

research
LOOK
(INFORMATION)
ACT
(ACTION)
THINK
DATA
ANALYSIS
(REFLECTION)
LOOK
(INFORMATION)
ACT
(ACTION)
THINK
DATA
ANALYSIS
(REFLECTION)
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 191 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Analysis

insights into their professional life. I’ve frequently seen
teachers’ eyes
light up in the course of interviews or focus group dialogues as
they
see themselves or aspects of their work in new ways. Merely
having
time to focus their attention in a systematic way is illuminative.
This does not always happen immediately, however. The
students in
the sexual harassment study, . . . for instance, required an
extended
period of reflection and analysis to identify the nature and key
fea-
tures of their experience of harassment. The Barrios Juntos
group . . .
also needed to work through a systematic process of data
analysis to
reveal the key features of parent experiences in parent-teacher
con-
ferences. In each case, however, the process of data analysis
enabled
participants to extend their understanding of the issue
investigated—
providing concepts and ideas that enabled them to devise
effective
actions related to the problems they investigated. Data analysis,
for
them, was not just a technical research routine, but the means to
inform their actions.
Data Analysis (1): Analyzing Epiphanies
The processes of inquiry described in this book largely emerge
from the his-
tory of research in the academic disciplines. While action

research has much in
common with the general methodologies of naturalistic
inquiry/qualitative
research, its purposes are distinctly different. Traditionally,
research has
sought to provide scientific, objective theories of human
conduct and concep-
tual schemes to explain how and why people act as they do.
Action research,
however, uses these types of theory as background
information—choosing
to focus instead on the ways people purposefully construct their
own social
worlds. The intent is to understand the ongoing, experienced
reality of
people’s lives rather than seeking an objective truth that
explains observed
events. We, therefore, employ modes of inquiry that make the
world of lived
experience directly accessible to an audience, capturing the
voices, emotions,
and actions of those studied and focusing on those life
experiences that shape
the meanings persons give to themselves and their own
experiences.
The intent of action research is to provide an approach to data
analysis more
clearly focused on processes and outcomes resonating with
people’s own
meaningfulness and supplying the basis for effecting positive
change in their
lives. Action research, therefore, employs processes that engage
the concepts
and ideas people naturally use to observe, describe, and
interpret their own

experiences (Spradley, 1979a; Spradley and McCurdy, 1972).
This represents
an approach to research having the clear intention to learn from
and with peo-
ple, rather than studying them. Denzin (1989b) has suggested
that the focus
of interpretive research on meanings persons give to themselves
and their life
experiences requires researchers to capture the voices,
emotions, and actions
of those studied. The following analytic procedures enable
participants to
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Analysis
enter each other’s worlds and to understand the events, actions,
activities,
behavior, and deeply fell emotions that represent the ongoing
reality of human
experience (Denzin, 1996).
The intent of these procedures is to enable researchers lo
accurately and
authentically represent people’s lives in non-authoritative, non-
colonizing,
and non-exploitive ways. They employ processes that not only
maintain peo-
ple’s voices, but also capture the concepts, meanings, emotions,
and agendas
that can be applied to problems affecting their personal,
institutional, and

professional lives. Recent research experience (Genat, 2002)
suggests the
need for voices of the participants, their structures of meaning,
their interpre-
tive processes, and their conceptual frameworks to dominate the
process of
data analysis. The procedures are based on a process of
interpretive analysis
suggested by Denzin (1989b) and focus on epiphanies—
illuminative moments
that mark people’s lives. By exploring and unpacking these
epiphanies, we
seek to reveal features and elements of experience, often not
apprehended in
the normal course of events that provide significant insight into
people’s lives.
Epiphanies and Illuminative Experiences
As noted previously, epiphanies are illuminative moments of
crisis, or trans-
formational, turning point experiences, which result in
significant changes to
people’s perceptions of their lives (Denzin, 1989b). Epiphanies
take a vari-
ety of forms—from the devastating experience that enters a
person’s life but
once, through cumulative epiphanies that emerge over time, to
minor epipha-
nies that are significant but not highly momentous. Epiphanies
can be either
positive or negative. They may include the experience of
exhilaration at pass-
ing (or failing) a particularly significant examination, the sense
of wonder-
ment (or frustration) emerging from a difficult learning process,
or a sense

of injustice emerging from an unfair or distressing comment
from a teacher,
colleague, or administrator.
Epiphanies may vary in intensity, from the life-changing
experience of com-
plete failure or triumphant success, to less calamitous events
that have signifi-
cant, but not dire, effects on people’s lives. They emerge as
moments of human
warmth or hurt, or they can be moments of clarity that add new
dimensions
to a person’s life experience and invest them with new ways of
interpreting
or understanding their lives. An epiphany may emerge
instantaneously—the
“ah-ha” experience, or the “light bulb” that enables a person to
say, “so that’s
what is going on”—or it may emerge gradually through a
cumulative sense of
awareness after an ongoing process of experience and
reflection.
Rhonda Petty reveals how she came to understand the concept
“epiphany.”
She writes (Petty, 1997) “When I first read Denzin’s (1989b)
definition and
description of epiphanies, I associated them with psychotic
behavior or life-
threatening diseases. My interpretation was too narrow. As
Denzin wrote,
epiphanies are turning-point experiences, interactional moments
that mark
people’s lives and can be transformational. My own experience
demonstrates,
however, that epiphanies can stem from the unlikeliest of

sources—a book, a
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 193 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Analysis
conversation, or the click of a telephone.” Epiphanies can
emerge from seem-
ingly minor events and may be best thought of as significant
experiences that
are set aside from the hum-drum, routine events that have little
impact. They
are experiences that are in some way distinct and are cause for
particular
comment or response from those involved.
Interpreting Epiphanies and Illuminative Experiences
Interpretive data analysis first identifies epiphanic or
illuminative experi-
ences in the lives or research participants, then deconstructs or
unpacks those
events to reveal the elements of experience of which they are
built. We decon-
struct those events using terminology, concepts, and structures
of meaning
derived from participant accounts. By starting with events
significant from
the participants’ perspectives, and building understanding of
events in their
terms, we seek not only to give voice to the participants, but to
create under-
standings that emerge from, resonate with, and are consistent
with the world

as they know and understand it. We seek emic (insider)
constructions that are
true to their worlds and their purposes.
We seek not only accounts of individual experience, but to
understand the
experience of different groups since individuals will interpret
events accord-
ing to their membership in a particular group. Teachers, parents,
and stu-
dents, for instance, are likely to see an issue from quite
different viewpoints.
We seek to formulate joint accounts providing insight into the
perspective and
experience of each stakeholding group.
Figure 4.4 shows how data related to the perspectives of
teachers, students,
and parents is analyzed and used as the basis of a report on a
school issue.
Researchers:
• Review information acquired from stakeholders in the data-
gathering
phase.
• Identify epiphanies, or illuminative moments, within
individual par-
ticipants’ experience.
• Deconstruct or “unpack” those events to reveal the detailed
features
and elements of which epiphanies are constructed.
• Use those features and elements to construct individual
accounts

describing how selected individuals experience and interpret the
issue investigated.
• Use the features and elements within individual accounts to
con-
struct joint accounts revealing the perspectives and experiences
of
each stakeholding group.
Finally, joint accounts provide the material for a collective
account—an overall
version chronicling events by comparing and contrasting the
perspectives of
the different stakeholding groups within the setting. Analysis
identifies points
of commonality of perspective and experience and points of
discrepancy,
diversity, or conflict. Points of commonality provide the basis
for concerted
action, while discrepant perspectives, viewpoints, or
experiences signal the
need to negotiate agendas and actions around unresolved issues.
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 194 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Analysis
Source: Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. N. (1994). Qualitative
data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd Edition), © 1994
SAGE
Publications, Inc, p. 305.
References

Denzin, N. K. (1989). Interpretive biography: Qualitative
research methods series 17. Newbury
Park, CA: SAGE Publications.
Denzin, N. K. (1989). Interpretive interactionism (Vol. 16).
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Denzin, N. K. (1996). Interpretive ethnography: Ethnographic
practices for the 21st century.
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Genta,W. (2002). Indigenous content in master of public health
programs. Aboriginal and
Islander Health Worker Journal, v. 28, p. 19–19.
Petty, R. (1997). Everything is different now: Surviving
ethnographic research. In, Stringer, E.,
Agnello, M., Baldwin, S., McFayden, L., Christensen and D.
Henry (Eds.), Community-
based ethnography: Breaking traditional boundaries of research,
teaching, and learn-
ing, (p. 68–84). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Spradley, J. P. (1979). The ethnographic interview (pp. vii–
247). New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.
Spradley, J. P., & McCurdy, D. W. (1972). The cultural
experience: Ethnography in complex soci-
ety (p. 18). Chicago: Science Research Associates.
Source: Stringer, E., Action Research in Education, 1st. ed.
©2004. Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of
Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Figure 4.4: Analyzing epiphanies
ISSUE INVESTIGATED
School Report
Students Parents
STAKEHOLDER
DATA SETS
………
……
………
……
EPIPHANIES OR
ILLUMINATIVE
EXPERIENCES
FEATURES AND
ELEMENTS OF
EXPERIENCE
ACCOUNTS AND
NARRATIVES
JOINT
ACCOUNTS
COLLECTIVE
ACCOUNT
Teachers

Students ParentsTeachers
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ISSUE INVESTIGATED
School Report
Students Parents
STAKEHOLDER
DATA SETS
………
……
………
……
EPIPHANIES OR
ILLUMINATIVE
EXPERIENCES
FEATURES AND
ELEMENTS OF

