Academic writing

APRIL,2019
By Madelaine Bezenzette
ACADEMIC
WRITING

General
Planning and Organizing
Reading and Researching
Using Sources
Specific Types of Writing
Style and Editing
English as a Second Language
Further Resources
ADVICE ON
ACADEMIC
WRITING

GENERAL ADVICE
PROVE
It should try to prove something,
including examples and confirming
citations from any particular text or
sources your argument involves.
It should answer a question or a few
related questions.
ORGANIZATION
How it begins, develops, and ends—
should be designed to present your
argument clearly and persuasively.
ARGUMENT METHODS OF COMPOSING
To start writing early.
To keep the essay’s overall purpose and
organization in mind.
To revise extensively.
To revise sentences,checking to be sure that a
reader will be able to follow the sequences of
ideas within sentences, from sentence to
sentence, and from paragraph to paragraph.

PLANNING AND ORGANIZING
Ask the following questions: What type of essay am I going to be writing? Does it belong to a specific genre?
Knowing the patterns of reasoning associated with a genre can help you to structure your essay.
THESIS STATEMENTS
INTRODUCTIONS
CONCLUSIONS
PARAGRAPHS
TOPIC SENTENCE
It is the main point of the essay and it has a
unifying function
A good introduction should identify your topic,
provide essential context, and indicate your
particular focus in the essay. It also needs to
engage your readers’ interest
It involves critical thinking. A good last sentence
leaves your reader with something to think about,
a concept in some way illuminated by what you’ve
written in the paper.
States the main point of a paragraph. It usually appears
at the very beginning of paragraphs but is not
compulsary. It acts as a signspot for readers.
It involves critical thinking. A good last sentence
leaves your reader with something to think about,
a concept in some way illuminated by what you’ve
written in the paper.

READING &
RESEARCHING
CRITICAL READING
• Make judgements
about how a text is argued.
• Don’t read looking only or primarily
for information.
• Do read looking for ways of
thinking about the subject matter.
SUMMARIZING
• to reproduce the
overarching ideas in a
text, identifying the
general concepts
through the entire piece.
• to express these overall
ideas using precise,
specific language.
SKIMMING
•get a sense of its overall
logical progression
• help you make
decisions about where to
place your greatest focus
when you have limited
time for your reading
SKANNING
• to locate a particular
fact or figure
• Keep a specific set of
goals in mind as you
scan the text, and avoid
becoming distracted by
other material
• Textbooks.
• Primary Sources.
• Research Readings
• Web sites.
READING
DIFFERENT
MATERIAL

To integrate your acknowledgements into what you’re
saying. Give the reference as soon as you’ve mentioned
the idea you’re using, not just at the end of the paragraph.
1
HOW NO TO
PLAGIARIZE
To keep mentioning authors and pages and dates to show
how your ideas are related to those of the experts
2
Always write down the author, title and publication
information (including the specific identifying information
for online publications) so you can attach names and
dates to specific ideas.
3
4
Quotations, paraphrases, or summaries: If you use the
author’s exact words, enclose them in quotation marks, or
indent passages of more than four lines.
USING
RESOURCES

• The language of the passage is particularly elegant or powerful or
memorable.
•You wish to confirm the credibility of your argument by enlisting the
support of an authority on your topic.
•The passage is worthy of further analysis.
•You wish to argue with someone else’s position in considerable detail.
WHEN
SHOULD I
QUOTE?
•Quotations come from somewhere, and your reader will want to
know where.
•They shows that you have done your research and that you are well
acquainted with the literature on your topic.
WHY IS IT
IMPORTANT
TO
IDENTIFY SO
URCES?
QUOTATIONS

TO RESTATE SOMEONE ELSE’S IDEAS
IN YOUR OWN LANGUAGE AT ROUGHLY
THE SAME LEVEL OF DETAIL
•Providing a reference.
The paraphrase must be in your
own words. • Doing more than
merely substitute phrases here and
there.
•Creating your own sentence
structures.
You don’t need to change every
word.
PARAPHRASE SUMMARIZE
TO REDUCE THE MOST ESSENTIAL
POINTS OF SOMEONE ELSE’S WORK
INTO A SHORTER FORM
HOW DO I PARAPHRASE ? HOW DO I SUMMARIZE ?
Summary moves much further than
paraphrase from point-by-point
translation. When you summarize a
passage, you need first to absorb
the meaning and then to capture in
your own words the most important
elements from the original passage.
A summary is necessarily shorter
than a paraphrase.

