3. Approaches and Design (2)_102521.pptx

DEFINITION-
Research Design
⚫ Research design is a plan of how,
when and where data are to be
collected and analyzed.
⚫ Research design is the research’s
overall plan for answering the
research questions or testing the
research hypotheses.
⚫ It is the master plan specifying the
methods and procedures for collecting
and analyzing the needed information
in a research study.

Elements
Of Research
Design
The approach
Method of
data
analysis
Population, sample
and sampling
technique
Tools and methods of
data collection
Times and place of
Data collection
Qualitative
Quantitativ
e Or Both
With/without a
conceptual frame
work
ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

⚫ The selection of a research design largely depends on the
nature of the research problem, the research available,
accessible of subjects, and research ethics.
SELECTION OF RESEARCH DESIGN

⚫ Nature of the research problem
⚫ Purpose of the study
⚫ Research’s knowledge and experience
⚫ Researcher’s interest and motivation
⚫ Research ethics and principles
⚫ Subjects/participants
⚫ Resources
⚫ Time
⚫ Possible control on extraneous variables
⚫ Users of the study findings
FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF RESEARCH DESIGN

There are two important criteria for evaluating the credibility and
dependability of the research results
1. Internal validity
2. External validity
VALIDITY OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Internal validity to refer to
the extent to which it is
possible to make an
inference that the
independent variable is truly
influencing the dependent
variable.
- Campbell and Stanley
(1963)
INTERNAL VALIDITY

THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY
1. History: The incidents occurs during the course of study besides the
experiment.
2. Maturation of subjects: Maturational change can affect the research when
the it is conducted for long period over a particular group of subjects. E.g.,
Height and weight.
3. Testing: Pre-test can sensitize the subjects hence likely to increase the
score regardless of the treatment/intervention. E.g., Structured teaching

THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY
4. Instrumentation change: Different instruments at different point of time
shows different data. E.g., Thermometer
5. Mortality: Drop out of subjects during the course of study. E.g., Death,
Diseases, Migration
6. Selection bias: Loses equivalency when there is no randomization
E.g., 2 different classes 2 different lecture methods

Instrumentation
Selection Bias

• External validity explores
the generalization of study
findings to a larger
population
• To check if the result and
finding come out to be
same with other setting or
with other subject
population, but related
variables.
EXTERNAL VALIDITY

THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY
1. Hawthorne effect: Subjects are aware of them being observed. e.g. Infection control
audit
2. Experimenter Effect: Researcher’s characteristics influences the subject. E.g. Gender
3. Reactive effect of pre test: Sensitization towards intervention
4. Novelty effect: Differently behaves towards new intervention.
5. People: Generalization about the subjects e.g. All states in India have high literacy rate.
6. Time: Findings change as time changes. Generalizations cannot be made.

1. Quantitative Research Design 2. Qualitative Research Design
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

DEFINITION
1. “Quantitative research is a systematic
investigation of phenomena by gathering
quantifiable data and performing statistical,
mathematical, or computational techniques. ”
2. “Quantitative research is the methodology
which researchers use to test theories about
people’s attitudes and behaviours based on
numerical and statistical evidence. ”

Quantitative research
process……

1.
Formulatio
n of
research
problem
2.
Determining
Study
objectives
3.
Review
of
literatur
e
4.
Developin
g
conceptua
l
framewor
k
5.
Formulatin
g
hypothesis/
assumption
s
6.
Selectin
g
Researc
h
approac
h
7.
Specifying
the
population
8.
Developin
g tools for
data
collection
9.
Establishing
ethical
consideratio
ns
10.
Conducting
pilot study
11.
Sample
selectio
n
12. Data
collection
13.
Preparin
g for data
analysis
14. Analysis
and
interpretatio
n of data
15.
Disseminatin
g research
findings

1. Experimental Research Design
2. Non Experimental Research
Design
3. Other Additional Research
Design
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

According to Riley, experimental research design is a powerful design
for testing hypotheses of causal relationship among variables.
1. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

• Observation under controlled conditions
• The researcher is an active agent
• Manipulation of independent variable
• Principles of manipulation, control and randomization
• Difficult to conduct in natural settings
• Not feasible in nursing ( Most nursing studies are non experimental / Quasi
experimental)
• Testing hypothesis/ Casual relationship between variables
E.g. A study to assess the effect of smoking on lung cancer

A. TRUE
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
True experimental research
designs are those where
researchers have complete
control over the extraneous
variables and can predict
confidently that the observed
effect on the dependable
variable is only due to the
manipulation of the
independent variable.