EXPERIENCE
ACCOUNTS AND
NARRATIVES
JOINT
ACCOUNTS
COLLECTIVE
ACCOUNT
Teachers
Students ParentsTeachers
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bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 195 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Analysis
Summary
As previously discussed, action researchers often collect many

different forms of data, both qual-
itative and quantitative. The next step is to review and make
judgments about the data and to
distill it into relatively succinct ideas that can be used to
explain and effectively intervene into
the problem under study. This is data analysis. In this excerpt,
Stringer discusses how to analyze
qualitative data using an interpretive approach in which
epiphanic moments are the unit of
analysis. That is, in analyzing the data, the researcher considers
the perceptions, experiences,
and events that are significant to participants as primary
phenomena to identify and examine.
Stringer offers several reasons researchers should pay attention
to epiphanies. First, acknowl-
edging the feelings, understandings, and actions that are
significant to participants gives them a
voice in the research. Second, researchers can build
understanding and make decisions that are
authentic to the participants’ experiences and understandings.
Once epiphanies in the data are identified, the researcher then
“deconstructs or unpacks those
events to reveal the elements of experience on which they are
built.” That is, the next step is to
identify how and why previous events have shaped an epiphanic
moment. For example, a con-
tentious interaction might mark a turning point in how a teacher
thinks about and approaches
her relationships with parents. The researcher would want to
understand the factors that led to
and shaped the interaction. These factors might include the
teacher’s and parents’ expectations
of each other or the parents’ wariness of the teacher. Those
explanatory factors are then used
to create individual accounts of participants’ experiences and

how they understand them. Next,
the researcher looks across individual accounts to identify
similar perceptions and experiences
from which he or she will create joint accounts or explanations
that apply to multiple individu-
als. Finally, joint accounts are used to guide decisions about
how to intervene into the prob-
lem under study. For example, if in a study on vocabulary
learning, researchers discover that
most students do little reading outside of school, they may want
to design a strategy to increase
out-of-school reading. Overall, the interpretive data analysis
that Stringer describes is aimed at
understanding and intervening in problems in ways that are
authentic to individuals within the
context under study.
1. Stringer highlights the importance of examining the
experiences of groups—not only
individuals—and how they understand those experiences,
because meaning making is a
social activity. That is, how individuals interpret and make
sense of the world around them
is influenced by others with whom they interact. For example,
Stringer points out that as
distinct groups, teachers, parents, and students may have
different perspectives on a single
issue. A group’s perspective, of course, is influenced by its
members’ particular vantage
points, their past and present experiences, and their interests
and desires. Suppose a group
of practitioners is conducting an action research project on the
lack of parent involvement
in a school. How might parents and teachers differ in how they

understand the issue? What
factors might contribute to those understandings?
2. The aim of interpretive data analysis is to understand how
research participants make
meaning of their own experiences rather than imposing an
outside explanation. For exam-
ple, many researchers have concluded that K–12 students drop
out of school because they
do not care about or understand the value of education.
However, interpretive research
shows that many youth themselves attribute their dropping out
to lack of support from
school staff. For what reasons and in what ways is it important
for practitioner-researchers
to account for the ways that their participants understand their
own experiences?
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 196 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Section 4.7 Using Research Data to Improve Student
Achievement
3. Interpretive data analysis focuses on participants’ epiphanies,
described as events, experi-
ences, interactions, and realizations that are significant to
individuals and groups. According
to Stringer, in order to capture their epiphanies, researchers
must collect data on partici-
pants’ perceptions, emotions, and actions. What is the value for
action researchers, in iden-
tifying epiphanies? Suppose you are conducting interviews with
new teachers to understand
how well prepared they are to work with students from different

racial or ethnic, class,
and linguistic backgrounds. What kinds of questions might you
ask to uncover the kinds of
epiphanies Stringer describes?
4.7 Using Research Data to Improve Student Achievement,
by Karen Zantop
Introduction
Karen Zantop is a sixth-grade language arts teacher in Pasco
County schools in Florida who is
also involved in dropout prevention in the school district.
Zantop, who has over 20 years’ experi-
ence as a teacher, is particularly focused on students at risk for
academic failure. In describing a
schoolwide effort to improve middle-school students’ writing
skills, Zantop gives voice to a class-
room teacher’s experience of action research. In the following
excerpt, Zantop describes how she
and other teachers worked collaboratively to identify and
address students’ writing challenges.
She explains that their action-research–based approach differed
from more conventional strate-
gies for improving instructional practice and student learning.
Rather than assessing students’
needs through a “routine of committees and meetings” (p. 84),
school staff set about gather-
ing and evaluating information about students’ writing abilities,
from multiple sources. As a
result, they were able to devise interventions that were
successful in meeting the particular
needs of their students. Subsequently, their students’ scores on
the statewide writing assessment
improved.
Excerpt

The following is an excerpt from Zantop, K. (2010). Using
research data to improve stu-
dent achievement. In R. Brindley and C. Crocco (Eds.),
Empowering the voice of the teacher
researcher (pp. 84–89). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield
Education.
Facing a decline in students’ state assessed writing
performance,
Karen Zantop leads a team that uses standardized test data as a
start-
ing point for overall improvement in student writing. The
results of
their action research informed the practices of the entire
faculty.
Most school years begin with a routine of committees and
meetings to assess
what is best for our students and our school as a whole. Not this
year! While
the goals were the same, this year the talk was all action
research. Having
been introduced to this new approach, the question on most of
our minds was
“What now?” Was this just another gimmick thought up by
some company to
make a lot of money and a name for themselves? Let’s face it,
teachers have
seen fads come and go. Does action research work? Has it been
effective in
helping students excel?
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 197 5/21/14 3:15 PM

Achievement
We didn’t know but ventured as requested further into this
unknown terri-
tory. Managing a school from a model using teacher research to
promote stu-
dent success was an interesting idea. After a visit from two
colleagues at the
University of South Florida (USF), we were off and running.
A Different Approach
When using action research, teachers don’t form a committee in
the tradi-
tional sense and decide what type of research to explore.
Rather, they discern
what the particular needs are for the student population and
proceed with
the action research process. In our case the language arts
teachers quickly
identified an area of student need. Our school’s writing scores
on the Florida
Comprehensive Achievement Test (FCAT) had begun to fall
over several years
and from a 3.8 to a 3.7 (on a 1.0 to 6.0 scale) in the previous
year. As a result,
we lost our “A” school rating.
If this score truly reflected a decline in our students’ ability to
write effec-
tively, then someone needed to take a look at the situation and
take action
to promote better writing practices schoolwide. Several brave
language arts
teachers decided to take on this formidable task. Action

research as we would
come to know it had begun. This is a story of how our school
went from an
average school score of 3.7 to 4.4 on the FCAT Writes in just
three years.
* * *
Planning Our Work Together
During the first year we created a scope and sequence for our
middle school
that teachers could use vertically across the grade levels so that
there was a sys-
tematic development of writing skills. This was a new direction
for us and led
to some earnest conversations among the eight language arts
teachers, each of
whom had strong opinions. Fortunately we received invaluable
support as the
school district implemented curriculum mapping for all subject
areas.
Armed with these materials, the group created posters to foster
good writ-
ing. The sixth grade teachers took responsibility and designed
“Topic, Audi-
ence, Purpose, Plan” (TAPP) posters. These were created to
focus the students
on important aspects of the writing process and were made
available to each
classroom in the school.
To assist our action research, our group believed a visit to
another school
would help us research successful techniques for the writing
process. Our

neighboring middle school’s students had scored the highest in
the county
for several years, and we wanted to see if any of their strategies
could be used
to improve our students’ writing abilities. After the visit, we
decided to adopt
some new strategies.
Firstly, it seemed imperative that we have a schoolwide writing
practice day
so that students in every grade would get some early feedback
on their own
achievement level. The practice writing day went well, so we
proceeded to
add a practice writing for all sixth and seventh grades while the
eighth grades
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 198 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Achievement
sat for the FCAT writing test. We hoped that this experience
would serve the
younger students well, and within three years our school writing
score was
an average 4.3.
Several factors could have influenced these scores, but we
continue to use and
build on the practices we discovered through our action
research. Dividing
up this work was easy as every teacher volunteered to do their
share. One

teacher was responsible for creating the practice test for the
sixth and seventh
graders. This was a complex job, but the teacher was willing to
take it on. All
teachers were given the test and answer key so they could work
with their
assigned students.
We did confront some problems with this type of planning and
these types of
activities. There was some irregularity in the grading as
teachers responded
to the writing in different ways, and some students did not get a
final score.
Sadly, those students felt left out. We wondered whether for
some teachers
grading represented too much extra work, so we knew that the
next time we
would need to plan to enlist the help of other colleagues such as
assistant
principals and the reading specialist.
Reaching Individual Students through Conferencing
The action research committee also recommended the school
obtain substi-
tutes for the eighth grade teachers prior to the FCAT Writing
test. This allowed
the teachers to work one-on-one with each student, who now
received per-
sonalized tutoring on his or her writing. I had the opportunity to
observe and
conference with students, and they greatly appreciated the effort
and were
motivated in their writing endeavors. They listened intently and
appreciated
each suggestion and saw how their scores were improving.

