A5-SOLAR-TRACKING-SYSTEM

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SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
A solar tracker is a device for orienting a Photovoltaic array solar photovoltaic panel or
concentrating solar reflector or lens toward the sun. The sun's position in the sky varies both with the
seasons (elevation) and time of day as the sun moves across the sky. Solar powered equipment works
best when pointed at or near the sun, so a solar tracker can increase the effectiveness of such
equipment over any fixed position, at the cost of additional system complexity. There are many types
of solar trackers, of varying costs, sophistication, and performance. One well-known type of solar
tracker is the heliostat, a movable mirror that reflects the moving sun to a fixed location, but many
other approaches are used as well.
Non-concentrating applications require less accuracy, and many work without any tracking at
all. However, tracking can substantially improve both the amount of total power produced by a
system and that produced during critical system demand periods (typically late afternoon in hot
climates). The use of trackers in non-concentrating applications is usually an engineering decision
based on economics. Compared to photo voltaic, trackers can be inexpensive. This makes theme
specially effective for photovoltaic systems using high-efficiency (and thus expensive) panels.
Extracting usable electricity from the sun was made possible by the discovery of the
photoelectric mechanism and subsequent development of the solar cell – a semi conductive material
that converts visible light into a direct current. By using solar arrays, a series of solar cells
electrically connected, a DC voltage is generated which can be physically used on a load. Solar
arrays or panels are being used increasingly as efficiencies reach higher levels, and are especially
popular in remote areas where placement of electricity lines is not economically viable.
The process of sensing and following the position of the sun is known as Solar
Tracking. It was resolved that real-time tracking would be necessary to follow the sun effectively, so
that no external data would be required in operation.

CHAPTER 2
PHOTOVOLTAICS
Photovoltaic(PV) is a technology that converts light directly into electricity.Photovoltaicis
also the field of study relating to this technology and there are many research institutes devoted to
work on photovoltaic. Due to the growing need for solar energy, the manufacture of solar cells and
solar photovoltaic array has expanded dramatically since 2002.making it the world’s fastest-growing
energy technology.
2.1. SOLAR CELL
Photovoltaic energy is the conversion of sunlight into electricity. A photovoltaic cell,
commonly called a solar cell or PV, is the technology used to convert solar energy directly into
electrical power. A photovoltaic cell is a non mechanical device usually made from silicon alloy
FIG:2.1 Solar Cell
The photovoltaic cell is the basic building block of a photovoltaic system. Individual cells
can vary in size from about 0.5 inches to about 4 inches across. However, one cell only produces 1
or 2 watts, which isn't enough power for most applications.
The performance of a photovoltaic array is dependent upon the sunlight .Climatic conditions
(eg., clouds, fog) have a significant effect on the amount of solar energy received by a photovoltaic
array and, in turn, its performance. Most current technology photovoltaic modules are about 10%
efficient in converting solar radiation. Further research is being conducted to raise this efficiency to
20%.

2.2 TYPES OF SOLAR PANELS:
There are 4 types of Solar Panels and I have them broken down for you below.
MONO CRYSTALLINE:
Monocrystalline solar panels are made from a large crystal of silicon. These type of solar
panels are the most efficient as in absorbing sunlight and converting it into electricity,
however they are the most expensive. They do somewhat better in lower light conditions then
the other types of solar panels.
POLYCRYSTALLINE:
Polycrystalline solar panels are the most common type of solar panels on the market today.
They look a lot like shattered glass. They are slightly less efficient then the monocrystalline
solar panels and less expensive to produce. Instead of one large crystal, this type of solar
panel consists of multiple amounts of smaller silicon crystal.

CAST POLYSILICON:
In this process, molten silicon is cast in a large block which, when cooled, can be cut into thin wafers
to be used in photovoltaic cells. These cells are then assembled in a panel. Conducting metal strips
are then laid over the cells, connecting them to each other and forming a continuous electrical current
throughout the panel.
STRING RIBBON SILICON:
String ribbon uses a variation of the polycrystalline production process, using the same molten
silicon but slowly drawing a thin strip of crystalline silicon out of the molten form. These strips of
photovoltaic material are then assembled in a panel with the same metal conductor strips attaching
each strip to the electrical current.
AMORPHOUS SOLAR PANELS
Amorphous solar panels consist of a thin-like film made from molten silicon that is spread directly
across large plates of stainless steel or similar material. These types of solar panels have lower
efficiency then the other two types of solar panels, and the cheapest to produce. One advantage of
amorphous solar panels over the other two is that they are shadow protected. That means that the
solar panel continues to charge while part of the solar panel cells are in a shadow. These work great
on boats and other types of transportation.
SOLAR PANEL EFFICIENCY DETAILS:
Monocrystalline- 18%
Polycrystalline- 15%
Amorphous (thin-film)- 10%

