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- 1. PSYCHOLOGY (9th Edition) David G. Myers PowerPoint Slides Aneeq Ahmad Henderson State University Worth Publishers, © 2010 1
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- 3. Memory Memory is thebasis for knowing your friends, your neighbors, the English language, the national anthem, and yourself. If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be a stranger to you; every language foreign; every task new; and even you yourself would be a stranger. 3
- 4. The Phenomenon ofMemory Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time. It is our ability to store and retrieve information. 4
- 5. Studying Memory: Information ProcessingModels Keyboard Disk Monitor (Encoding) (Storage) (Retrieval) Sequential Process 5
- 6. Information Processing The Atkinson-Schiffrin(1968) three-stage model of memory includes a) sensory memory, b) short-term memory, and c) long-term memory. Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Frank Wartenberg/ Picture Press/ Corbis 6
- 7. Modifications to theThree-Stage Model 1. Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically. 2. Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it into our working memory. 7
- 8. Working Memory A newerunderstanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory 8
- 9. Encoding: Getting InformationIn How We Encode 1. Some information (route to your school) is automatically processed. 2. However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort. 9
- 10. Automatic Processing We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the following: 1. Space: While reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page. 2. Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day. 3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you. 10
- 11. Effortful Processing Committing novel information to memory requires effort just like learning a concept from a textbook. Such processing leads to Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit durable and accessible © Bananastock/ Alamy memories. 11
- 12. Rehearsal Effortfullearning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition. http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) 12
- 13. Rehearsal The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on Day 2. 13
- 14. Memory Effects 1. SpacingEffect: We retain information better when we rehearse over time. 2. Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items. 14
- 15. What We Encode 1.Encoding by meaning 2. Encoding by images 3. Encoding by organization 15
- 16. Encoding Meaning Processing the meaning of verbal information by associating it with what we already know or imagine. Encoding meaning (semantic encoding) results in better recognition later than visual or acoustic encoding. 16
- 17. Visual Encoding Mental pictures(imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding. Both photos: Ho/AP Photo Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it. 17
- 18. Mnemonics Imagery is atthe heart of many memory aids. Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and organizational devices in aiding memory. 18
- 19. Organizing Information for Encoding Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide them into categories and subcategories. 1. Chunking 2. Hierarchies 19
- 20. Chunking Organizing items intoa familiar, manageable unit. Try to remember the numbers below. 1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1 If you are well versed with American history, chunk the numbers together and see if you can recall them better. 1776 1492 1812 1941. 20
- 21. Chunking Acronyms are another way of chunking information to remember it. HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet 21
- 22. Hierarchy Complex informationbroken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories. 22
- 23. Encoding Summarized ina Hierarchy 23
- 24. Storage: Retaining Information Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown below: Sensory Working Long-term Memory Memory Memory Encoding Events Encoding Retrieval Retrieval 24
- 25. Sensory Memory Sensory Working Long-term Memory Memory Memory Encoding Events Encoding Retrieval Retrieval 25
- 26. Whole Report Sperling (1960) R G T “Recall” F M Q RTMZ (44% recall) L Z S 50 ms (1/20 second) The exposure time for the stimulus is so small that items cannot be rehearsed. 26
- 27. Partial Report S X T Low Tone “Recall” J R S Medium Tone JRS (100% recall) P K Y High Tone 50 ms (1/20 second) Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity was larger than what was originally thought. 27
- 28. Time Delay A D I Low Tone “Recall” Time N L V Delay Medium Tone N__ (33% recall) O G H High Tone 50 ms (1/20 second) 28
- 29. Sensory Memory The longerthe delay, the greater the memory loss. Percent Recognized 80 60 40 20 0.15 0.30 0.50 1.00 Time (Seconds) 29
- 30. Sensory Memories The durationof sensory memory varies for the different senses. Iconic 0.5 sec. long Echoic 3-4 sec. long Hepatic < 1 sec. long 30