Randomized controlled trials(RCT)
• Random allocation into intervention groups with equal chance
• Experimental group/ Control group
• Cause- effect relationship
• Experiment, Comparative and Quantitative
• Standard Care/ Alternatives vs Experiment/Intervention
• Scientifically rigorous method of testing hypothesis

Population
Sample
Experimental
group
Control
group
randomization
Outcome
measurement
Outcome
measurement

ESSENTAIL CHARACTERISTICS
 Manipulation
 Control
 Randomization
 Blinding/
Masking

1. Manipulation
• Refers to conscious control of the independent variable by the researcher through
treatment or intervention(s) to observe its effect on dependent variable.
• A conscious act by the researcher, where he/ she varies the independent variable
and observes the effect that manipulation has on the dependent variable of
interest.
• For example, a researcher is conducting a study on the efficacy of chlorhexidine
mouthwash on the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) among
patients admitted in ICUs. In this example, chlorhexidine mouthwash is the
independent variable, which is manipulated by the researcher and is used as an
intervention for the experimental group, while the control group is kept deprived
of it to observe its effect on the incidence of VAP.

2. Control
• Refers to the use of control group for comparison.
• The control and experimental groups are generally similar in numbers and
characteristics, experimental group receives the planned treatment or
intervention, and a comparison is made with the control group to observe the
effect of this treatment or intervention,

a. An alternative intervention:
It is also known as positive control, where subjects in control group receive other
treatment or intervention, which may be already tested to be effective. For example, a
researcher is conducting a study on effectiveness of povidone iodine versus hydrogen
peroxide in prevention of pin site infection among patients with external skeletal fixators.
b. Standard method of care:
This is the most commonly used control in nursing studies, where researchers use existing
intervention in the control group. For example, a researcher wanted to assess the
effectiveness of closed endotracheal/tracheostomy suctioning technique, where existing
open suctioning method is used as a standard control.

c. A placebo or pseudo-intervention presumed to have no therapeutic value:
It is also known as a clear control in which a placebo is used in control group. Placebo is
a commonly used control in biomedical studies to assess the efficacy of drugs. However,
it is not conveniently used in nursing studies because it is very difficult to design a
pseudo nursing intervention,
d. Different doses or intensities of intervention/treatment:
In dose-response effect studies, experimental group participants receive richer and more
intensive and longer intervention compared to control group to test whether larger
doses are associated with larger benefits or smaller doses will suffice for the purpose.

e. Wait-list control group:
The participants in control group are delayed with treatment till the effect of
intervention is compared between experimental and wait-list control group. However,
eventually every subject in study receives the treatment.

2. Randomization
• To ensure to ensure internal validity in the true experimental research/RCT.
• Randomization is a process of random allocation of subjects in experimental and
control groups or two different experimental groups.
• Every subject has an equal chance of being assigned to experimental or control
group. (this is also known as random assignment of subjects)
• Eliminates the chances of selection bias in the study.
• Makes experimental and control groups homogenous and as balanced as
possible.
• Minimize the threat of internal validity of the study and to eliminate the effect of
extraneous variables on dependent variables.
confused with random
sampling techniques

TYPES OF RAMDOMIZATION
a) Simple Randomization
b) Block Randomization
c) Stratified Randomization
d) Covariate Adaptive Randomization

a. Simple Randomization
It is a simple and convenient method of randomization.
It can be carried out using following techniques:
a) Flip of a coin for each subject: If the coin lands on its
'head', subjects are assigned to first group/experiential
arm and with 'tail' subjects are assigned to second
experimental arm/placebo/control group.
b)Shuffled deck of cards: If even number appears,
subjects are assigned to treatment group and in case of
odd number, subjects are assigned to control group.

c) Throwing a dice: If number comes below and equal to 3,
subjects will be assigned to experiential group and if dice
number comes above 3, subjects are assigned to control
group.
d) A random table or a computer-generated random table:
(http://www.randomizer.org/form.htm) may be used to
facilitate the randomization process. In this method, blind-
folded subjects choose a number from a table of numbers
horizontally (row) or vertically (columns) till a requisite
number is reached for both experimental and control
groups.

b. Block Randomization
• An alternative randomization technique to eliminate the chances of bias and ensure
the balance in location of equal number of subjects to each arm of trial.
• However, a weakness of block randomization is that the allocation of subjects may be
predictable and could result in selection bias, if the investigator is not blinded and
block size is fixed. The block size is determined as multiple of the number of groups.

Example: Consider two treatments arms: A and B. In this instance, the block size could
be 2 x 2 =4.
Some of the probable allocations for treatment within every block are as follows:
(1) AABB, (2) BBAA, (3) ABAB, (4) BABA, (5) ABBA and (6) BAAB.
The block size depends on the total number of treatments. The block size should be at
least x2 of the number of treatments. The chances of selection bias may be minimized
by using the random block sizes. The block randomization may also be computed using
free website source such as
https://www.sealedenvelope.com/simple-randomiser/v1/lists.

c. Stratified Randomization
Step 1: Identify specific confounders which may unnecessarily influence the dependent
variable(s). For example, age and gender could be cofounders and may affect the outcome
of an intervention.
Step 2 :Separate strata are generated as per identified covariates/ combination of covariates
and thereafter participants are assigned to each of their respective strata of covariate.
For example, age and gender may affect the recovery of a rehabilitation intervention among
total knee replacement (TKR) patients. Thus, patients are first assigned into these following
strata, that is (i) males <60 years, (ii) males >60 years, (iii) females <60years and (iv) females
>60 years.