CHAPTER 3
TYPES OF TRACKERS
3.1TRACKER MOUNT TYPES
Solar trackers may be active or passive and may be single axis or dual axis.There are two types of
dual axis trackers, polar and altitude-azimuth.
Single axis trackers:
Horizontal axis:
Several manufacturers can deliver single axis horizontal trackers which may be oriented by either
passive or active mechanisms, depending upon manufacturer. In these, a long horizontal tube is
supported on bearings mounted upon pylons or frames. The axis of the tube is on a North-South line.
Panels are mounted upon the tube, and the tube will rotate on its axis to track the apparent motion of
the sun through the day. These devices are less effective at higher latitudes. The principal advantage
is the inherent robustness of the supporting structure and the simplicity of the mechanism.
Vertical axis:
A single axis tracker may be constructed that pivots only about a vertical axle, with the panels either
vertical, at a fixed, adjustable, or tracked elevation angle. Such trackers with fixed or (seasonably)
adjustable angles are suitable for high latitudes, where the apparent solar path is not especially high,
but which leads to long days in Summer,
Two-axis mount:
Altitude-azimuth
A type of mounting that supports the weight of the solar tracker and allows it to move in two
directions to locate a specific target. One axis of support is horizontal (called the altitude) and allows
the telescope to move up and down. The other axis is vertical (called the azimuth) and allows the
telescope to swing in a circle parallel to the ground.
Restricted to active trackers, this mount is also becoming popular as a large telescope mount owing
to its structural simplicity and compact dimensions.
Multi-mirror reflective unit:
A multiple mirror reflective system combined with a central power tower is employed at the Sierra
SunTower, located in Lancaster, California. This generation plant operated by eSolar is scheduled to

begin operations on August 5, 2009. This system, which uses multiple heliostats in a north-south
alignment, uses pre-fabricated parts and construction as a way of decreasing startup and operating
costs.
3.2 DRIVE TYPES:
Active tracker
Active trackers use motors and gear trains to direct the tracker as commanded by a controller
responding to the solar direction.Active two-axis trackers are also used to orient heliostats - movable
mirrors that reflect sunlight toward the absorber of a centralpowerstation. As each mirror in a large
field will have an individual orientation these are controlled programmatically through a central
computer system, which also allows the system to be shut down when necessary.
Passive tracker
Passive trackers use a low boiling point compressed gas fluid that is driven to one side or the other
(by solar heat creating gas pressure) to cause the tracker to move in response to an imbalance. As this
is a non-precision orientation it is unsuitable for certain types of concentrating photovoltaic
collectors but works fine for common PV panel types. These will have viscous dampers to prevent
excessive motion in response to wind gusts. Shader/reflectors are used to reflect early morning
sunlight to "wake up" the panel and tilt it toward the sun, which can take nearly an hour. The time to
do this can be greatly reduced by adding a self-releasing tiedown that positions the panel slightly past
the zenith (so that the fluid does not have to overcome gravity) and using the tiedown in the evening.
(A slack-pulling spring will prevent release in windy overnight conditions.)

CHAPTER 4
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
4.1 BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM:
FIG: 4.1

4.2 POWER SUPPLY:
In this project power supplies with +5V & -5V option normally +5V is enough for total circuit.
Another supply is used in case of OP amp circuit .Transformer primary side has 230/50HZ AC
voltage whereas at thesecondary winding the voltage is step downed to 12/50hz and this voltage is
rectified using two full wave rectifiers .The rectified output is given to a filter circuit to filter the
unwanted ac in the signal After that the output is again applied to a regulator LM7805(to provide
+5v) regulator. WhereasLM7805 is for providing 5V regulation.
Fig: 4.2 Block Diagram Of Power Supply
A step down transformer is used to convert 230V 50HZ line voltage 12V ac input to the supply pin
of the circuit. The ac voltage is converted to pulsated dc using a center tapped full wave rectifier.
Any ripples if present are eliminated using a capacitive filter at the output of the full wave rectifier.
The capacitive filter output is input to LM 7805(voltage regulator), which produces a dc equivalent
of ac 5V. This 5V dc acts as VCC to the micro controller.
Circuit Features:
Brief description of operation: Gives out well regulated +5V output, output current capability
of 1A
Circuit complexity: Very simple and easy to build
Circuit performance: Very stable +5V output voltage, reliable operation Availability of components:
Easy to get, uses only very common basic components
Applications: Part of electronics devices, small laboratory power supply
Power supply voltage: 230V AC
Power supply current: 1A