We relied upon ourselves to make this task manageable for all
students. We
came up with a list of “must dos” to augment the scheduled
writing classes.
We required each student to write a minimum of 350 words so
that their sto-
ries had sufficient interest and detail. Using the state scoring
rubric to guide
students, they were then coached to go back and use more
descriptive vocab-
ulary. Techniques such as projecting into the future to create the
best conclu-
sion proved extremely effective.
Of all the strategies we tried, the action research committee
found the days
given to individual conferencing to be a powerful strategy. We
believe there
is nothing better than giving students personal positive and
corrective feed-
back on their writing samples. As a result of our observations of
the process, a
best practices list was compiled and distributed to all our
colleagues, and the
entire staff have responded by including these ideas in their
lessons.
We were pleased at how many teachers stepped in to grade
practice essays.
Our principal, assistant principals, reading specialist, and others
took on this
job with enthusiasm! Attention to writing had reached an all-
time high, and all
that was left was to wait “impatiently” for the results.

bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 199 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Achievement
The Results of the Writing Emphasis
At long last and after a school year of action research, the
scores were in, and
we met our goal of improving student writing. Originally, we
had planned that
the principal would shadow anyone who earned a top score of
six on the test.
To our delight, SSMS students received so many perfect scores
that this was
impossible. Instead our principal agreed to sit on the roof all
day to celebrate
the success of our eighth graders, to the delight of all our
students.
After the students received their scores, the committee agreed to
survey them
on how they were able to improve the overall quality of their
writing. We real-
ized that our students had made great strides in their ability to
write, and we
would only have this short window of opportunity at the end of
the year to
pick their brains about how they perceived the writing process
and instruc-
tion. We asked them three simple questions:
• What writing technique did you use while taking the FCAT
Writing

test that you feel helped your score?
• Had you ever used this technique before?
• What did you learn in your class this year that helped you to
become
a better writer?
Students responded that the individual conferences, the “No
Dead Verbs” les-
son, the formal essay training, and Caught ‘ya! Grammar with a
Giggle (by Jane
Keister, 2003) were their favorites. They also noted critical
techniques such
as planning tools, enhancing vocabulary, and focusing on topic.
They reported
that they felt intelligent, capable, and empowered to become
better writers
and felt prepared to respond on the state’s formal writing
assessment. We
summarized the results and sent them to the faculty. The state
writing scores
that followed our research and implementation were indeed
impressive, and
we felt our time spent on research was beneficial. The writing
scores are
shown in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Student writing scores
Academic year Percent of students testing at the passing score
of 3.5 or above
2005 71% (The year we lost our “A” rating.) We began our
action research in fall 2005.

2006 86% (The next school year a new middle school opened
and took a significant
amount of our lower socioeconomic population.)
2007 91%
2008 93%
Our writing action research group continued to serve as a
resource during
the next school year (2006–2007). We didn’t want to lose the
gains from the
teachers’ and students’ hard work. Staff members continued to
be aware of
and use our strategies. The school score continued to increase as
we contin-
ued to implement the great practices that resulted from our
action research.
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 200 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Achievement
We understand that any one action research initiative doesn’t
last forever, and
as we respond to student needs, there may come a time for a
commonsense
conclusion, but for now we continue to research and implement
effective
practices.
The reader can be left with two important thoughts. With
focused preparation

and instruction students have the ability to write in an organized
and creative
manner. Action research helped us to create some basic
guidelines and lesson
plans to achieve the desired results of boosting the writing
skills and scores
of our eighth grade student body. Our research on writing
strategies is ongo-
ing. We have moved from our original research to include new
techniques. In
the end we had a dedicated group of motivated educators who
believed in our
students and their ability to rise to our writing expectations.
References
Keister, J. B. (2003). Caught ‘ya! Grammar with a giggle for
middle school. Gainesville, FL:
Maupin House.
Source: Zantop, K. (2010). Write-On: Using research data to
improve student achievement. R. Brindley and C. Crocco (Eds.),
Empowering the Voice of the Teacher Researcher. Lanham,
MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
Summary
In the article, Zantop describes how a team of middle-school
language arts teachers engaged
in a collaborative, action research project to improve students’
writing skills, schoolwide. Their
efforts were prompted by a decline in scores on a statewide
writing assessment. By gathering and
analyzing information about the students’ writing challenges,
the team was able to identify their
students’ particular learning needs and to design specific
interventions aimed at those needs.

Several key factors led to the success of the project. The first
factor was cooperation between the
teachers. In collaboration with all of the language arts teachers
in the building, the team identi-
fied the needed content and sequencing of learning goals, which
applied across classrooms. As
Zantop describes, multiple teachers volunteered to participate in
this work with the support of
the school district. Teachers also agreed to engage in
“conferences” with each student to give
them individualized feedback on writing samples, which Zantop
describes as one of the most
effective aspects of the intervention. Second, the research team
visited a school whose students
were more successful in the state writing assessment to
understand the strategies that fostered
that success. Finally, after students completed the state
assessment, the research team sought
feedback about their experiences. Specifically, they asked what
the students had learned in class
and which techniques were used to improve writing skills. This
information helped the school
further improve its intervention strategies.
Few books or articles on school-based action research are
written by current classroom teachers.
Further, the emphasis on standardized testing is often framed as
a deterrent to action research
as a means for enhancing teaching and learning. Thus, this
excerpt provides an important per-
spective. It shows how action research can be used to improve
standardized test scores from the
viewpoint of a practicing classroom teacher. In Zantop’s
experience, action research can be a
powerful tool for understanding and successfully addressing
students’ learning needs.

bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 201 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Section 4.8 School Climate Through Students’ Eyes
1. In the action research project in which Zantop is engaged, she
describes considerable buy-in
and cooperation among the eight language arts teachers, across
the school. For example,
they volunteered to take on planning tasks and to meet with
each student in order to
provide them with specific feedback on their writing samples.
Although she described some
inconsistencies in the teachers’ efforts, Zantop portrays a
relatively high level of teacher
participation and cooperation. Consider a similar action
research project focused on your
particular discipline or grade level of interest. What barriers
might arise in fostering
teacher buy-in and collaboration, and how might those barriers
be addressed?
2. Conducting action research is an iterative process, and one
vital aspect of improving the
research is gathering and analyzing data regarding the outcomes
of action. One way Zan-
top’s team gathered and analyzed data was by asking students
directly about what helped
them improve their writing skills and their scores on the state
assessment. What types of
information can students provide about teaching and learning
that cannot be fully cap-

tured by teachers’ accounts and evaluative forms of assessment?
In what ways can student
assessments of their own learning be helpful in enhancing
teacher practice?
3. In gathering information on how to improve writing
instruction, Zantop describes how the
research team visited another school in which students had been
more successful on the
state writing assessment. The importance of teachers observing
successful strategies and
best practices in other schools and classrooms is highlighted in
other chapters in this book.
Although important, this strategy can to lead to feelings of
inadequacy among teachers who
are deemed less successful. If a school were to implement a
formal process for teachers to
learn from each other, how might they do this in a way that does
not make teachers feel bad?
How could such a process be incorporated into an action
research project aimed at improv-
ing standardized test scores?
4.8 School Climate Through Students’ Eyes,
by William Preble and Larry Taylor
Introduction
William Preble is a professor of education at New England
College in New Hampshire where
he teaches courses in educational psychology, school climate
and leadership, and educational
research. He is also the founder of the Center for School
Climate and Learning, which conducts
action research with schools and other organizations. Preble has
worked with many schools
throughout the country to help school leaders, teachers, and

students improve school climate,
safety, respect, student leadership, and teaching and learning.
Before teaching at the univer-
sity, Preble was an elementary- and middle-school classroom
teacher and the principal of an
elementary school. Larry Taylor is a professor of psychology,
also at New England College. His
work focuses on advocacy and combining research, theory, and
practice. Taylor has developed
multiple university partnerships with nonprofit organizations
that serve at-risk populations,
providing opportunities for students to develop real-world
competencies in the area of human
services.
In the following excerpt, Preble and Taylor describe a
districtwide action research project on
school climate in Tennessee. The project was prompted by a
racist incident in one of the high
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 202 5/21/14 3:15 PM
schools that prompted several students and their families to
successfully sue the school district
with the support of the U.S. Department of Justice. As part of
the ruling and settlement, the dis-
trict worked with Preble and Taylor to assess, monitor, and
improve the climate in 30 schools
in the district. To do this, they, along with university students,
conducted action research in
collaboration with K–12 staff and students. They found that
compared with students, admin-

istrators and teachers had very different perceptions of the
aspects of school climate, such as
relationships and safety. By allowing students to be actively
involved in the research, by educat-
ing school staff about how students were experiencing school,
and by having both groups work
together to identify and devise solutions to problems, many of
the schools were able to signifi-
cantly improve the school climate and, as a result, student
performance. Preble and Taylor argue
and demonstrate that action research, in which students and
teachers are actively involved, can
be a powerful tool for enhancing both academic outcomes and
social environments in schools.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Preble, W., & Taylor, L.
(2008). School climate through students’
eyes. Educational Leadership, 66(4), 35–40.
By involving students in collaborative action research, school
leaders
gain vital information to guide school improvement.
What would you think if your own children—or students in your
school—
made the following comments?
Students in this school drop out because they’re pushed off to
the side.
They are not seen as the kids who will succeed, and because of
that, no
one even tries to help them succeed. —12th grade student
ESL students get picked on at this school more than other kids.
It

depends on your religion and your culture, too. After 9-11,
Muslim
kids started to get picked on a lot. My friend who is Muslim
came here
and got smacked around because she was wearing the scarf.—
10th
grade student
I get picked on because I walk funny . . . one kid calls me
“duck” and
“waddle” and he quacks at me. My mom called the school and
they
told him not to do it any more, but he still does when teachers
aren’t
watching. He bullies everybody when teachers aren’t looking.—
6th
grade student
Students’ stories can offer profound insights into school climate
issues that
affect the quality of education. When we couple these stories
with simple
descriptive statistics from school climate surveys, such as the
percent-
age of students and teachers who agree with statements like “I
feel safe
at this school,” we have a valuable source of information to
shape school
improvement.
With our colleagues at Main Street Academix
(http://www.msanh.com) and
our students at New England College, we have been conducting
research on
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 203 5/21/14 3:15 PM