Step 3 : After all participants are identified and assigned to respective strata, simple
randomization is used to assign the participants to experimental and control groups from
each block/ strata.
In small size trials, it is a simple and useful technique to ensure homogeneity of participants
in experimental and control groups, but it is not convenient when several covariates need
to be controlled in a trial.

d. Covariate Adaptive Randomization
• Also known minimization, which is used as an alternative method of randomization to
effectively control the covariates in arms of clinical trials, where stratified
randomization is not practically possible to use.
• In this method, every new patient is assigned to an arm of the experiment based on
specific baseline characteristics of subject and previously assigned participants in the
different arms of the trial.

4. Blinding/Masking
• Methods that help to ensure that individuals do not know which treatment or
intervention is being administered in a trial.
Levels
unknown
Individuals who
administer the
treatment
Research
participant
Individuals who
assess the outcome

Types of Blinding/Masking
1. Open trial: Everyone knows
2. Single- blind trial: Only Researcher knows
3. Double-blind trial: Neither the research participants nor the person who
administer the intervention know
4. Triple-blind: Participants, Investigator who administer the treatment and
investigator who measures the outcome are blinded

Post-test
Only
Pre-test Post-
Test Only
Solomon
4 group Factorial
Randomized
Block
Crossover
TRUE
EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGN
2 P’s
Random Solo
Cross Fact

EXP.GROU
P
TREATMEN
T
POST-
TEST
CONTROL
GROUP
POST-TEST
I. Post Test Only Control Design
Random
Assignment

Example
In 1993, Tops and Davis used a post-test-only control group design to
examine if CCU (Critical Care Unit) noise affects REM (Rapid Eye
Movement) sleep.
So, they randomly assigned 70 women with no hearing or sleeping
problems to attempt to sleep in one of the following conditions:
• Noisy environment (the subjects listened to an audiotape recording of
CCU sounds): treatment/ experimental group
• Quiet environment: control group
• Their results showed that CCU sounds can cause poorer REM sleep.

EXP.GROU
P
POST- TEST
TREATMEN
T
CONTROL GROUP
PRE
TEST
POST- TEST
ii. Pre Test Post Test Only Design
PRE TEST
PRE TEST
Random
Assignment

Example
A teacher splits randomly assigns half of her class to a
control group and the other half to a treatment group. She
then uses a standard teaching technique and a new teaching
technique with each group respectively for one week and
then administers a post-test of similar difficulty to all
students.

TREATMEN
T
POST- TEST
POST- TEST
EXP.GROUP.
2
TREATMEN
T
EXP.GROUP.
1
POST- TEST
POST- TEST
iii. Solomon Four Group Design
CONTROL
GROUP.1
Random
Assignment
CONTROL
GROUP.2
PRE
TEST
PRE TEST

Example
• Solomon four-group design was used in order to control any pretest
sensitization.
• The pretest and post- test measured the anxiety score by using a
standardized questionnaire.
• The intervention used was a VR (Virtual Reality) technique that
simulates step-by-step going into an operation room.
• Results- The study concluded that VR technology reduced pre-operative
anxiety in children by acting as a distraction method.

iv. Factorial Design
Manipulation of two or more variables

v. Randomized Block Design
Type of
Antihypertensi
ve Drugs
Block
Patients with
Primary
Hypertension
Diabetic
patients with
Hypertension
Renal patients
Hypertension
(I) (II)
(III)
A A,I A,II A,III
B B,I B,II B,III
C C,I C,II C,III

• As part of a randomized block experiment, a researcher tests the
effect of three teaching methods on student performance. The
researcher selects subjects randomly from a student population. The
researcher assigns subjects to six blocks of three, such that students
within the same block have the same (or similar) IQ. Within each
block, each student is randomly assigned to a different teaching
method.
• At the end of the term, the researcher collects one test score (the
dependent variable) from each subject.