4.3 AT89C51 MICROCONTROLLER
FEATURES
 89C51 based architecture
 8-Kbytes of on-chip Reprogrammable Flash Memory
 128 x 8 RAM
 Two 16-bit Timer/Counters
 Full duplex serial channel
 Boolean processor
 Four 8-bit I/O ports, 32 I/O lines
 Memory addressing capability
– 64K ROM and 64K RAM
 Power save modes:
– Idle and power-down
 Six interrupt sources
 Most instructions execute in 0.3 us
 CMOS and TTL compatible
Maximum speed: 40 MHz @ Vcc = 5V
 Industrial temperature available
 Packages available:
– 40-pin DIP
– 44-pin PLCC
– 44-pin PQFP
GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
THE MICROCONTROLLER:
A microcontroller is a general purpose device, but that is meant to read data, perform limited
calculations on that data and control its environment based on those calculations. The prime use of a
microcontroller is to control the operation of a machine using a fixed program that is stored in ROM
and that does not change over the lifetime of the system.
The microcontroller design uses a much more limited set of single and double byte
instructions that are used to move data and code from internal memory to the ALU. The
microcontroller is concerned with getting data from and to its own pins; the architecture and
instruction set are optimized to handle data in bit and byte size.

FIG 4.3.1
The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 4k bytes of Flash
Programmable and erasable read only memory (EROM). The device is manufactured using Atmel’s
high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is functionally compatible with the industry-
standard 80C51 microcontroller instruction set and pin out.

PIN CONFIGURATION:

PIN DESCRIPTION:
VCC GND
Supply voltage Ground
Port 0
Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional I/O port. Port 0 can also be configured to be the
multiplexed low order address/data bus during access to external program and data memory.
Port 1
Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port. The port 1output buffers can sink/source four TTL
inputs.
Port 2
Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The port 2 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal
pull-ups can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source
current because of the internal pull-ups.
Port 3
Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The port 3 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the internal
pull-ups can be used as inputs.
RST
Rest input A on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device
.
ALE/PROG:
Address Latch Enable is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during access to
external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming.
PSEN
Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory when the AT89c51 is
executing code from external program memory PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except
that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory.
EA /VPP
External Access Enable (EA) must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch
code from external program memory locations starting at 0000h up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if
lock bit 1 is programmed EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to Vcc for

internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (Vpp)
during Flash programming when 12-volt programming is selected.
XTAL1
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.
XTAL 2
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.
OPERATING DESCRIPTION
The detail description of the AT89C51 included in this description is:
• Memory Map and Register
• Timer/Counters
MEMORY MAP AND REGISTERS
Memory
The AT89C52 has separate address spaces for program and data memory. The program and
data memory can be up to 64K bytes long. The lower 4K program memory can reside on-chip. The
AT89C52 has 128 bytes of on-chip RAM.
The lower 128 bytes can be accessed either by direct addressing or by indirect addressing. The lower
128 bytes of RAM can be divided into 3 segments as listed below
1. Register Banks 0-3: locations 00H through 1FH (32 bytes). The device after reset defaults to
register bank 0. To use the other register banks, the user must select them in software. Each register
bank contains eight 1-byte registers R0-R7. Reset initializes the stack point to location 07H, and is
incremented once to start from 08H, which is the first register of the second register bank.
2. Bit Addressable Area: 16 bytes have been assigned for this segment 20H-2FH. Each one of the
128 bits of this segment can be directly addressed (0-7FH). Each of the 16 bytes in this segment can
also be addressed as a byte.
3. Scratch Pad Area: 30H-7FH are available to the user as data RAM. However, if the data pointer
has been initialized to this area, enough bytes should be left aside to prevent SP data destruction.

Fig 4.3.1 Special Function Registers
The Special Function Registers (SFR's) are located in upper 128 Bytes direct addressing area.
The SFR Memory Map in shows that Not all of the addresses are occupied. Unoccupied addresses
are not implemented on the chip. Read accesses to these addresses in general return random data, and
write accesses have no effect. User software should not write 1s to these unimplemented locations,
since they may be used in future microcontrollers to invoke new features. In that case, the reset or
inactive values of the new bits will always be 0, and their active values will be 1.
The functions of the SFR’s are outlined in the following sections.
Accumulator (ACC)
ACC is the Accumulator register. The mnemonics for Accumulator-specific instructions, however,
refer to the Accumulator simply as A.
B Register (B)
The B register is used during multiply and divide operations. For other instructions it can be treated
as another scratch pad register.
Program Status Word (PSW)
The PSW register contains program status information.