- 31. Working Memory Sensory Working Long-term Memory Memory Memory Encoding Events Encoding Retrieval Retrieval 31
- 32. Working Memory Working memory,the new name for short-term memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short duration (20 seconds). Sir George Hamilton observed that he could accurately remember up to 7 beans thrown on the floor. If there were more beans, he guessed. 32
- 33. Capacity The Magical NumberSeven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information (1956). Ready? MUTGIKTLRSYP You should be able to recall 7±2 letters. George Miller 33
- 34. Chunking The capacity ofthe working memory may be increased by “chunking.” F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M FBI TWA CIA IBM 4 chunks 34
- 35. Duration Peterson andPeterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by manipulating rehearsal. CHJ 547 MKT 544 HIJ CH?? 541 547 … The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec. 35
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- 37. Long-Term Memory Sensory Working Long-term Memory Memory Memory Encoding Events Encoding Retrieval Retrieval 37
- 38. Long-Term Memory Essentially unlimitedcapacity store. R.J. Erwin/ Photo Researchers The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of buried pine seeds during winter and spring. 38
- 39. Memory Feats 39
- 40. Memory Stores Sensory Working Feature LTM Memory Memory Encoding Copy Phonemic Semantic Capacity Unlimited 7±2 Chunks Very Large Duration 0.25 sec. 20 sec. Years 40
- 41. Storing Memories inthe Brain 1. Loftus and Loftus (1980) reviewed previous research data showing, through brain stimulation, that memories were etched into the brain and found that only a handful of brain stimulated patients reported flashbacks. 2. Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that even after removing parts of the brain, the animals retain partial memory of the maze. 41
- 42. Synaptic Changes In Aplysia,Kandel and Schwartz (1982) showed that serotonin release from neurons increased after conditioning. Photo: Scientific American 42
- 43. Synaptic Changes Long-Term Potentiation Both Photos: From N. Toni et al., Nature, 402, Nov. 25 1999. Courtesy of Dominique Muller (LTP) refers to synaptic enhancement after learning (Lynch, 2002). An increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates strengthening of synapses. 43
- 44. Stress Hormones &Memory Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. Flashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events Scott Barbour/ Getty Images 44
- 45. Storing Implicit &Explicit Memories Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what she knows. 45
- 46. Hippocampus Hippocampus – aneural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories. Weidenfield & Nicolson archives 46
- 47. Anterograde Amnesia Afterlosing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the operation but cannot make new memories. We call this anterograde amnesia. Anterograde Amnesia Memory Intact No New Memories (HM) Surgery 47
- 48. Implicit Memory HM is unable to make new memories that are declarative (explicit), but he can form new memories that are procedural (implicit). A B C HM learned the Tower of Hanoi (game) after his surgery. Each time he plays it, he is unable to remember the fact that he has already played the game. 48
- 49. Cerebellum Cerebellum – aneural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories. 49
- 50. Retrieval: Getting InformationOut Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store. Spanky’s Yearbook Archive Spanky’s Yearbook Archive 50
- 51. Measures of Memory Inrecognition, the person must identify an item amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test requires recognition.) 1. Name the capital of France. a. Brussels b. Rome c. London d. Paris 51
- 52. Measures of Memory Inrecall, the person must retrieve information using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test requires recall.) 1. The capital of France is ______. 52
- 53. Measures of Memory In relearning, the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for the second time. List List Jet Jet Original Relearning Dagger Dagger Trials Trials Tree Tree Saving X 100 1 day later Relearning Kite Kite … … Trials Silk Silk 10 5 X 100 Frog Frog 10 Ring Ring It took 10 trials It took 5 trials 50% to learn this list to learn the list 53
- 54. Retrieval Cues Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory. water smell hose Fire Truck fire smoke truck heat red 54
- 55. Priming To retrieve aspecific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming. 55
- 56. Context Effects Scuba diversrecall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land (Godden & Baddeley, 1975). Fred McConnaughey/ Photo Researchers 56
- 57. Déjà Vu Déjà Vumeans “I've experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience. cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved © The New Yorker Collection, 1990. Leo Cullum from 57