Groups Protocols of the mouth care
Group1 Chlorhexidine(a1) Saline(a2)
Group2 Saline(a2) Chlorhexidine(a1)
vi. Cross Over Design

• A crossover design is a repeated measurements design such that each
experimental unit (patient) receives different treatments during the
different time periods, i.e., the patients cross over from one treatment
to another during the course of the trial. This is in contrast to a
parallel design in which patients are randomized to a treatment and
remain on that treatment throughout the duration of the trial.
• The reason to consider a crossover design when planning a clinical
trial is that it could yield a more efficient comparison of treatments

 Most powerful design.
 To establish the causal relationship between
independent and dependent variables.
 The purpose of research is explanation, causal
relationship may be established among the variables
by experimentation.
 In these studies the controlled environment in which the
study is conducted can yield a greater degree of purity in
observation.
 A short period of time that may take years to occur naturally.
ADVANTAGES TRUE EXP. DESIGN

 Experimental research designs cannot be replicated in
studies conducted on human being due to ethical
problems.
 Many of the human variables neither have valid
measurable criteria nor instrumental to measure them.
 In experimental studies conducted in natural setting
like hospitals or community, it is not possible to impose
control over extraneous variables.
 It is very difficult to get cooperation from the study
DISADVANTAGES/LIMITATIONS

It involves the manipulation of independent variable to observe
the effect on dependent variable.
B. QUASI EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

MAIN CHARARCTERISTCS
•Lack of at least one of the two
other essential characteristics of
the true experiment.
•Quasi- independent variables are
used instead of true independent
variables.

1. Non randomized control group design
EXP.GROUP PRE
TEST
TREATMEN
T
POST-
TEST
CONTROL
GROUP PRE TEST POST-TEST
TYPES

Example
An experimental study in which people are allocated to different
interventions using methods that are not random.
• Researchers investigated whether a low cost public campaign by local
health authorities reduced antibiotic prescribing for outpatients.
• The intervention was multifaceted and included posters, brochures, and
advertisements on local media, plus a newsletter on local antibiotic
resistance targeted at doctors and pharmacists. The campaign focused
primarily on the prescription of antibiotics for upper respiratory tract
infections.

• Experimental group- Northern Italy (about 1 150 000 residents) The
intervention was done between November 2011 and February 2012.
• Control Group- The campaign was not implemented, with no information
provided to doctors and pharmacists (about 3 250 000 residents).
• The primary outcome- Change in prescribing rates of antibiotics for
outpatients over five months
• The researchers reported that a low cost community based public
campaign targeted at residents, combined with a newsletter on local
antibiotic resistance for doctors and pharmacists, was associated with a
significantly decreased total rate of antibiotic prescribing.

EXP.GROUP O1 O2 O3 TREATMENT
O1
O2
O
3
2. Time Series Design

Example
• A time series is a set of measurements taken at intervals
over a period of time. For example, a manufacturing
company might measure its workers’ productivity each
week for a year.

O4
O
3
O2
O3
O2
EXP.GROUP O1 TREATMENT
O
1
O2
O3
3. Time Series Non- Equivalent Control Group Design
CONTROL GROUP
O
1
O
5
O
1
O6
O
1
O4 O5 O6

O4
O
3
O2
O
1
EXP.GROUP O
1
3. Time Series With Withdrawn and Reinstitution
Treatment Design
O
5
O
1
O6
O
1
O7 O8
TREATMENT
WITHDRAW
N
TREATMENT
REINSTITUTED
TREATMEN
T

3. Non- Equivalent Control Group Post Test Only Design

⚫They are more practical and feasible to conduct
research studies in nursing.
⚫In the absence of a large sample size, randomization
and/or availability of control group are not always
possible.
⚫It may be able to establish causal relationship,
wherein some of the hypotheses are practically
answered through this design only.
ADVANTAGES OF QUASI EXP. DESIGN

⚫There is no control over extraneous variables
influencing the dependent variables.
⚫The absence of a control group or a lack of control over
the research setting makes the result of this design less
reliable and weak for the establishment of casual
relationship between independent and dependent
variables.
DISADVANTAGES/ LIMITATIONS

This research design is considered very weak,
because the research has very little control over
the experiment.
C. PRE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

1. One Shot Case Design;
EXP.GROU
P
TREATMENT POST-TEST
2. One- group pre test- post test
design;
EXP.GROU
P
TREATMENT POST- TEST
PRE
TEST
TYPES

• One-shot case study design
A single group is studied at a single point in time after some treatment that is
presumed to have caused change. The carefully studied single instance is
compared to general expectations of what the case would have looked like had
the treatment not occurred and to other events casually observed. No control or
comparison group is employed.
• One-group pre test – post test design
A single case is observed at two time points, one before the treatment and one
after the treatment. Changes in the outcome of interest are presumed to be the
result of the intervention or treatment. No control or comparison group is
employed.