Stack Pointer (SP)
The Stack Pointer Register is eight bits wide. It is incremented before data is stored during PUSH
and CALL executions. While the stack may reside anywhere in on chip RAM, the Stack Pointer is
initialized to 07H after a reset. This causes the stack to begin at location 08H.
Data Pointer (DPTR)
The Data Pointer consists of a high byte (DPH) and a low byte (DPL). Its function is to hold a 16-bit
address. It may be manipulated as a 16-bit register or as two independent 8-bit registers.
Serial Data Buffer (SBUF)
The Serial Data Buffer is actually two separate registers, a transmit buffer and a receive buffer
register. When data is moved to SBUF, it goes to the transmit buffer, where it is held for serial
transmission. (Moving a byte to SBUF initiates the transmission.) When data is moved from SBUF,
it comes from the receive buffer.
Timer Registers
Register pairs (TH0, TL0) and (TH1, TL1) are the 16-bit Counter registers for Timer/Counters 0 and
1, respectively.
Control Registers
Special Function Registers IP, IE, TMOD, TCON, SCON, and PCON contain control and status bits
for the interrupt system, the Timer/Counters, and the serial port.
TIMER/COUNTERS
The AT89C51 has two 16-bit Timer/Counter registers: Timer 0 and Timer 1. All two can
be configured to operate either as Timers or event counters. As a Timer, the register is incremented
every machine cycle. Thus, the register counts machine cycles. Since a machine cycle consists of 12
oscillator periods, the count rate is 1/12 of the oscillator frequency.
As a Counter, the register is incremented in response to a 1-to-0 transition at its
corresponding external input pin, T0 and T1. The external input is sampled during S5P2 of every
machine cycle. When the samples show a high in one cycle and a low in the next cycle, the count is
incremented. The new count value appears in the register during S3P1 of the cycle following the one
in which the transition was detected.
Since two machine cycles (24 oscillator periods) are required to recognize a 1-to-0 transition, the
maximum count rate is 1/24 of the oscillator frequency. There are no restrictions on the duty cycle of
the external input signal, but it should be held for at least one full machine cycle to ensure that a
given level is sampled at least once before it changes.

In addition to the Timer or Counter functions, Timer 0 and Timer 1 have four operating modes: 13-
bit timer, 16-bit timer, 8-bit auto-reload, split timer.
TIMERS:
12D
OSCILLATOR
FREQUENCY
TR
TLX THX TFX
SFR’S USED IN TIMERS
The special function registers used in timers are,
 TMOD Register
 TCON Register
 Timer(T0) & timer(T1) Registers
(i) TMOD Register:
TMOD is dedicated solely to the two timers (T0 & T1).
The timer mode SFR is used to configure the mode of operation of each of the two timers. Using this
SFR your program may configure each timer to be a 16-bit timer, or 13 bit timer, 8-bit auto reload
timer, or two separate timers. Additionally you may configure the timers to only count when an
external pin is activated or to count “events” that are indicated on an external pin.
 It can consider as two duplicate 4-bit registers, each of which controls the action of one of
the timers.
(ii) TCON Register:
 The timer control SFR is used to configure and modify the way in which the 8051’s two
timers operate. This SFR controls whether each of the two timers is running or stopped and contains
a flag to indicate that each timer has overflowed. Additionally, some non-timer related bits are
located in TCON SFR.

 These bits are used to configure the way in which the external interrupt flags are
activated, which are set when an external interrupt occurs.
(iii) TIMER 0 (T0):
TO (Timer 0 low/high, address 8A/8C h)
 These two SFR’s taken together represent timer 0. Their exact behavior depends on how
the timer is configured in the TMOD SFR; however, these timers always count up. What is
configurable is how and when they increment in value.
TH0 TL0
(iv) TIMER 1 (T1):
• T1 (Timer 1 Low/High, address 8B/ 8D h)
• These two SFR’s, taken together, represent timer 1. Their exact behavior depends on how
the timer is configured in the TMOD SFR; however, these timers always count up. What is
Configurable is how and when they increment in value.
TH1 TL1
The Timer or Counter function is selected by control bits C/T in the Special Function Register
TMOD. These two Timer/Counters have four operating modes, which are selected by bit pairs (M1,
M0) in TMOD. Modes 0, 1, and 2 are the same for both Timer/Counters, but Mode 3 is different.
The four modes are described in the following sections.
Mode 0:
Both Timers in Mode 0 are 8-bit Counters with a divide-by-32 pre scalar. Figure 8 shows the
Mode 0 operation as it applies to Timer 1. In this mode, the Timer register is configured as a 13-bit
register. As the count rolls over from all 1s to all 0s, it sets the Timer interrupt flag TF1. The counted
input is enabled to the Timer when TR1 = 1 and either GATE = 0 or INT1 = 1. Setting GATE = 1
allows the Timer to be controlled by external input INT1, to facilitate pulse width measurements.
TR1 is a control bit in the Special Function Register TCON. Gate is in TMOD.