http://www.msanh.com
school climate and helping educators develop respectful schools
for nearly
10 years. We have worked with hundreds of schools and
thousands of teach-
ers and student leaders across the United States to understand
the positive
and negative effects of school climate and its links to bullying,
harassment,
discipline systems, dropout rates, teaching practices, and
teacher and student
success. Here’s what we learned from our work in one school
district that
used our student-led action research process to guide school
improvement.
The Need for Change in Sullivan County
In 2002, several students and their families sued Sullivan
County School Dis-
trict, a Tennessee district whose student population is more than
96 percent
white. The primary lawsuit resulted from the mock lynching of
a black stu-
dent by white students in the hallway of one high school.
Because of the seri-
ousness of these problems, the U.S. Department of Justice
joined concerned
students and their families in their complaints against the
district. The courts
ruled in their favor, finding that the district had been

deliberately indifferent
to pervasive racial harassment and violations of civil rights in
its schools.
In response to the court decision, Sullivan County’s leaders
took action. As
director of schools John O’Dell said,
At first we were a little defensive, but then we tried to put
ourselves
in the shoes of these students. I thought, what if I were one of
only
a handful of white students in a school of more than 1,000
African
American students? How would I feel, especially if someone
tried to
choke me?
“We decided that we needed to face up to the fact that we had
some prob-
lems in these schools and that we needed to address them head-
on,” said
Janie Barnes, the district’s compliance coordinator. “We saw it
as a chance to
do what was right and to ensure that every student was safe and
free from
harassment of any kind.”
As part of the final legal settlement of the court cases, the
school board asked
Main Street Academix to develop a plan to assess the current
racial, social, and
academic climate in each of the 30 Sullivan County schools and
to use these
baseline data to monitor and guide a four-year improvement
plan. District

leaders embraced the idea of collecting and using new kinds of
data to better
understand what was happening in their schools and committed
themselves
to doing whatever was needed to change the attitudes and
behavior that were
hurting students in these schools.
Revealing Blind Spots
Our work collecting and using qualitative and quantitative
school climate data
to improve schools is based on our belief in the power of
perception to shape
attitudes and behavior. When teachers or principals perceive
their schools to
be safe and respectful places, they may be blind to problems
going on right
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 204 5/21/14 3:15 PM
under their noses—and therefore be unresponsive. Students
repeatedly tell
us, “School climate is what happens when grown-ups are not
around.” Data
that reveal and compare adult and student perceptions of school
climate are
often a real eye-opener.
One morning we went to one of Sullivan County’s four high
schools to share
the school’s initial school climate data with the principal. The

data consisted
of simple descriptive statistics—the percentage of students and
teachers
who agreed or disagreed with specific statements related to peer
respect and
belonging; student-adult relationships; the presence of racist
language, graf-
fiti, or behavior; the use of certain pedagogical practices; and
so on.
The principal invited us into his office. We sat down, opened
the report, and
began to review his school’s climate data. After 10 minutes, we
thought the
man was about to explode. “This is not my school!” he
exclaimed angrily.
We turned to the next page of graphs and asked, “Is this your
school?” He
paused, looking carefully at the data, and said slowly, “Yeah,
this looks more
like my school.” We pointed out that those data showed the
perceptions of
his college-bound students, whereas the first graphs had shown
the climate
perceptions of all his students. We then showed him some data
that revealed
equally dramatic gaps between the perceptions of his school’s
teachers and
students. He was shocked, but he became more interested in
understanding
the data. We spent the next hour discussing the very different
perceptions of
school climate among the various stakeholder groups in his
school.

This principal loves his students and his school. After he
calmed down, we
could see that he was thinking deeply about the story of school
climate that
was unfolding before him. Since that morning, he has been
engaged and excited
about using data and working with student leaders to improve
his school. He
joined and helped lead our district leadership team as a key
advocate of the
student-led action research process in Sullivan County.
The journey of this school administrator illustrates what can
happen when
educators work with colleagues to interpret data collected as
part of col-
laborative, student-led action research. Often, an examination of
the data
engenders cognitive dissonance—the feeling of uncomfortable
tension that
comes from holding two conflicting thoughts in the mind at the
same time.
For example, a teacher looking at the data in Table 4.6 may
think, “I feel that
our students treat one another with respect, but I see that only
48 percent of
all students and 34 percent of non-collegebound students agree.
What’s that
all about?” Reviewing such comparisons often results in heated
discussions
about the meaning of the data and ultimately leads to new ideas
about what
the school needs to do to improve.
Cognitive dissonance is a powerful motivator. Over and over
again, we have

seen dissonance lead to tension, discussion, and reflection and
then jump-
start a process of energized leadership and action by teachers,
administra-
tors, and students.
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 205 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Table 4.6: Comparisons of student and teacher perceptions
Percentage for “agreed” or “strongly agreed”
Non-college-
bound students All students Faculty
I feel physically safe being who I am at my school (free
from threats, harassment, or violence).
46% 58% 80%
Students are willing to step forward and help when they
see others getting picked on or harassed.
45% 42% 55%
Girls are treated with respect by boys at this school. 41% 45%
32%
Boys are treated with respect by girls at this school. 32% 50%
40%
I think students mostly treat one another with respect at

this school.
34% 48% 68%
When teachers act to help sutdents who are harrassed,
it really works.
40% 45% 81%
When principals and other administrators act to help
kids who are harrassed, it really works.
51% 57% 75%
Students’ work is displayed publically and celebrated by
teachers.
29% 47% 82%
Teachers make it clear to all students what is expected
to be successful.
70% 83% 94%
Adults in my school invite students to help make deci-
sions about school rules and discipline procedures.
24% 31% 25%
It Starts With Students
The data that laid the foundation for change in Sullivan County
came from
student-led action research. Why start with students? The
growing literature
on “youth-led, participatory research” (Ozer et al., 2008) shows

that it is a
developmentally appropriate strategy for increasing youth voice
and student
engagement in improving schools (Cargo, Grams, Ottoson,
Ward, & Green,
2003). Inviting young people to serve their schools and
communities as part-
ners in action research creates an exciting sense of student
ownership and
control. As students help ameliorate the problems identified in
the research,
they learn a great deal—and they teach adults a good deal as
well.
Beginning in 2003, we have helped Sullivan County implement
a collabora-
tive, student-led action research process developed by Main
Street Academix.
The process involves the following three stages:
Stage One
We begin by creating a district-level adult leadership team to
guide the pro-
cess. We work with principals and teachers from each school to
recruit and
select diverse teams of student leaders to serve as the subjects
of interviews
and focus groups. Selecting truly diverse students for these
roles—athletes,
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 206 5/21/14 3:15 PM

Goths, academically successful students, those who struggle
academically,
and so on—is a crucial part of the process.
Undergraduate and graduate students (in the case of Sullivan
County, students
from New England College) conduct student interviews and
focus groups with
students in grades 3–12. We use college students because young
people speak
more freely and frankly about their school experiences to other
young people.
We then invite the students who were the subjects of the
interviews and focus
groups to take on new roles as researchers. We train these
students to help
administer schoolwide adult and student school climate surveys.
Students explain the purpose of the surveys to their peers and
describe how
the results will be used to better understand and compare
student and teacher
perceptions of school climate and respect in their school. When
peers lead the
data-collection process in this way, students take the surveys
seriously, and
we get great data.
Stage Two
Main Street Academix compiles the results of the surveys,
interviews, and
focus groups, and we schedule a time to work with the principal
and a school
level adult design team to share these results with the student
leaders. Stu-
dents review their school’s data and select the areas that they

believe repre-
sent the most serious problems.
Student leaders then help the adult design team present the
school’s results
to their teachers. One especially powerful role the student
researchers play is
to select the most potent student and teacher quotes from the
qualitative data
and to read these words aloud to teachers. These stories and
quotes are often
provocative and grab the teachers’ attention, making them more
interested
and more willing to look deeply into their survey results. For
example, one
student commented,
School isn’t taken seriously here because teachers don’t care at
all on
a personal or even one-on-one helpful level. Doing well
academically
is not encouraged here at all, and coming to school on a daily
basis is
a joke for some students.
In each school, the teachers use the qualitative and quantitative
data to sort
out the most powerful issues. They prioritize problem areas and
set goals for
improvement. When students and teachers compare their
respective goals,
they almost always find a lot of agreement on what needs to
change. It becomes
natural for them to come together and work toward these
common goals.