⚫Very simple and convenient to conduct these
studies in natural setting, especially in
nursing.
⚫Most suitable design for the beginners in the
field of experimental research.
ADVANTAGES OF PRE EXP. DESIGN

⚫It has very little control over the
research.
⚫It has a higher threat to internal
validity of research .
DISADVANTAGES/ LIMITATIONS

It is one of the broad categories of research designs, in which the
research observes the phenomena as they occur naturally, and no
external variables are introduced.
NON EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

⚫ The independent variables cannot be manipulated.
⚫ It is unethical to manipulate the independent variable.
⚫ The research situations where it is not practically possible to conduct
experiments.
⚫ Descriptive-type studies that do not require any experimental
approaches.
NEEDS OF NON EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

1. Descriptive design
 Univariant descriptive design
 Exploratory descriptive design
 Comparative descriptive design
2. Correlation/ex-post facto design
 Prospective design
 Retrospective design
TYPES

3. Developmental research
design
 Cross-sectional design
 Longitudinal design
4. Epidemiological designs
 Case- control studies
 Cohort studies
5. Survey research design
TYPES

It is used to observe, describe, and document
aspect of a situation as it naturally occurs, and
sometimes to serve as a starting point for
hypothesis generation or theory development.
1. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

⚫Used to observe, document, and describe a
phenomenon occurring in natural setting.
⚫To gain more information about characteristics
within a particular field of inquiry.
⚫Used to develop theories, identify problems with
current practice, make judgements, or determine
other practices in similar situations.
MAIN FEATURES

⚫Univariate descriptive design are undertaken to describe the
frequency of a phenomenon.
⚫This design does not focus on the study of a single variable;
there may be one or more variables involved in the study.
A. Univariate Descriptive Design

Example
Descriptive study on Resilience building strategies among
parents of children diagnosed with cancer in a metropolitan
city.

It is used to identify, explore , and describe
existing phenomenon and its related factors.
B. Exploratory Design

Example
An Exploratory Study On Challenges Faced By ESRD Patients
On Maintenance Hemodialysis Patients During Covid 19
Pandemic.

It involves comparing and contrasting two or more
sample of study subject on one or more variables
often at a single point of time.
C. Comparative Study

Example
• A Comparative Study Of Glucose Levels In Blood And Saliva
Of Type 2 Diabetes Patients In India.

This is a non experimental design, where
researcher examines the relationship between
two or more variables in a natural setting with
out manipulation of control.
2. CORRELATIONAL DESIGN

⚫ The researcher find the strength of
relationship between the variables.
⚫ Generally it has independent and dependent
variables effect of independent variable is observe
with out manipulating the dependent variable.
⚫ Some times identification of dependent and
independent variable.
⚫ It can be found by using correlation
coefficient
MAIN FEATURES

Here the researcher relates the present to the
future is a prospective research design.
A. Prospective Design
B. Retrospective Design
Here the researcher studies the current
phenomenon by seeking information from past.

Example
• Prospective Design- A Prospective Study Of Alzheimer's
Disease In Down Syndrome
• Retrospective Design – A Retrospective Study Of The
Clinical Characteristics Of Asymptomatic Covid 19 Patients

Example
Correlational Study On Emotional Intelligence And Academic
Performance Of Nursing Students In Selected Nursing
Colleges , Kollam

⚫It examines the phenomenon with reference to
time.
3. DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

A. Cross Sectional Design
In which researcher collect data at particular time (one period of data
collection) it is more convenient.
e.g.: A cross sectional study to identify the determinants of non
communicable diseases among fishermen in Southern India.
Cross-sectional study was conducted among 681 fishermen aged 18 years
and above as per the semi-structured interview schedule for two years
(2017–2019)

B. Longitudinal Design
Here the data collect at long time( long time study).
It has three types;
i. Trend studies- E.g.: Attitude of High school principals towards used of
flexible scheduling
ii. Panel studies - E.g.: Effectiveness of advertisement campaign (panels/
Focussed group discussions
iii. Follow-up studies- E.g.: A follow-up study on patients received new type of
therapy aimed at treating depression

⚫It involves investigate the distribution and causes of the diseases in
population.
⚫The prospective studies are know as cohort study and retrospective
studies are know as case- control studies.
4. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DESIGN

A. Cohort studies
Here the longitudinal approach is used to investigate the diseases and
causes.
TYPES

B. Case control studies
In this design, causes of a disease are investigated after the occurrence
of a disease.

Example
• Cohort study: Prospective cohort study on long term of effectiveness of
varicella vaccine
• "A total of 7585 children vaccinated with varicella vaccine in their second
year of life in 1995 were followed up prospectively for breakthrough
varicella and herpes zoster (HZ) through 2009. A total of 2826 of these
children received a second dose in 2006-2009. Incidences of varicella and
HZ were estimated and compared with prevaccine era rates."

Example
• Case control study: A case control study to evaluate the association
between diabetes mellitus and periodontal disease among adults.