The 13-bit register consists of all eight bits of TH1 and the lower five bits of TL1. The upper
three bits of TL1 are indeterminate and should be ignored. Setting the run flag (TR1) does not clear
the registers.
Mode 0 operation is the same for Timer 0 as for Timer 1, except that TR0, TF0 and INT0 replace the
corresponding Timer 1 signals. There are two different GATE bits, one for Timer 1 (TMOD.7) and
one for Timer 0 (TMOD.3).
Mode 1
Mode 1 is the same as Mode 0, except that the Timer register is run with all 16 bits. The
clock is applied to the combined high and low timer registers (TL1/TH1). As clock pulses are
received, the timer counts up: 0000H, 0001H, 0002H, etc. An overflow occurs on the FFFFH-to-
0000H overflow flag. The timer continues to count. The overflow flag is the TF1 bit in TCON that is
read or written by software
Mode 2
Mode 2 configures the Timer register as an 8-bit Counter (TL1) with automatic reload, as
shown in Figure 10. Overflow from TL1 not only sets TF1, but also reloads TL1 with the contents of
TH1, which is preset by software. The reload leaves the TH1 unchanged. Mode 2 operation is the
same for Timer/Counter 0.
Mode 3
Timer 1 in Mode 3 simply holds its count. The effect is the same as setting TR1 = 0. Timer 0
in Mode 3 establishes TL0and TH0 as two separate counters. The logic for Mode 3 on Timer 0 is
shown in Figure 11. TL0 uses the Timer 0 control bits: C/T, GATE, TR0, INT0, and TF0. TH0 is
locked into a timer function (counting machine cycles) and over the use of TR1 and TF1 from Timer
1. Thus, TH0 now controls the Timer 1 interrupt.
Mode 3 is for applications requiring an extra 8-bit timer or counter. With Timer 0 in Mode 3,
the AT89C51 can appear to have three Timer/Counters. When Timer 0 is in Mode 3, Timer 1 can be
turned on and off by switching it out of and into its own Mode 3. In this case, Timer 1 can still be
used by the serial port as a baud rate generator or in any application not requiring an interrupt.

4.4 DS 1307(RTC)
Real-Time Clock (RTC) Counts Seconds, Minutes, Hours, Date of the Month,
Month, Day of the Week, and Year with Leap-Year
Fig: 4.4.2 Pin Configuration
DESCRIPTION
The DS1307 serial alarm real-time clock provides a full binary coded decimal (BCD) clock calendar
that is accessed by a simple serial interface. The clock/calendar provides seconds, minutes, hours,
day, date, month, and year information. The end of the month date is automatically adjusted for
months with fewer than 31 days, including corrections for leap year. The clock operates in either the
24-hour or 12-hour format with AM/PM indicator. In addition, 96 bytes of NV RAM are provided
for data storage. The DS1307 will maintain the time and date, provided the oscillator is enabled, as
long as at least one supply is at a valid level
An interface logic power-supply input pin (VCCIF) allows the DS1307 to drive SDA and SCL pins
to a level that is compatible with the interface logic. This allows an easy interface to 3V logic in
mixed supply systems.
The DS1307 offers dual-power supplies as well as a battery input pin. The dual power supplies
support a programmable trickle charge circuit that allows a rechargeable energy source (such as a
super cap or rechargeable battery) to be used for a backup supply. The VBAT pin allows the device
to be backed up by a non-rechargeable battery. The DS1307 is fully operational from 2.0V to 5.5V.
Two programmable time-of-day alarms are provided by the DS1307. Each alarm can generate an
interrupt on a programmable combination of seconds, minutes, hours, and day. “Don’t care” states
can be inserted into one or more fields if it is desired for them to be ignored for the alarm condition.

The time-of-day alarms can be programmed to assert two different interrupt outputs or to assert one
common interrupt output. Both interrupt outputs operate when the device is powered by VCC1,
VCC2, or VBAT.
The DS1307 supports a direct interface to SPI serial data ports or standard 3-wire interface. A
straightforward address and data format is implemented in which data transfers can occur 1 byte at a
time or in multiple-byte-burst mode.
4.5LCD (LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY)
General Description:
The Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is a low power device (microwatts). Now a days in most
applications LCDs are using rather using of LED displays because of its specifications like low
power consumption, ability to display numbers and special characters which are difficult to display
with other displaying circuits and easy to program. An LCD requires an external or internal light
source. Temperature range of LCD is 0ºC to 60ºC and lifetime is an area of concern, because LCDs
can chemically degrade these are manufactured with liquid crystal material (normally organic for
LCDs) that will flow like a liquid but whose molecular structure has some properties normally
associated with solids. .
LCDs are classified as
1. Dynamic-scattering LCDs and
2. Field-effect LCDs
FIELD EFFECT LCD:
Field-effect LCDs are normally used in such applications where source of energy is a prime
factor (e.g., watches, portable instrumentation etc.).They absorb considerably less power than the
light-scattering type. However, the cost for field-effect units is typically higher, and their height is
limited to 2 inches. On the other hand, light-scattering units are available up to 8 inches in height.
Field-effect LCD is used in the project for displaying the appropriate information

.
Fig: 4.5.1 Liquid Crystal Display
4.6 KEYPAD
Keypads are a part of HMI or Human Machine Interface and play really important role in a small
embedded system where human interaction or human input is needed. Matrix keypads are well
known for their simple architecture and ease of interfacingwith any microcontroller.
Scanning a matrix keypad:
There are many methods depending on how the keypadis connected with the controller, but the basic
logic is same. Thecolumns as i/p and rows making them o/p, this whole procedure of reading the
keyboard is called scanning.
Fig 4.6. Matrix Keypad