Stage Three
This is the most important stage. Teachers and students develop
meaning-
ful action steps to address needs indicated by the data. Students,
teachers,
and administrators divide into teams to work on one particular
goal. They
brainstorm ideas as a team and then review a menu of research-
based best
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 207 5/21/14 3:15 PM
practices provided by Main Street Academix. They select a final
set of strate-
gies that make the most sense to them and develop action
projects and plans
to address the problems revealed by their school’s data.
Teachers and stu-
dents work together to implement these action projects, with
student leaders
playing meaningful leadership roles.
As people become involved in analyzing their data, identifying
their own
needs, and offering their own solutions to these problems, the
levels of defen-
siveness and resistance lessen, and engagement in the process
grows. In hun-
dreds of schools in which we have implemented this process,
educators and
students have come together, looked at data, identified common
problems,

and developed solutions that they were willing to work on
together.
Widening the Focus
The most exciting thing about Sullivan County’s journey is the
way the issues
of school climate have quickly melded with issues of students’
overall per-
sonal development and academic success. Sullivan County
schools have done
remarkable things to reduce harassment in their schools. They
have adopted
new harassment policies and disciplinary processes to fight hate
speech,
racial and sexual harassment, and bullying of all kinds;
provided antibias
training for all teachers, administrators, bus drivers, substitute
teachers, and
teachers’ aides; and established student unity teams to fight
intolerance, bul-
lying, and bigotry in high schools and middle schools. But the
initiative in Sul-
livan County soon grew beyond bullying and harassment to
become a much
more comprehensive discussion about effective schools,
respectful teaching,
and student learning. School instructional initiatives that
resulted from the
process included
• Learning how to meet the different needs of all learners
through dif-
ferentiated instruction.
• Using hands-on, manipulative-based mathematics instruction

for
learners who struggled with abstract concepts in mathematics.
• Establishing positive expectations for respectful behavior in
every
classroom.
• Showcasing and celebrating students’ academic work in the
hallways
and at parent-teacher meetings.
• Catching students being good and acknowledging positive
behavior
rather than focusing solely on punishing misbehavior.
• Developing peer-tutoring and reading-buddies programs
between
younger and older students.
• Initiating community-based learning and service learning
programs.
At first, some educators struggled with the concept of building
respectful
schools through empowering students. After all, weren’t the
kids the problem?
But after some initial challenges, and after looking carefully at
their school cli-
mate data, Sullivan County principals and teachers began to
routinely bring
students into their discussions. Teachers saw how genuinely
moved and moti-
vated students were when asked to serve on student leadership
teams. They
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 208 5/21/14 3:15 PM

saw students building closer bonds of friendship as they worked
together to
solve school climate problems. As the work went forward, many
teachers and
principals concluded that collaborative action research was an
empowering
approach to school improvement. Buy-in across the district
grew.
The Student Achievement Connection
After four years, about two-thirds of the schools in Sullivan
County had made
significant, measurable improvements in school climate. In
spring 2006, we
analyzed the relationship between school climate and student
academic per-
formance on Tennessee’s state achievement tests in the
district’s schools. We
found a greater increase in academic achievement in the schools
that had
made significant improvement in school climate than in those
that had not
improved school climate (Preble & Newman, 2006).
Our findings in Sullivan County are consistent with other recent
research on
the connections between school climate and learning reported
by the Collab-
orative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning
(CASEL). Its review of

more than 700 studies indicates that when school climate
measures go up,
students’ performance on statewide tests in reading,
mathematics, and writ-
ing also goes up (CASEL, 2008; Viadero, 2007).
Although the Justice Department ended its mandate that
Sullivan County
address the problem of harassment and improve school climate
in 2007, the
school board voted to continue to conduct collaborative action
research and
keep working to improve school climate and respect. In the past
year, we have
trained 28 school climate leadership teams made up of more
than 125 Sul-
livan County principals, teachers, and support staff to facilitate
this student-
led, collaborative action research process in the future. More
than 300 student
leaders have been engaged in powerful leadership roles.
In 2007–08, these school-based leadership teams of students and
teachers
collected a third round of school climate data to check the
sustainability of
their efforts. All schools are now setting new goals for
continued improve-
ment and have designed a new set of improvement projects to
keep moving
forward and to sustain the gains made in years past.
Deeper Than Test Scores
Sullivan County’s experience demonstrates that involving
students and teach-

ers in using school climate data can be a powerful strategy for
changing atti-
tudes and behavior. One district superintendent attending a
recent statewide
conference expressed the need for this kind of data:
We have tried everything we can think of academically to raise
our
test scores over the past five or six years. Yet, while we have
made
some improvement, we seem to be stuck. Until we address the
school
climate issues that we know are going on in our schools, I don’t
think
we will ever reach our full potential as a school system.
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 209 5/21/14 3:15 PM
We believe that he’s right. Because students learn best when
they are physi-
cally and emotionally safe, school climate is an essential
component of school
success. When it comes to data, educators need to think about a
broader spec-
trum of evidence than test scores. They also need data that
enable them to see
deep into the heart and soul of their schools and the lives of
their students.
References
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning.
(2008). Social and emotional

learning and student benefits: Research implications for the safe
schools/healthy stu-
dents core elements. Chicago: Author. Available at
http://www.casel.org/downloads/
EDC_CASELSELResearchBrief.pdf
Cargo, M., Grams, G., Ottoson, J., Ward, P., & Green, L.
(2003). Empowerment as fostering posi-
tive youth development and citizenship. American Journal of
Health Behavior, 27
(Suppl. 1), S66–S79.
Ozer, E. J., Cantor, J. P., Cruz, G.W., Fox, B., Hubbard, E., &
Moret, L. (2008). The diffusion of
youth-led participatory research in urban schools. American
Journal of Community
Psychology, 41(3–4), 278–289.
Preble, W., & Newman, A. (2006). School climate improvement
means higher academic perfor-
mance in Sullivan County schools. Unpublished report.
Viadero, D. (2007). Social-skills programs found to yield gains
in academic subjects. Education
Week, 27(16), 1, 15.
Source: Preble, W., & Taylor, L. (2008). School climate through
students’ eyes. Educational Leadership, 66(4), 35–40.
Alexandria,
VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Summary
In the article, Preble and Taylor show how collaborative action
research can be used to under-
stand and improve school conditions, describing a districtwide

project on school climate. In this
project, Preble and Taylor and some of their university students
worked with K–12 school staff
and students to evaluate and improve school climate in 30
schools in a district in Tennessee.
The authors carried out the project in three stages. The first
stage focused on choosing research
design, selecting a participant sample, and collecting data.
Preble and Taylor created a leader-
ship team to guide the research process at the district level, and
they worked with school staff
to identify student interviewees. Student interviewees were then
trained to administer surveys
among their peers and teachers. The authors point out how
students are more likely to take the
survey seriously when their peers are leading the data-collection
process, leading to more accu-
rate and reliable data.
Stage two of the process focused on analyzing and reporting the
data. The university-based
researchers compiled and analyzed the data and brought their
findings to administrators, teach-
ers, and students. As Preble and Taylor describe, there are often
discrepancies between how the
administrators and teachers and the students view the school
climate, and the school staff can,
initially, be resistant to accepting findings that conflict with
their own views. For example, teach-
ers who see students as responsible for a poor school climate
may resist students’ views that
teachers are disrespectful. However, Preble and Taylor found
that as students and school staff
work together to make sense of the findings and identify
pressing problems, “they almost always

find a lot of agreement on what needs to change” (p. 38).
Finally, in the third stage of the project,
students and teachers worked together to devise and implement
strategies to improve school
climate, guided by the research findings.
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Section 4.9 Reporting Classroom Research
Active involvement of students and teachers, not simply as
subjects but as partners in the
research process, helped students and teachers take ownership
of the project and to be truly
invested in transforming school climate. As Preble and Taylor
describe, in many of the schools in
which they worked active involvement led to a broader focus on
improving school effectiveness
and to the development of instructional initiatives. In
conclusion, the authors state the impor-
tance of school climate in fostering high academic achievement.
In seeking to improve schools,
they urge educators to think beyond standardized test scores and
to consider using data that
will help them better understand and improve social aspects of
the school environment.
1. Preble and Taylor highlight the importance of not merely
involving students in action

research as subjects but engaging them in data collection and
analysis and problem identi-
fication. Through such participation, they can build vital
knowledge and skills and enhance
their engagement in schooling. It is relatively easy to see how
older students might partici-
pate in research related to a topic such as school climate.
However, involving young children
or engaging students in a project on an academic topic might
prove more difficult. Consider
a common problem related to teaching and learning in your
discipline or that pertains to
pre-K or elementary-school children. How could you involve
students in investigating this
problem?
2. In the excerpt, Preble and Taylor discuss an incident in which
a school principal initially
refuses to accept research findings as valid because they
conflict with what he believes is
happening at his school. When people encounter information
that is not aligned with their
previous beliefs, rather than considering they might be wrong,
they often dismiss or invali-
date the new information. How might you present teachers with
information that conflicts
with their beliefs in such a way that they do not become
defensive or reject the information?
3. Preble and Taylor believe that action research aimed at
improving student outcomes should
first and foremost consider students’ experiences and
perceptions. They open their article
with powerful quotes from three students in their study on
school climate. Identify as many

specific problems or issues that might be reflected in the
quotes. What additional informa-
tion would you need in order to know if those issues or
problems are significant in the school
context, and how might you go about getting that information?
4.9 Reporting Classroom Research, by David Hopkins
Introduction
David Hopkins is a professor of policy and society and chair of
international leadership at the
Institute of Education at the University of London. Hopkins was
previously a professor and dean
of the faculty of education at the University of Nottingham and
has served as the chief advisor
on school standards in the Department of Education and Skills
under the secretary of state. Hop-
kins has been involved in school improvement efforts through
research, policy, and practice at
the local and national levels for the last four decades. He is an
advocate of personalized learning
and holistic approaches to school reform that address the
academic, social, and emotional well-
being of all members of the school community.
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In the following excerpt, Hopkins discusses different ways that
teacher-researchers can dissem-
inate their findings and the elements of effective reports and
presentations of research. The
excerpt focuses primarily on written reports, discussing the