If the survey is conducted on a sample of population, it is called sample
survey.
If the entire population is involved, it is called a population survey such
as censuses, etc.
5. SURVEY DESIGN

Depending on the nature of phenomenon under study.
 Descriptive survey
 Exploratory survey
 Comparative survey
 Correlational survey
Based on methods of data collection.
 Written
 Oral
 Electronic
TYPES OF SURVEY

Example
A Descriptive Study On Prevalence And Factors Contributing
To Musculoskeletal Disorders Among Nurses Working In
Critical Care Units

Advantages
⚫It is a convenient method.
⚫Suitable for nursing
research.
⚫It is simple.
⚫Low cost compare to
experiment.
⚫The relationship between
variables finding is never
clear.
⚫It has more error
⚫Non randomized method will
resulting in error.
Disadvantages
NON EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Methodological studies Develop tests and evaluate research instruments and
methods
2. Meta –analysis Combining and integrating findings of multiple research
studies on atopic
3. Secondary data analysis Data collected in one research is re- analysed by another
researcher
4. Outcome research Observation and assessment of care practices and system
in place.
5. Evaluation studies
Success of programmes , practices, procedures or policies
6. Operational research Study of human organizations and services to develop new
knowledge about programmes and policies
7. Clinical trials Safety and efficacy of new drugs and devices
8. Ecological studies Compares measurements in groups by using secondary
data from published surveys, registry census etc.

ASSIGNMENT- Worksheet
Advantages and Disadvantages/ Limitations of
Quantitative Research Design

RESAERCH DESIGN ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES/
LIMITATIONS
A. Experimental design
1. True experimental
design
2. Quasi Experimental
Design
3. Pre experimental

DEFINITION
• A systematic subjective approach used to describe life experiences and give them
meaning
• According to Creswell (2012), qualitative research is a means for exploring and
understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social human
problem.
• Qualitative research is rooted in the social sciences and is concerned with people
and their social realities, with how the social world is understood, experienced,
interpreted, and constituted; with individual and collective meanings,
interpretations, practices/behaviours, and social processes. ( Bryman, 2004),

IMPORTANCE
Clarifies how nursing sciences are evolved
To study social and cultural phenomenon
Inductive approach to discover and expand knowledge.
Exploring facts and developing concepts

CHARACTERISTIRCS
• Emerge as study advances
• Flexible and elastic
• Data Triangulation
• Holistic
• Intense researcher involvement
• Ongoing data analysis

TYPES
Phenomenological
Ethnographic
Grounded theory
Historical
Action
Case study

PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Phenomenology is a movement in philosophy that has been adapted by
certain sociologists to raise an understanding of the relationship between
states of individual consciousness and social life. As an approach within
sociology, phenomenology attempts to uncover how human awareness is
implicated in the production of social action, social situation and social
world.

EXAMPLE
• A phenomenological study on lived experiences of tsunami
victims in selected villages of Tamil Nadu
• A phenomenological study on psychological experiences of
the victims of Bhopal gas tragedy in Bhopal, Madhya
Pradesh.

The aim of phenomenological approach to qualitative research is to trace
out precisely the lived experiences of people and generate theories or models
of phenomena being studied.

Phenomenology is an approach to philosophy that begins with an
exploration of a phenomenon (what presenting itself to us in conscious
experience), logical, ontological, and metaphysical spirit that is behind
phenomenon. This is called as a "dialectical phenomenology"- GWF Hegel.
Phenomenology is an approach to philosophy that takes the perceptive
experience of phenomenon (what present itself to us in phenomenological
reflection) as its origin and attempts to distillate from it the main traits of
experiences and the essence of what we experience- Edmun Husserl.

Hussel’s View
Approach to
philosophical
context
Intuitive
experience of
phenomenon
among people
Features of
experience
Essence of
what is
experienced

Details the structure of experiences as they present
themselves to awareness, without recourse to assumptions,
theory or deduction from other methods.

CHARACTERISTICS
• Phenomenological research design is descriptive. The researcher aims to
describe as accurately as possible the structure of a phenomenon.
• Qualitative phenomenological research design aims to uncover what a
particular experience means to a group of people and how they experienced
it.
• This approach requires researchers to set aside their prejudices and a prior
assumptions and focus mainly on the immediate experience.
• It requires the researcher to first describe the lived experiences objectively
and then reflect on the description with reference to the existing theories

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Conversations with participants
Analysis of personal text
Participant
observation
Interviews
Action research
Focus meeting

TYPES OF PHENOMENOOGICAL DESIGN
1. Realistic phenomenological research: It focuses on gathering the universal abstract
of various types of information, including human actions, motives and results.
2. Constitutive phenomenological research: This includes the philosophy of natural
sciences. This procedure entangles suspending acceptance of the pre-given position of
conscious life as something that exists in the world, and is carried out to obtain an
ultimate intersubjective grounding for the world and the positive sciences of it. For
example, social beliefs, positions and practices.