4.7 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces electrical oscillations at a particular designed
frequency determined by the physical characteristics of one or more crystals, generally of quartz,
positioned in the circuit feedback loop. A piezoelectric effect causes a crystal such as quartz to
vibrate and resonate at a particular frequency. The quartz crystal naturally oscillates at a particular
frequency, its fundamental frequency that can be hundreds of megahertz. The crystal oscillator is
generally used in various forms such as a frequency generator, a frequency modulator and a
frequency converter.
FIG 4.7.1
4.8 L293D DRIVER
The L293D is a monolithic integrated high voltage, high current four channel driver designed to accept standard
DTL or TTL logic levels and drive inductive loads (such as relays solenoids, DC and stepping motors) and
switching power transistors. To simplify use as two bridges is pair of channels is equipped with an enable input.
A separate supply input is provided form the logic, allowing operational at a low voltage and internal clamp
diodes are included. This device is suitable for use in switching applications at frequencies up to 5 KHz.
The L293D is assembled in a 16 lead plastic package which has 4 center pins connected together and used for
heat sinking.

Fig 4.8.1 Pin Configuration Of L293d
FEATURES:
 600ma. output current capability perchannel
 1.2a pe ak o utput current (nonrepetitive) per channel
 enable facility
 overtemperature protection
 logical ”0” input voltage up to 15v
 internal clamps diodes.
4.9BRUSHLESS DC GEAR MOTOR
• Conventional DC motors use a stationary magnet with a rotating armature combining the
commutation segments and brushes to provide automatic commutation.
• In comparison, the brushless DC motor is a reversed design: the permanent magnet is rotating
whereas the windings are part of the stator and can be energized without requiring a
commutator-and-brush system.
SPECIFICATION:
INPUT VOLTAGE 15V
INPUT CURRENT 0.6A
R.P.M 10:1

Fig 4.9.1 Brushless Dc Motor

CHAPTER 5
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
5.1 HARD WARE IMPLEMENTATION
5.1.1 SCHEMATIC:
5.1.2 INTERFACING LCD WITH MICRO CONTROLLER:
Fig 5.1 Interfacing Lcd With Microcontroller
Lcd (Liquid Crystal Display) was connected to microcontroller through pins (D0-D3) to(p1.4-p1.7)
respectively to send the data through microcontroller ,R/W pin was connected to ground ,RS PIN to
P2.0,EN pin to P2.1,and Vcc to supply pin.

5.1.3 INTERFACING L293D DRIVER AND GEAR MOTOR WITH
MICROCONTROLLER:
Fig 5.2 Interfacing L293d Driver With Gear Motor
L293D was connected to micro controller through pins p0.0 andP0.1 .3and4 pins are
connected to D.C BRUSHLESS MOTOR positive and negative pins. 4,5 pins were shorted and
given to 9v supply. 7,11,13,14 left open and remaining pins were connected to ground.

5.1.4INTERFACING DS1307 WITH MICROCONTROLLER:
Fig 5.3 Interfacing Ds 1307 With Micro Controller
DS 1307 was connected to the micro controller through pins P3.2, P3.4, P3.3 to the
pins 7, 6, 5 respectively. 1, 2pins were connected to 33KHZ crystal oscillator and the remaining pins
were connected to supply of 3.6V.

5.1.5WORKING OF SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM
The system contains two modules, one is tracking and the other is controlling module.
Tracking module which will take angular rotation with the help of DC gear motor in synchronous
with the starting position of the sun. As sun rises from East, it will also take the angle according to
the angle of raising sun. So it will continuously track the sun till the sun sets in the West.
Initially when the supply from the power kit was drawn and given to all the
components of the control circuit and keyboard. When the power supply is switched ON the
panel comes to the original position and by the keypad switches the clock time in the LCD screen
can be setted by the keypad switches. K1, K2 and K3 are the switches of keypad. K1 represents
Increment switch, K2 represents Decrement switch and K3 represents Enable switch. Initially the
panel stands at reference position 8:00AM and according to the setting time the panel rotates with
the help of brushless DC Gear Motor.
Module is designed with efficient Microcontroller from ATMEL 89C51 which helps to drive
the tracking module at different instants. The keypad switches was connected to the microcontroller
through latch to the port2(Pins 2.6, 2.7,2.8) and microcontroller was connected to the LCD screen
through the pins(P1.4 to P1.7) and the LCD displays the preset time.
DS1307 is the RTC(Real Time Clock) used to produce clock pulses through
microcontroller which connects the LCD display, displays the time.
L293D driver was connected to the DC Motor, microcontroller and 9V battery. The pulses
that was produced by the microcontroller helps to connect the DC supply to the DC brushless motor.
The DC brushless motor was mounted on a separate stand and connected
to a shaft which rotates the solar panel given from the microcontroller based upon this gear motor
operates.
When the supply was given to the dc gear motor, according to the setting from
keypad, the solar panel reaches the set state from the initial position with one degree as one second
and after reaching the set position it covers every degree by one degree.