nature and purposes of, and the
audiences for, research reports. It also covers the conventional
sections of a research report and
the information that should be included. Finally, other
presentation forms and venues are dis-
cussed, including video, images, poetry, and websites. Hopkins
asserts that classroom research
“is incomplete until it is in the public domain” (p. 152). He
believes that it is important for teach-
ers to share the processes and results of their research in order
to contribute to educational
improvement on a broader scale, to promote a culture of inquiry
in schools, and to enhance
professionalism among practitioners in the field.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Hopkins, D. (2008). Reporting
classroom research. In A teach-
er’s guide to classroom research (4th ed., pp. 144–155).
Berkshire, UK: Open University Press.
The link between research and action has been an implicit theme
throughout
this book. To teacher-researchers, research alone is a necessary
but not suf-
ficient condition: research has to feed action and development.
The classroom
research process described in previous chapters has as its goal
professional
development and the enhancement of classroom performance.
The fourth
stage in the analytical framework discussed in this chapter is
action, which
itself is monitored and researched using classroom research
procedures. This
is the crowning achievement of the research process. In this

concluding sec-
tion, I want to look at some of the ways in which the action and
information
generated by the research process can be reported.
A classroom research report can in itself have significant
impact. Technology
in particular has provided the opportunity to teachers from all
over the world
to come closer together. This has opened up the prospect for
substantive and
sustained professional dialogues and the global exchange of
ideas and good
practice. These activities, in my opinion, are invaluable, as I
believe that class-
room researchers should not only feel responsible for improving
their own
classrooms but be concerned about the improvement of all
classrooms and
all schools in their own country and, yes, in the world. Hence,
when class-
room research reports are shared across a school, across a
system and across
systems they hold the potential to transform classroom practices
around the
globe and for the better.
In this chapter I will illustrate the various ways in which
classroom research
can be reported: first, by exploring literature on report writing;
second, by
discussing how one could write a report; third, by outlining
other formats for
reporting research; fourth, by identifying appropriate questions
for evaluat-
ing your research report; fifth, by setting out criteria on how

research can
inform action; and sixth, by considering different approaches to
the dissemi-
nation of results, before suggesting further reading for this
chapter.
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 212 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Reporting Research
Producing accounts of research could never be a literal
representation of
events. Denscombe (2007: 285) provides us with a useful list of
why envision-
ing a literal depiction is impossible:
• There are always limitations to the space available to provide
the
account of what happened, which means the researcher needs to
provide an edited version of the totality. Decisions need to be
made
about what can be missed out of the account.
• The editorial decisions taken by the researcher are likely to be
shaped by the researcher’s need to present the methods in their
best
possible light. Quite rationally, the researcher will wish to put a
posi-
tive spin on events and to bring out the best in the process.
Without
resorting to deceit or untruths, the account of research will
almost

certainly entail some upbeat positive filtering. The point, after
all, is
to justify the procedures as ‘good’ research.
• Although research notes will be used to anchor the description
of
what happened during the course of the research, the writing up
of
the research is inevitably a retrospective vision. Situations and
data
are likely to have a different meaning when viewed from the
end of
the research process from that at the time they occurred. They
will
be interpreted with the vision of hindsight.
• The impact of social norms and personal values on the way we
inter-
pret events pretty well guarantees that, to a greater or lesser
extent,
any account of research should be regarded as a version of the
truth
rather than a literal depiction of what happened. Within the
social
sciences, the idea of a purely objective position is controversial
and
a researcher would be naive to presume that her/his account can
stand, without careful considerations, as an ‘objective’
description of
what actually occurred.
The end product, therefore, no matter how scrupulous it
attempts to be, must
always be recognized for what it is—an account of the research.
* * *

To avoid ‘self-indulgent’ descriptions and capitalize on the
power of a research
report, teacher-researchers need to put their data together in
such a way that:
• the research could be replicated on another occasion;
• the evidence used to generate hypotheses and consequent
action is
clearly documented;
• action taken as a result of the research is monitored;
• the reader finds the research accessible and that it resonates
with his
or her own experience.
The process of setting a clear purpose, of using a methodology
which provides
valid results, and then using these as a basis for action, can be
assisted if the
researcher keeps a loose-leaf log or diary as the research
progresses. An ongo-
ing research diary like this also provides an invaluable basis for
reflection and
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 213 5/21/14 3:15 PM
is great fun to look at with the wisdom of hindsight. It provides
an excellent
record of how one’s views and attitudes evolve over time. The
diary can also

reveal the researcher’s biases and how these impacted on
decisions taken
during the research and on the interpretation of events. Such
information
is invaluable when writing a report where personal biases
should be high-
lighted and attempts to address them indicated, and their
possible impact on
the research results accounted for.
Writing a Report
One of the first things one has to consider when preparing a
research report
is the intended audience. Teacher-researchers have to decide in
advance who
they are writing for and choose the most effective format and
style to address
their audience. The British Educational Research Association’s
(2000) Good
Practice in Educational Research, identifies three major
audiences for research
writing: researchers, policymakers and practitioners, and asserts
that ‘it is
good practice in all research writing to aim for lucid prose
which communi-
cates effectively to the intended audience and avoids what that
audience may
perceive as jargon or obscurantism’ (p. 2).
The length of the report is also something that needs to be taken
into account.
Most people that read reports say that they are either too long to
read or so
short that there is insufficient evidence to be believable. The
best bet is a

report as short and condensed as you can make it (with detailed
justification
tucked away in appendices). The biggest temptation is to
display your produc-
tivity in too many pages.
Formulating the report comes next. There are a number of
guidelines and cri-
teria available that are helpful at this stage. To begin with, there
is the some-
what traditional approach that uses as a guide, points similar to
the following:
1. Statement of intent
• clarify purpose
• rationale
2. Procedures and process
• research design
• techniques of data collection
• verification of concepts
• what actually occurred
3. Results and implementation
• outcomes of research
• theoretical implications
• action taken as a result
• evaluation of action
4. Meta-analysis
• review whole process
• conclusions as to the usefulness of the research
• what would you do differently next time?
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* * *
Other Formats for Reporting Research
Classroom researchers should not feel constrained by the
traditional research
report format when sharing the product of their research, as
there are any
numbers of approaches that can be used for reporting research.
As Giroux
(1992: 21) suggests, we need a ‘politics and pedagogy
developed around new
languages capable of acknowledging the multiple, contradictory
and complex
subject positionings people occupy within different social,
cultural and eco-
nomic locations’. The important thing is for the information to
be valid and to
have been carefully analyzed and the fundamental point is that
action should
result from the research. Researchers in education have become
increasingly
interested in different forms of interpreting and representing
data (Percelli
2004a, 2004b; Schratz 2001). Here are a few examples:
• Cartoons or photography: often classroom researchers use the
car-
toon format or photographs to get a key finding from their
research
across in a powerful and accessible way.

• Video or film: a visual representation using video or digital
camera
provides concrete images that an audience can relate to their
own
situation.
• Dance or theatre: once again a visual representation, a
performance
using students or professional dancers or actors has the
potential to
have a profound impact on the audience.
• Fiction: using data or constructs from the research to tell a
story
often encourages reflection and discussion more effectively than
the
traditional report. As long as the quotations or events are ‘real’,
then
a fictional setting may enhance the message.
• Diaries: using extracts from one’s diary to present insights
from the
research is valuable data.
• Poetry: this is another form of highlighting the learnings of
one’s
research.
• Data reduction and display: displaying reduced data is often a
pow-
erful way of stimulating discussion. This approach allows large
amounts of data to be displayed economically and it could be
accom-
panied by another page of questions, commentary or explanation
that highlighted the main issues.

• A ‘patchwork’ approach: Winter (see for example Winter et al.
1999)
has pioneered what is known as the patchwork approach. Here
researchers are encouraged to use a combination of approaches
to
present the different stages of the research process. So,
research-
ers could use film, poetry, reports and any other way they
choose to
communicate their findings.
Finishing a research report could feel like sitting an exam
without being quite
sure what the question is, but in the knowledge that the world
will read and
mark your paper according to an unpredictable whim. The
mental blocks, the
mad desire to postpone writing for more research or for another
coffee is nor-
mal. But, one thing is certain. It is worth it.
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Dissemination of Results
At the beginning of this chapter I briefly discussed how
powerful a classroom
research report can be. I even claimed that reporting classroom
research
results has the potential to transform classroom practices around
the world.
This implies that the research will be disseminated. Classroom

researchers
should be aware that research is incomplete until it is in the
public domain.
Thus, decisions about who is going to disseminate the results,
and coming
back to our discussion earlier about the report’s audience, to
whom it will be
disseminated and for what use, have to be made.
There are a variety of ways in which you can disseminate the
results of your
research. The most immediate way of course is sharing the
research within
your own school. Teachers have the opportunity through staff
meetings, pre-
sentations in the school’s professional development days and
informal discus-
sions with colleagues not only to change practices across the
school, but also
to engage in professional dialogue about classroom research and
promote a
culture of inquiry within the school. Currently, many schools
encourage their
teachers to undertake small research projects and some of them
require newly
qualified teachers to conduct a classroom research project in
their first term.
Another way of communicating research is through school
networks. In Eng-
land there is an increasing number of informal and formal
school networks
which allow the quick exchange of information between
schools, which of
course is a smart school improvement strategy. Formal networks
such as

those of the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust (SSAT)
and the erstwhile
National College of School Leaders (NCSL) networked learning
communities
project bring together practitioners at a local level and then
connect local net-
works to the regional and national. Hence, the dissemination of
such results
is one on a bigger scale.
Publications can also make your work accessible to wider
audiences and
could include:
• chapters in books: there is an increasing number of books
published
by universities and organizations such as the GTCE, the SSAT
and
the NCSL, presenting classroom research examples. There is
also an
increasing number of schools that publish research conducted by
their own staff within the school but also externally;
• papers in academic journals;
• articles in teacher magazines.
However, the quickest, most powerful and nowadays possibly
the most
accessible approach to dissemination is the Internet—this is
certainly true
for developed countries and is becoming true for many
developing ones. As
mentioned earlier, technology has opened up opportunities for
people to
connect with others across the world and share information
instantly. Class-

room researchers are now publishing their results in their
schools’, network’s
and their own personal websites. Imagine a colleague in China
reading your
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 216 5/21/14 3:15 PM
research, identifying similarities between your school and theirs
and deciding
to adopt the practice suggested by your research in order to
improve teaching
and learning in their school!
Before concluding this section, it is worth reflecting more
imaginatively on
how classroom researchers can support their dissemination
efforts. One par-
ticular example involves a re-think of the audience for
classroom research and
its intended purpose. Miles and Huberman’s (1994: 305)
‘Matrix for Objec-
tives of Dissemination Strategy Planning’ could effectively
support classroom
researchers’ dissemination efforts. This is because it requires
researchers to
consider their audiences and sub-audiences and the effects it
provides, which
range from the simple awareness that the message exists to
implementation
and routinization. This matrix is seen in Figure 4.5.
References