TYPES OF PHENOMENOOGICAL DESIGN
3. Existential phenomenological research: This is concerned with topics, such
as actions, conflicts, desires, finitude, oppression and death.
4. Hermeneutical phenomenological research: It utilizes vital experiences as a
device for better consideration of the political, social, cultural or historical
aspect in which those experiences happen. Hermeneutic enquiry almost always
concentrates on interpretation and meaning: how historically and socially
conditioned individuals portray their world within a given context.

There is no clear-cut way to carry out a phenomenological inquiry. However, research
involving phenomenological design often follow this pattern:
Identification of
the phenomenon
Development of a
detailed
description of the
phenomenon
Bracketing
personal
prejudices and a
prior
assumptions
Collection of data
from the
participants
Data analysis
Development of a
composite
description of the
phenomenon
Presentation the
description
PROCEDURES INVOLVED IN
PHENOMENOLOGICAL DESIGN

Note submission
Q&A session

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
Concentrates on the sociology of meaning through close field
observation of socio-cultural phenomena. Basically, the ethnographer
checks on a community.

• Ethnographic research is a method of conducting enquiry of a life process by
studying individuals, artefacts or documents in their natural setting. It
includes both anthropology and historical forms of research. In healthcare
research, ethnography provides access to health beliefs and healthcare
practices in particular cultural or subcultural group. Therefore,
ethnographic enquiry facilitates understanding about cultural behaviour
and practices affecting health of people.

CHARACTERITSICS
• Ethnographers learn about cultural groups in which they are interested through
the extensive fieldwork.
• Ethnographic research is a labour-intensive and time-consuming endeavour, where
even months or years of fieldwork can be involved.
• A certain level of intimacy with cultural group members is required to study
culture. Intimacy can develop overtime and by working together directly with
those cultural group members who are active participants.
• Researchers use themselves as instruments in these ethnography studies, where
they spend time with group members to collect data through informal interactions
and observations rather than using a formal tool for data collection.

CHARACTERITSICS
• Information on three major aspects of cultural life is sought in the
ethnography studies:
i. Cultural behaviour(what members of culture do)
ii. Cultural artefacts (what members of the culture make and use)
iii. Cultural speech (what people in cultural group say).
• Ethnographers rely on various sources of data collection such as in-depth
interviews, record analyses and observation of physical evidence
(photographs, diaries, letters, etc.).

Example
An ethnographic or ethno-nursing study focusing on blood
donation beliefs of women living in rural areas of district
Imphal-East, Manipur.

GROUNDED THEORY
• Theory is developed inductively from a corpus of data gathered by a
participant-observer.
Grounded Theory consists of systematic guidelines for gathering,
synthesizing, analysing and conceptualizing qualitative data to construct
theory- Charmaz, 2001
• Its an inductive approach to inquiry to develop and explain the
framework of a phenomenon.

CHARACTERISTIS
oSimultaneous involvement of data collection and analysis
oDeveloping analytic codes and categories from data not from preconceived
hypothesis
oConstructing theories to understand and explain behaviour
oMemo writing and Making analytic notes to explicate and fill out categories
oMaking comparisons between data and data, data and concept, concept and
concept

GOAL OF GROUNDED THERY
To construct theory from data:
The aim is to produce theories that are truly grounded in the
data, theories that do not depend upon external concepts
that are brought to the data by the researcher. Hence, The
most important basic rule for a grounded theorist is study
your emerging data(Glaser, 1978; 1992)

PHASES
1. Data collection
2. Note taking
3. Initial coding and focussed coding
4. Making conceptual categories
5. Memo writing
6. Sorting and theoretical sampling
7. Writing the draft

TYPES OF GROUNDED THEORY
• Substantive theory: It is grounded in data on a specific substantive area,
such as postpartum depression.
• Formal theory: Substantive theory serves as a spring board for developing
a higher, more abstract level of theory from a complicated substantive
grounded theory study regarding a particular phenomenon. Kearney (1998)
used an interesting analogy to differentiate substantive theory (custom-
tailored clothing) and formal theory (ready-to wear clothing).

Example
• Grounded Theory Is Used By Marketing Departments By Letting
Marketing Executives Express Their Views On How To Improve Their
Product Or Service In A Structured Way
• Grounded Theory Is Often Used By The HR Department. For Instance,
They Might Study Why Employees Are Frustrated By Their Work.
Employees Can Explain What They Feel Is Lacking. HR Then Gathers This
Data, Examines The Results To Discover The Root Cause Of Their
Problems And Presents Solutions

HISTORICAL
Systematic accumulation and objective
measurement of data relating to earlier
occurrences to measure hypotheses pertaining
to causes, effects or trends of these events
which might facilitate in explaining present
events and anticipate future events.
E.g.: A study to identify the pre arrest
physiological changes in patients undergone
cardiopulmonary resuscitation with a view to
identify the factors that affected resuscitation
outcome.