5.1.6 PROJECT KIT PHOTOS

5.2SOFTWARE IMPLEMENTATION
PROGRAMME:.
#include "reg51.h"
#include "stdio.h"
#define DATA P1
#define delay_us _nop_(); //generates 1 microsecond
#define SCKHIGH SCK=1;
#define SCKLOW SCK=0;
#define SDAHIGH SDA=1;
#define SDALOW SDA=0;
sbit RS=P1^0;
sbit EN=P1^2;
sbit RW=P1^1;
sbit K1=P2^0;
sbit K2=P2^1;
sbit K3=P2^2;
sbit K4=P2^3;
sbit SCK=P3^5; //serial clock pin
sbit SDA=P3^4; //serial data pin
void delay(unsigned int);
voidinit(unsigned char,unsignedint);
voidwrite_lcd(unsigned char,unsignedint);
void message1(unsigned char,unsigned char*);
void message(unsigned char *s);
void start(void);
void stop(void);
voidsend_byte(unsigned char);
unsigned char receive_byte(unsigned char);
void write_i2c(unsigned char,unsignedchar,unsigned char);
unsigned char read_i2c(unsigned char,unsigned char);
voidgopos();
void go1();
voidcurrenttime();
void main()
{
P1 = 0x00;
RW = 0;
add=0;
init(0x30,15);
init(0x20,15);
init(0x28,5);

init(0x0c,5);
init(0x01,5);
init(0x06,5);
while(1)
{
if(K1==0)
{
init(0x01,5);
message1(0x80,"Enter HH:MM:SS");
message1(0xc0,"00:00:00");
delay(1000);
break;
}
if(K2==0)
{
init(0x01,5);
message1(0x80,"process continu");
delay(250);
goto process;
break;
}
}
delay(150);
message1(0xc0,"00:00:00");
delay(1000);
while(1)
{
if(K3==0)
{
delay(300);
break;
}
if(K1==0)//adjust the hours on the bases of the key1
{
delay(100);//if we want to increase
a= a+1;
init(0xc0,15);
if(a<=23)
{
a=a+1;
}
else
{

}
}
if(K2==0)
{
delay(100);//adjust the hours on the bases of the key2
a= a-1;
init(0xc0,15); //if we want to decrease
if(a<=0)
{
a=0;
}
else
{
a=a-1;
}
}
while(1)
{
if(K3==0)
{
delay(300);
break;
}
init(0xc3,15);
if(K1==0) //adjust the minutes on the bases of the key1
{
//if we want to increase
if(b<=59)
{ b=b+1
}
else
{
}
}
if(K2==0)
{ //adjust the minutes on the bases of the key2
//if we want to decrease
if(b<=0)
{

b=0;
}
else
{
b=b-1;
}
}
d=0;
while(1)
{
if(K3==0)
{
delay(300);
break;
}
if(K1==0) //adjust the seconds on the bases of the key1
{ //if we want to increase
if(d<=59)
{
d=d+1;
}
else
{
d=59;
}
}
if(K2==0)
{ //adjust the seconds on the bases of the key2
//if we want to decrease
if(d<=0)
{
d=0;
else
{
d=d-1;
}
}
}
voidinit(unsigned char dbyte,unsignedintmsec)
{
unsigned char temp;
DATA=dbyte;
callen();
temp=_cror_(dbyte,4);

DATA=temp;
callen();
delay(msec);
}
voidwrite_lcd(unsigned char dbyte,unsignedintmsec)
{
unsigned char temp;
DATA=dbyte;
callenrs();
temp=_cror_(dbyte,4);
DATA=temp;
callenrs();
delay(msec);
}
//starts i2c, if both SCK & SDA are idle
void start(void)
{
if(SCK==0) //check SCK. if SCK busy, return else SCK idle
return;
if(SDA==0) //check SDA. if SDA busy, return else SDA idle
return;
SDALOW //data low
delay_us
SCKLOW //clock low
delay_us
}
//stops i2c, releasing the bus
void stop(void)
{
SDALOW //data low
SCKHIGH //clock high
delay_us
SDAHIGH //data high
delay_us
}
//transmits one byte of data to i2c bus
voidsend_byte(unsigned char c)
{
unsigned mask=0x80;
do //transmits 8 bits
{
if(c&mask) //set data line accordingly(0 or 1)
SDAHIGH //data high
else