British Educational Research Association. (2002). Good
Practice in Educational Research.
http://www.bera.ac.uk/
Denscombe, M. (2007). The Good Research Guide.
Buckingham: Open University Press.
Giroux, H. (1992). Border Crossings: Cultural Workers and the
Politics of Education. New
York: Peter Lang.
Percelli, V. (2005) Re-imagining research, re-presenting the
self: putting arts media to work
in the analysis and synthesis of data on ‘difference’ and
‘disability’, International
Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 18(1): 63–83.
Schwandt, T. and Halpern, E. (1988). Linking Auditing and
MetaEvaluation. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Winter, R., Buck, A. and Sobiechowska, P. (1999). Professional
Experience and the Creative
Imagination. London: Routledge.
Source: Hopkins, D. (2008). A Teacher’s Guide to Classroom
Research, 4th edition. © 2008. Reproduced with the kind
permission
of Open University Press. All rights reserved.
Figure 4.5: Matrix for objectives of dissemination strategy
planning
Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 305.
Awareness

Reception of basic message
Understanding
Acceptance
Adoption decision
Utilization/implementation
Integration
Routinization
Innovators:
those few with
special interest,
skill, motivation
Level of Diffusion and Use
Majority of
potential
audience
Size of audiences
Everyone
who might
be affected
Key persons:
gatekeepers,
leaders of

opinion
Awareness
Reception of basic message
Understanding
Acceptance
Adoption decision
Utilization/implementation
Integration
Routinization
Innovators:
those few with
special interest,
skill, motivation
Level of Diffusion and Use
Majority of
potential
audience
Size of audiences
Everyone
who might
be affected
Key persons:

gatekeepers,
leaders of
opinion
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 217 5/21/14 3:15 PM
http://www.bera.ac.uk
Summary
In this excerpt, Hopkins advocates for teacher-researchers to
share their research processes and
findings both within in and beyond their schools, to contribute
to a broader body of knowledge
on which teachers across the world can draw. The most
conventional form of sharing is through
research reports. Quoting Brooker and MacPherson (1999),
Hopkins concurs that because of the
poor quality of many teacher action research reports, they are
not useful beyond the immediate
context in which the research was conducted. First and
foremost, high-quality research reports
are based on high-quality research. If a project is unorganized,
if data collection is spotty, and if
data is inaccurate, it will be impossible to produce an excellent
report.
Effective research reports describe the project such that it can
be replicated. They present suf-
ficient evidence so that the reader finds claims and conclusions
logical and plausible. They are
also written in a way that is accessible to the chosen audience
and is likely to resonate with their

experiences. To do this effectively, teacher researchers must be
intentional about identifying
and writing in a way that will appeal to a target audience, such
as educational practitioners,
educational researchers, or policy makers. A researcher can
write multiple reports about single
research project, in various styles, for different audiences. For
example, one report may be writ-
ten for school staff and another for a practitioner magazine,
academic journal, or book chapter.
As described, research reports should have four major elements:
(a) the statement of intent,
(b) an explanation of the research procedures and processes, (c)
a description of the findings
and action steps, and (d) a discussion of the implications of the
research. Although researchers
want to present their work in the best possible light, reflections
about challenges and things that
could have been done better can help readers implement their
own projects. Hopkins advises
that research reports should be as succinct as possible, while
providing enough information
to show how the project was carried out and explain the logic of
how and why the researcher
arrived at particular conclusions and took certain actions.
Research findings can also be disseminated in more
unconventional forms, such as images, video,
fiction, poetry, performances, and websites. As Hopkins points
out, the Internet and other new
technologies provide opportunities for teachers to share their
research with others across the
globe. Regardless of format, practitioner-researchers should
ensure that presentations of their
projects are appropriate for and informative to their target

audiences.
1. Hopkins points out that many research reports written by
practitioners are not useful
to others in the field because they are not of high quality. He
also states that in order to
produce an effective research report, the project on which it is
based must be rigorous.
Why is this so? Considering the excerpts by Craig, Calhoun,
Robinson and Lai, and Stringer,
what can researchers do, at each stage of the process—problem
identification, data collec-
tion, and data analysis—to ensure that the project will be of
high quality? For example, if a
research team is conducting classroom observations to gather
information about student
engagement, what will be important to ensure that the data they
collect are accurate?
2. In addition to written reports, Hopkins mentions other forms
and venues through which to
report the processes and findings of action research projects. He
also points out the impor-
tance of ensuring that the mode of presentation is appropriate
for the target audience. Con-
sider, for example, Preble and Taylor’s study on school climate.
Creating a comic strip that
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 218 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Summary and Resources

depicts major findings from the study might be appropriate for
students but not for policy
makers. Although other teachers might be very interested in the
everyday details of how the
research project was carried out, district officials may be much
more interested in synopses
of the findings. Considering your own school or district or the
context in which you hope to
work, identify several potential audiences with whom teachers
might share their research.
What particular aspects of the research might be most
interesting to them? What presenta-
tion formats might appeal to them?
3. Hopkins outlines the sections of a conventional research
report, which include descriptions of
the study purpose and rationale, the procedures and processes of
the research, the findings
and action steps, and the broader implications and next steps.
There is a distinct logic to the
order of these sections. That is, they begin with an introduction
to the topic and the project,
and each section provides information that contextualizes and
helps the reader understand
the following sections. Review Hopkins’ outline of a research
paper and describe how each
section is related to the following section, in terms of helping
the reader understand the
research project and the claims made by the researcher. For
example, why would the reader
need to understand the concepts used in the study in order to
understand the outcomes of the
research?

Chapter Summary
• The goal of teacher action research is not merely producing
knowledge but solving
real-life problems. Action is an explicit component of action
research. Teachers and
other educational practitioners use action research as a strategy
for improving teach-
ing practice, student academic outcomes, and school climate.
Rather than seeking
generalizable knowledge, action researchers seek to understand
and to solve prob-
lems as they apply to the particular people and contexts they are
studying.
• To be most useful, action research must be carried out in a
systematic and rigorous
way. Planning an investigation into a topic with intent, then
gathering, organizing, and
evaluating information systematically distinguishes research
from informal inquiries
that teachers conduct daily. This more formal approach
increases the likelihood that
the problem under study will be well defined and the
information collected is accurate.
This, in turn, helps practitioner-researchers develop effective
strategies for addressing
the problem.
• In sharing their research with others, educational practitioners
can enhance profes-
sionalism and advance knowledge in the field. Engaging in
action research is a form
of professional development through which school staff can
deepen their knowledge
about the learning processes and gain research, problem-

solving, and analytic skills.
Collaborating with colleagues on research projects, they can
promote a culture of
inquiry and build professional learning communities focused
improving instructional
practice.
• It is important for action researchers to be aware of their
preconceived notions and
how they affect the research process. One factor that can
compromise the trustworthi-
ness of an action research project is researcher bias. If the
researcher makes assump-
tions about the nature of the problem based on incorrect or
incomplete information,
the research is likely to be based on a false premise.
Preconceived notions may cause a
researcher to overlook information that is important. Although
it is impossible (and,
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 219 5/21/14 3:15 PM
often, not advantageous) to completely eliminate one’s biases, it
is important for
researchers to be aware of their assumptions and their impact on
the research.
• Including students as co-researchers in action research can
help them learn valuable
skills and take ownership of their schooling experiences. Preble
and Taylor, in particu-
lar, discuss the value of including students as co-researchers in

the action research
process. In including them in research efforts, students can
become invested in solving
school-based problems and learn skills related to research,
problem solving, analytic
thinking, and collaboration. Working together towards a shared
goal can also
strengthen relationships between student and school staff.
Tying It All Together
This chapter described the utility of action research for teachers
and other school practitioners,
as compared with other forms of research. It also examined the
research process, giving exam-
ples of the process in action within several school contexts and
as related to different research
topics. Although practitioner-researchers implement a variety of
strategies for action research,
they all draw from core principles. First, their research is aimed
at improving a particular prob-
lem of practice in the context in which they work. Second, they
engage in the “ ‘look, think, act’
routine” (Stringer, 2007, p. 8). That is, they look more deeply at
the problem they seek to study;
they gather information that helps them to think about the
problem in a more complex way; and
they use what they have learned to intervene into the problem.
They re-engage in this process
multiple times in order to continually improve their
understandings and interventions.
With the current focus on the role of teachers in student
achievement, practitioner action
research is seen as one way to improve classroom instruction
and teacher professionalism. In
tying their understandings to previous chapters, it is important