- 58. Context Effects After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants most strongly respond when retested in the same context rather than in a different context (Rovee-Collier, 1993). Rutgers University Courtesy of Carolyn Rovee-Collier, 58
- 59. Moods and Memories Weusually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood (state-dependent memory). Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues. Our memories are mood-congruent. Jorgen Schytte/ Still Pictures 59
- 60. Forgetting An inability toretrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval. 60
- 61. Encoding Failure We cannotremember what we do not encode. 61
- 62. Storage Decay Poor durabilityof stored memories leads to their decay. Ebbinghaus showed this with his forgetting curve. 62
- 63. Retaining Spanish Bahrick (1984)showed a similar pattern of forgetting and retaining over 50 years. Andrew Holbrooke/ Corbis 63
- 64. Retrieval Failure Although theinformation is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed. Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes blood cells red?) the subject says the word begins with an H (hemoglobin). 64
- 65. Interference Learning some newinformation may disrupt retrieval of other information. 65
- 66. Retroactive Interference Sleep preventsretroactive interference. Therefore, it leads to better recall. 66
- 67. Motivated Forgetting Motivated Forgetting: Peopleunknowingly revise their memories. Repression: A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from Culver Pictures consciousness. Sigmund Freud 67
- 68. Why do weforget? Forgetting can occur at any memory stage. We filter, alter, or lose much information during these stages. 68
- 69. Memory Construction While tappingour memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our recall more coherent. Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. 69
- 70. Misinformation and Imagination Effects Eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories when questioned about the event. Depiction of the actual accident. 70
- 71. Misinformation Group A: Howfast were the cars going when they hit each other? Group B: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? 71
- 72. Memory Construction A weeklater they were asked: Was there any broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit). 72
- 73. Source Amnesia SourceAmnesia: Attributing an event to the wrong source that we experienced, heard, read, or imagined (misattribution). 73
- 74. Children’s Eyewitness Recall Children’seyewitness recall can be unreliable if leading questions are posed. However, if cognitive interviews are neutrally worded, the accuracy of their recall increases. In cases of sexual abuse, this usually suggests a lower percentage of abuse. 74
- 75. Memories of Abuse Are memories of abuse repressed or constructed? Many psychotherapists believe that early childhood sexual abuse results in repressed memories. However, other psychologists question such beliefs and think that such memories may be constructed. 75
- 76. Constructed Memories Loftus’ researchshows that if false memories (lost at the mall or drowned in a lake) are implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) their memories. Don Shrubshell 76
- 77. Improving Memory 1. Studyrepeatedly to boost long-term recall. 2. Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material. 3. Make material personally meaningful. 4. Use mnemonic devices: associate with peg words — something already stored make up a story chunk — acronyms 77
- 78. Improving Memory 5. Activateretrieval cues — mentally recreate the situation and mood. 6. Recall events while they are fresh — before you encounter misinformation. 7. Minimize interference: 1. Test your own knowledge. 2. Rehearse and then determine what you do not yet know. © LWA-Dann Tardiff/ Corbis 78
Editor's Notes
- #6 Preview Question 1: How do psychologists describe the human memory system?
- #10 Preview Question 2: What information do we encode automatically? What information do we encode effortfully, and how does the distribution of practice influence retention?
- #16 Preview Question 3:What effortful processing methods aid in forming memories?
- #26 Preview Question 4: What is sensory memory?
- #32 Preview Question 5: What are the duration and capacity of short-term and of long-term memory?
- #42 Preview Question 6: How does the brain store our memories?
- #51 Preview Question7: How do we get information out of memory?
- #57 Preview Question 8: How do external contexts and internal emotions influence memory retrieval?
- #61 Preview Question 9: Why do we forget?
- #70 Preview Question 10: How do misinformation, imagination, and source amnesia influence our memory construction? How real-seeming are false memories?
- #76 Preview Question 11: What is the controversy related to claims of repressed and recovered memories?
- #78 Preview Question 12: How can an understanding of memory contribute to more effective study techniques?