SDALOW //data low
delay_us
SCKLOW //clock low
delay_us
mask/=2; //shift mask
}
while(mask>0);
SDAHIGH //release data line for acknowledge
SCKHIGH //send clock for acknowledge
delay_us
slave_ack=SDA; //read data pin for acknowledge
SCKLOW //clock low
delay_us
}
//receives one byte of data from i2c bus
unsigned char receive_byte(unsigned char master_ack)
{
unsigned char c=0,mask=0x80;
do //receive 8 bits
{
delay_us
if(SDA==1) //read data
c|=mask; //store data
SCKLOW //clock low
delay_us
mask/=2; //shift mask
}
while(mask>0);
if(master_ack==1)
SDAHIGH //don't acknowledge
else
SDALOW //acknowledge
delay_us
SCKLOW //clock low
delay_us
SDAHIGH //data high
return c;
}
//writes one byte of data(c) to slave device(device_id) at given address(location)
void write_i2c(unsigned char device_id,unsigned char location,unsigned char c)
{

do
{
start(); //starts i2c bus
send_byte(device_id); //select slave device
if(slave_ack==1) //if acknowledge not received, stop i2c bus
stop();
}
while(slave_ack==1); //loop until acknowledge is received
send_byte(location); //send address location
send_byte(c); //send data to i2c bus
stop(); //stop i2c bus
delay(5);
}
//reads one byte of data(c) from slave device(device_id) at given address(location)
unsigned char read_i2c(unsigned char device_id,unsigned char location)
{
unsigned char c;
do
{
send_byte(device_id); //select slave device
if(slave_ack==1) //if acknowledge not received, stop i2c bus
stop();
}while(slave_ack==1); //loop until acknowledge is received
send_byte(location); //send address location
send_byte(device_id+1); //select slave device in read mode
c=receive_byte(1); //receive data from i2c bus
return c;
}
void message(unsigned char *s)
{
while(*s)
{
write_lcd(*s++,150);
}
}
//In this equation, x = the actual decimal value; cc = the integer value of (x modulo 100)/10; b = the
integer value of (x modulo 1000)/100; I = the integer value of (x modulo 10000)/1000; and m = the
integer value of x/10000.

Voidgopos()
{
while(cnt1>0)
{
init(0x80,15);
write_lcd(((cnt1/10)+48),5);
write_lcd(((cnt1%10)+48),5);
delay(1000);
Mf=1;
Delay (29);
mf=0;
cnt1--;
}
}
Voidgo1 ()
{
Mf=1;
Delay (29);
Mf=0;
}
Voidcurrent time ()
{
While (1)
{
message1 (0xc0,"init-k1y-k2n");
// delay (10000);//after reset display on lcd
//message1 (0xc0,"K1-y:K2-N ");
If (K2==0)
{
z4=1;
Break;
}
elseif(K1==0)
Break;
}
}

CHAPTER 6
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
6.1ADVANTAGES:
1. Solar power is pollution free during use. Production end wastes and emissions are
manageable using existing pollution controls. End-of-use recycling technologies are
under development.
2. Facilities can operate with little maintenance after initial setup.
3. Solar electric generation is economically superior where grid connection or fuel transport
is difficult, costly or impossible.
4. When grid-connected, solar electric generation can displace the highest cost electricity
during times of peak demand can reduce grid loading.
5. Grid-connected solar electricity can be used locally thus reducing
transmission/distribution losses.
6. Once the initial capital cost of building a solar power plant has been spent, operating costs
are extremely low compared to existing power technologies.
7. The power obtained by solar tracking is almost constant over a period of time when
compared with the output obtained by a panel without tracking.
6.2DISADVANTAGES:
1. Solar electricity is almost more expensive than electricity generated by other sources.
2. Solar electricity is not available at night and is less available in cloudy weather conditions.
Therefore, a storage or complimentary power system is required.
3. Limited power density.
4. Solar cells produce DC which must be converted to ACwhen used in currently existing
distribution grids

CHAPTER 7
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
7.1 RESULTS:
1. Output of the power kit was tested and multimeter reading is 5v.
2. Power supply to the control kit was tested.
3. Seconds and minute operation of tracking system was verified.

7.2 CONCLUSION:
In recent years, the generation of electricity using solar technology has seen a tremendous growth, in
particular because of the economic considerations and smooth operation of the solar panels. Even
though the initial costs are high, but operation costs and maintenance costs are low. Solar tracking
system today offer an innovative method to track the solar insolation and provide economic
compatibility of the generation of electric power where grid connections are difficult to setup and
costly.
Here the tracking system is based on microcontroller with effective systematic operation
and the solar panel is rotated by the dc gear motor effectively.
7.3PRESENT CONTRIBUTION AND FUTURE SCOPE:
Here the data provided to the micro controller consists of single common day irrespective
of the rotation of the sun and the seasons.
Effective tracking system is achieved when the data considering the rotation of earth
with respective to sun is included in the micro controller.

A5-SOLAR-TRACKING-SYSTEM

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