for readers to consider how
action research might be used to address equity issues in
schools and to meet the needs of stu-
dents, particularly those at risk for academic failure. Looking
forward, readers should consider
the potential of action research in schools as a means for
fostering self-reflection and collabora-
tion among teachers and developing teacher leadership.
End of Chapter Critical Thinking Questions
1. As the excerpts suggest, action research can require
considerable time and energy.
Although more pre- and in-service teachers are being
encouraged to conduct class-
room-based action research, there is also growing emphasis on
preparing students
for standardized tests, which can draw teachers’ time and
attention away from more
innovative classroom practices. Particularly in low-performing
schools, where there is
intense focus on raising student state test scores, what
argument(s) would you make
to administrators and teachers in favor of conducting action
research? How can action
research augment rather than take away from teachers’ efforts to
increase student test
scores? What supports would teachers need to do this?
2. Stringer and Brighton point out that educational practitioners
often do not find con-
ventional research useful, because it focuses on the production
of generalized knowl-
edge rather than context-specific information and action. On the
other hand, some
university researchers feel that practitioners do not take

advantage of the plethora of
research available, which could provide them with valuable
insights into their everyday
classroom practices. This dichotomy is known as the “theory–
practice divide” in which
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 220 5/21/14 3:15 PM
theoretical knowledge developed by researchers does not affect
on-the-ground prac-
tices. Do you believe that the perception that practitioners are
unjustifiably dismissive
of academic research has any merit? Why or why not? How can
action research help
bridge the theory–practice divide?
3. Validity—an extremely important concept in research—refers
to the degree to which
claims made by the researcher(s) are logical and plausible.
Validity, in turn, depends on
the authenticity of the researcher’s understanding of the nature
of the problem under
study and the accuracy of the data collected. As Robinson and
Lai point out, researcher
bias can threaten the validity of a research project. In reviewing
the article by Preble
and Taylor, what evidence of bias do you see on the part of
school staff pertaining to
the issue of school climate? If staff members with those biases
had planned the study,
rather than Preble and Taylor, how might it have been different?
How might they have

defined the problem? What data might they have collected? Who
might they have
enlisted to collect data, and from whom? Whom might they have
charged with evaluat-
ing the data and devising strategies for intervention?
4. Stringer states that action research projects should “take into
account the social, cul-
tural, interactional, and emotional factors that affect all human
activity” (p. 9). Simi-
larly, Calhoun advises educational action researchers to collect
data in the academic,
social, and personal domains. Suppose a fourth-grade teacher is
conducting an action
research project in her classroom, guided by the question “How
can I help my students
improve their reading comprehension?” Explain how factors
related to culture, social
interactions, and emotions might be related to reading
comprehension skills and
how the teacher might go about learning more about those
relationships through the
research.
Further Reading
Blair, E. (2010). How does telling the truth help educational
action research? Educational
Action Research, 18(3), 349–358.
Brown, T. M., & Galeas, K. (2009). Confronting “limit
situations” in a youth/adult educational
research collaborative. The Sophist’s Bane (Spring), 7–13.
Brown, T. M., & Rodriguez, L. F. (Eds.). (2009). Youth in
participatory action research. San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bryant, J., & Bates, A. (2010). The power of student resistance
in action research: Teacher
educators respond to classroom challenges. Educational Action
Research, 18(3), 305–318.
Capobianco, B. M., & Feldman, A. (2006). Promoting quality
for teacher action research: Les-
sons learned from science teachers’ action research. Educational
Action Research, 14(4),
497–512.
Cammarota, J., & Fine, M. (2008). Youth participatory action
research: A pedagogy for trans-
formational resistance. In J. Cammarota & M. Fine (Eds.),
Revolutionizing education: Youth
participatory action research in motion (pp. 1–11). New York:
Routledge.
Cook-Sather, A. (2006). Sound, presence, and power: “Student
voice” in educational research
and reform. Curriculum Inquiry, 36(4), 359–390.
Feldman, A. (2007). Teachers, responsibility and action
research. Educational Action
Research, 15(2), 239–252.
Glassman, M., Erdem, G., & Bartholomew, M. (2013). Action
research and its history as an
adult education movement for social change. Adult Education
Quarterly, 63(3), 272–288.
Goble, G. A. (2007). Ethics, research, and reflection. In S. E.
Israel & C. Lassonde (Eds.), The
ethical educator: Integrating ethics within the context of

teaching and teacher research
(pp. 101–108). New York: Peter Lang.
bur81496_04_c04_157-224.indd 221 5/21/14 3:15 PM
Goodnough, K. (2011). Examining the long-term impact of
collaborative action research
on teacher identity and practice: The perceptions of K–12
teachers. Educational Action
Research, 19(1), 73–86.
Herr, K., & Anderson, G. L. (2005). The action research
dissertation: A guide for students and
faculty. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Honigsfeld, A., Connolly, M., & Kelly, S. (2012). Demystifying
teacher action research: Lessons
learned from a graduate education capstone experience. Delta
Kappa Gamma Bulletin,
79(2), 15–21.
Hoppey, D. (2013). Linking action research to response to
intervention (RtI): The strategy
implementation project. Networks: An On-line Journal for
Teacher Research, 15(1).
Lytle, S. L., Portnoy, D., Waff, D., & Buckley, M. (2009).
Teacher research in urban Philadel-
phia: Twenty years working within, against, and beyond the
system. Educational Action
Research, 17(1), 23–42.

Marquez-Zenkov, K., Harmon, J., van Lier, P., & Marquez-
Zenkov, M. (2007). If they’ll listen to
us about life, we’ll listen to them about school: Seeing city
students’ ideas about ‘quality’
teachers. Educational Action Research, 15(3), 403–415.
Mills, G. E. (2014). Action research: A guide for the teacher
researcher. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson.
McIntyre, A. (2000). Inner-city kids: Adolescents confront life
and violence in an urban com-
munity. New York: New York University Press.
McNiff, J. & Whitehead, J. (2006). All you need to know about
action research. London: Sage.
Morrell, E. (2008). Six summers of YPAR: Learning, action,
and change in urban education.
In J. Cammarota & M. Fine (Eds.), Revolutionizing education:
Youth participatory action
research in motion (pp. 155–184). New York: Routledge.
Preble, B., & Taylor, L. (2008). School climate through
students’ eyes. Educational Leadership,
66(4), 35–40.
Razfar, A. (2011). Action research in urban schools:
Empowerment, transformation, and
challenges. Teacher Education Quarterly, 38(4), 25–44.
O’Brien, R. (2001). Um exame da abordagem metodológica da
pesquisa ação [An overview
of the methodological approach of action research]. In Roberto
Richardson (Ed.), Teoria
e prática da pesquisa ação [Theory and practice of action

research]. João Pessoa, Brazil:
Universidade Federal da Paraíba. Available:
http://www.web.ca/~robrien/papers/
arfinal.html
Souto-Manning, M., & Mitchell, C. (2010). The role of action
research in fostering culturally-
responsive practices in a preschool classroom. Early Childhood
Education Journal, 37(4),
269–277.
Spaulding, D. T., & Falco, J. (2013). Action research for school
leaders. Boston, MA: Pearson.
Key Terms
action plan Strategy for intervening into
the problem under study.
action research Research conducted by
stakeholder(s) directly affected by the issue
or problem under study for the purpose of
improving practices and outcomes.
baseline data Data collected in the initial
stages of research to gain a basic under-
standing of and document the nature of the
phenomenon under study.
bias Any influence that alters or distorts the
results of a research study.
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http://www.web.ca/~robrien/papers/arfinal.html
http://www.web.ca/~robrien/papers/arfinal.html

data Information that will aid in answering
the research questions. Data can take many
different forms (e.g., observation notes, jour-
nal entries, student records).
data analysis The process of reviewing and
making judgments about the data in order
to draw conclusions about the topic under
study and to answer the research questions.
data collection The process of gathering
data that will aid in answering the research
questions.
emic A term used to refer to participant’s
own view of his or her world.
fate-control variables Indicators of stu-
dent behavior that are critical to their
learning, such as attendance, courses taken,
grades, and discipline referrals.
findings Final conclusions drawn from
research.
first-person research Research that
involves one person studying his or her own
practice or experiences.
generalizable Can be universally applied
or extended to large populations or a wide
variety of contexts.

instruments Tools used to collect and
record data, including interview and obser-
vation protocols, questionnaires, forms, and
logs.
interviews A form of data collection in
which the researcher asks questions of
research participants to gather information
about the topic under study.
literature review Review of sources (e.g.,
articles, books, prior studies) on a particular
topic. The purpose is to learn more about
what is known and not known about the
topic in order to inform a proposed research
project.
observations A form of data collection in
which the researcher observes a research
setting to gather information about the topic
under study.
patterns Evidence that is found in the data
findings, over and over, through the analysis
process.
phenomenon An observed or observable
fact, occurrence, or circumstance.
qualitative research Systematic inquiry
into phenomena that govern human behav-
ior. It investigates the why and how of
meaning making, not just what, where, and
when. Qualitative data can take many forms,
including words, images, and sounds.

quantitative data Systematic inquiry of
quantitative properties and phenomena and
their relationships. Quantitative data is in
the form of numbers.
reliability As pertaining to research, reli-
ability refers to degree to which information
(e.g., data) in a study is accurate.
validity As pertaining to research, validity
refers to the degree to which claims made
by the researchers are plausible. It is, in
part, contingent on the reliability of the data
collected.
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