ACTION RSEARCH
Action research is a form of applied research
that tries to empower people through a
process that constructs and uses knowledge. It
tries to find practical solutions to problems
existing in the framework of an organization.
It increases understanding of how change in
one's actions or practices can mutually benefit
nurses within an organization.
E.g. An action research to identify competitive
strategies to improve the performance of
hospitals in a competitive environment

CASE STUDY
Trying to concentrate on a phenomenon by checking in depth an
individual case example. The case can be a group, an individual, an event
or an institution.
E.g. A case study on Covid 19 outbreak in Indian market and its impact on
food supply chain

Qualitative Research
Process……

Identifying
the area
research
problem
Formulating
broad study
objectives
Review of
Literature
Entry in
Research
setting
Selecting
research
design/appro
ach
Select a
small sample
Establishing
ethical
consideratio
ns
Planning
tools for data
collection
Collecting
data
Organizing
data for
analysis
Analysis and
interpretatio
n of data
Disseminatin
g research
findings

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ADVANTAGES
1. It becomes possible to understand attitudes.
2. It is a content generator.
3. It saves money.
4. It can provide insights that are specific to an industry.
5. It allows creativity to be a driving force.
6. It is a process that is always open-ended.

7. It incorporates the human experience.
8. It has flexibility.
9. It offers predictive qualities.
10. It allows for human instinct to play a role.
11. It can be based on available data, incoming data, or other data
formats.
12. It allows for detail-orientated data to be collected.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DISADVANTAGES
1. It is not a statistically representative form of data collection.
2. It relies upon the experience of the researcher.
3. It can lose data.
4. It may require multiple sessions.
5. It can be difficult to replicate results.
6. It can create misleading conclusions.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DISADVANTAGES
7. It can be influenced by researcher bias.
8. It may not be accepted.
9. It creates data that is difficult to present.
10. It creates data with questionable value.
11. It can be time consuming.
12. It has no rigidity.
13. It lessens the value of data mining.

MIXED APPROACH
Nursing research deals with several complex phenomena, which cannot be
answered completely by quantitative or qualitative research methods alone.
Therefore, increasing use of mixed method research has been observed in
nursing research.
Mixed method research is either a concurrently or sequentially merged
approach of data collection, analysis and interpretation using both
quantitative and qualitative methods to understand a research question more
comprehensively.

MIXED APPROACH
“Mixed method research is an integrated approach to answer a
research question, where quantitative and qualitative research methods
are mixed at data collection, data analysis and data interpretation to
obtain better understanding of phenomenon and to provide a complete
answer to a research question than either approach alone’.”

USES
• In mixed method research, quantitative and qualitative research act as
supplementary and complimentary to each other for overcoming the weakness of one
by using other in combination.
• Mixed method researches are helpful in enhancing comprehensiveness and
completeness of a study results.
• Mixed method research provides better understanding and explanation for
unexpected study results generated with quantitative and qualitative method alone.
• Mixed method research also helps in instrument and taxonomy / theory development.
• Mixed method research improves the credibility and usefulness of the data.

ADVANTAGES
• Qualitative data are helpful in understanding the quantitative data more
clearly.
• Encompasses the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative research
designs, thus evidence generated have higher validity and acceptability.
• An unexplained data generated through quantitative data can be further
examined through subsequent qualitative data in mixed method research.
• Contributes for instrument and taxonomy / theory / classification
development, which is a need of nursing discipline more than any other
discipline.

ADVANTAGES
• Effectively plan an intervention, improve recruitment process, examine
intervention process and understand the participants' experience with
intervention.
• To understand how much a naturally occurring independent variable is
affecting dependent variable but also helps to understand reason of this
effect.
• Provides stronger evidence through corroboration and convergence of
results.

LIMITATIONS/DISADVANTAGES
• Time-consuming and more expensive process.
• It is difficult for one researcher to handle both quantitative and
qualitative data collection and data analysis in a single study.
• Limited knowledge and expertise to use different mixed method designs
among nurse researchers.
• Difficulty in obtaining ethical permissions because of tentative plan of
qualitative phase in the absence of exact details of study objectives and
participants for qualitative phase until the quantitative phase is
completed.

LIMITATIONS/DISADVANTAGES
• Mixed method research designs are still evolving, and there is a lack
of consensus in terminologies and classification of mixed method
research designs, which creates confusion among researchers.
• Problem of mixing paradigm, effective transformation of qualitative
data in quantitative form and interpretation of conflicting results are
still to be resolved by research methodologists.

ACTIVITY - Worksheet
Difference Between Qualitative Research Design And Quantitative Research Design
Area of Difference
Quantitative
Research
Qualitative Research
E.g. 1. Definition
2.Data collection

3. Approaches and Design (2)_102521.pptx

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