REVISING
AND
EDITING
• GOOD REVISION AND
EDITING CAN
TRANSFORM A
MEDIOCRE FIRST
DRAFT INTO AN
EXCELLENT FINAL
PAPER. IT’S MORE
WORK BUT LEADS TO
REAL SATISFACTION
WHEN YOU FIND
YOU’VE SAID WHAT
YOU WANTED.
To check
whether you
have fulfilled
the intention of
the assignment
To look at overall
organization.
Polish and edit
your style
• Have you did the kind of thinking the assignment
sheet asked for (e.g., analyse, argue, compare,
explore)
• Have you used concepts and methods of
reasoning discussed in the course?
• Have you given adequate evidence for your
argument or interpretation? Be sure that the reader
knows why and how your ideas are important.
• Does your introduction make clear where the rest
of the paper is headed?
•Is each section in the right place to fulfil your
purpose?
• Have you drawn connections between the
sections?
• Read passages aloud to see if you have achieved
the emphasis you want.
•Be sure to use spell check.
•Don’t depend on a thesaurus
•Don’t depend on a grammar checker

Recent changes in social awareness made people think about the ways language tends to downgrade certain groups.
The “Man” Trap:
Many standard manner seem to assume that every individual is male. Repeating he and she, him and her, his and hers at every
reference is clumsy. Finding alternatives can be as simple as using plural rather than singular, or avoiding a pronoun altoge ther.
UNBIASED LANGUAGE
FAULTY PARALLELISM
Is a construction in which two or more parts of a sentence are equivalent in meaning but not grammatically similar in form.
i.e: My first-year philosophy professor was informative, lively, and a source of inspiration.
My first-year philosophy professor was informative, lively, and a source of inspiration.
Notice that the first two phrases in the a, b, and c construction are adjectives, while the third is a noun phrase.
My first-year philosophy professor was informativea, livelyb, and inspiringc.
Note that all of the items in the series are now adjectives.
PASSIVE VOICE
In English, all sentences are in either “active” or “passive” voice:
active: Werner Heisenberg formulated the uncertainty principle in 1927.
passive: The uncertainty principle was formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927.
Academic writing often focuses on differences between the ideas of different researchers, or between your own ideas and those of the
researchers you are discussing. Too many passive sentences can create confusion: i.e: Research has been done to discredit this
theory. [Who did the research? You? Your professor? Another author?]

It refers to a word or phrase, usually at the start of a sentence, that does not connect properly to the rest of the sentence .
Dangling modifiers are easy to miss.
DANGLING MODIFIER
improving your English spelling is not impossible. you will see a noticeable improvement in your spelling by using some
techniques that good spellers use:
• Use a (good) dictionary.
• Be consistent about using British or American spellings in your writing.
• Be consistent about using British or American spellings in your writing.
• Create your own “difficult-to-spell” lists.
• Learn the standard pronunciations for frequently misspelled words.
• Watch out for homophones, near-homophones, and other easily confusable words.
• Become familiar with English spelling rules.
SPELLING
Regular
The plural form of most nouns is formed by adding s to the end of the word.
There are twelve boys and thirteen girls in that class.
When a word ends in sh, ch, s, z, or x, the plural is usually formed by adding es to the end.
We need three batches of cookies for three different classes at school.
When a word ends in [consonant] + y, the plural is formed by changing the y to ie and adding s.
I may live in only one country at a time, but I feel like a citizen of many countries.
In compound nouns, the principal word is the one made plural.
daughters-in-law, governors general, passers-by, ladies in waiting
PLURALS

Irregular
Many nouns referring to animals have the same form in the singular and in the plural.
The land sustained an abundance of deer and moose, and could also be used to raise sheep.
If a noun ends in f or fe the plural is usually formed by adding s, but is sometimes formed by changing the f or fe to a ve and
adding s.
His beliefs told him that those loaves required sharp knives.
If a noun ends in o, the plural is usually formed by adding s, but is sometimes formed by adding es.
My heroes all play banjos.
Words borrowed into English from other languages sometimes follow the rules for pluralisation in English and sometimes those for
pluralisation in the original language.
phenomenon, phenomena and thesis, theses from Greek; alumnus, alumni and alumna, alumnae from
Latin; tableau, tableaux and corps, corps from French
PLURALS
A noun can be made possessive when it could also have of a or of the preceding it.
the bag of a student = a student’s bag
the orbits of the planets = the planets’ orbits
POSSESSIVES
Possessive pronouns generally do not use an apostrophe to indicate possession. This rule also applies to the possessive form of it,
which is its.
POSSESSIVES PRONOUNS

PUNTUATION
IS USED TO CREATE SENSE, CLARITY AND STRESS IN SENTENCES. YOU USE
PUNCTUATION MARKS TO STRUCTURE AND ORGANISE YOUR WRITING.
COMMAS
Commas after many introductory phrases are optional. When the introductory phrase is short, you can often omit the
comma; when the phrase is longer, a comma will help your reader recognize where the main clause begins:
When joining two independent clauses (clauses that could stand alone as sentences) with a coordinating
conjunction (and, or, nor, but, yet, for, so), you normally place a comma before the conjunction
When joining mere phrases, you usually do
not provide a comma
Place commas between each element of a list of three or more parallel words, phrases, or clauses. Writers often
place a comma before the conjunction (and or or) preceding the last element in the list:
Surround interrupting or parenthetical clauses or phrases with commas. Such clauses or phrases are not essential
to the sentence. If you removed them, the central point of the sentence would remain:

SEMICOLON
The semicolon has two main uses. The first is to combine two closely related independent clauses into one
sentence:
The other valid use of semicolons is to separate list elements that are long or complex. If, in particular, those list
elements contain internal commas, semicolons will help show just where each element begins and ends:
COLON
Colons offer a way of urging your reader forward. The words preceding the colon create an expectation; the words
following the colon fulfill it:
The part of the sentence following the colon can expand on an idea (that nature suggests how to take advantage of
built-in insecticides) or answer an implied question (who exactly belongs to this new literary breed?). Note that a
colon is generally preceded by a full independent clause. It can, however, be followed either by another independent
clause, a phrase, or even a word. The phrase sometimes takes the form of a list:
DASHES
Dashes serve some of the same functions as commas and colons, but they assert themselves more forcefully. Like
commas, dashes are used to set off interrupting clauses or phrases, but a pair of dashes will tend to call more
attention to what lies in between:

SOME SPECIFIC TYPES
OF WRITING

Points to keep in mind:
•do not repeat or rephrase the title. It will
likely be read without the rest of the
document,
•to summarize your conclusions as well
as your purpose, methods, and main
findings.
•Do not refer in the abstract to
information that is not in the document.
•Avoid using I or we, choose active
verbs
•Avoid trade names, acronyms,
abbreviations, or symbols.
•Use key words from the document
Main objectives:
• to survey the literature in your chosen area
of study
• to synthesis the information in that
literature into a summary
• to critical analyses the information
gathered by identifying gaps in current
knowledge; by showing limitations of
theories and points of view; and by
formulating areas for further research and
reviewing areas of controversy
• to present the literature in an organised
way
A LITERATURE
REVIEWIS AN ACCOUNT OF WHAT HAS BEEN PUBLISHED ON A
TOPIC BY ACCREDITED SCHOLARS AND
RESEARCHERS.
IT MUST BE DEFINED BY A GUIDING CONCEPT (E.G.,
YOUR RESEARCH OBJECTIVE, THE PROBLEM OR ISSUE
YOU ARE DISCUSSING, OR YOUR ARGUMENTATIVE
THESIS).
THE ABSTRACT
IT GIVES A FIRST IMPRESSION OF THE DOCUMENT THAT
FOLLOWS, LETTING READERS DECIDE WHETHER TO
CONTINUE READING AND SHOWING THEM WHAT TO
LOOK FOR IF THEY DO.

Points to keep in mind
•Avoid plot summary.
•A good thesis is a statement of roughly
one to three sentences that says
something intelligent about a literary work.
It is not sufficient simply to identify a
theme in your thesis
•Let the structure of your argument
determine the structure of your paper.
•Opt for analysis instead of evaluative
judgments
•Don’t confuse the author with the speaker.
Integrate quotations fully into your
argument.
WRITING ABOUT
LITERATURE
ADMISSION
LETTERS
Points to keep in mind:
•Be focussed.
•Be coherent
•Be interpretive
•Be specific.
•Be personal.
Some standard patterns for prose
exposition:
Narrative
Analytic
Technical

USING
ARTICLES
ARTICLES ARE SPECIAL
MODIFIERS THAT APPEAR
BEFORE NOUNS OR NOUN
PHRASES.
In order to use articles correctly, you should
ask these questions:
•Is the noun countable or uncountable?
•Is it singular or plural?
•Is it definite or indefinite?
THE USE OF THE
DEFINITE ARTICLE
To decide if you should use the word the,
ask yourself these three questions:
•Is the noun indefinite (unspecified) or
definite (specific)?
•Is the noun modified?
•Is the noun modified?

USING
ARTICLES
ARTICLES ARE SPECIAL
MODIFIERS THAT APPEAR
BEFORE NOUNS OR NOUN
PHRASES.
In order to use articles correctly, you should
ask these questions:
•Is the noun countable or uncountable?
•Is it singular or plural?
•Is it definite or indefinite?
THE USE OF THE
DEFINITE ARTICLE
We use the definite article in front of a noun when we believe the hearer/reader
knows exactly what we are referring to.
• because there is only one:
We use the definite article with a superlative adjective: He is the tallest boy in the class.
• because there is only one in that place or in those surroundings:
To say something about all the things referred to by a noun:
The wolf is not really a dangerous animal (= Wolves are not really dangerous animals)
• to refer to a system or service: How long does it take on the train?
• With adjectives like rich to talk about groups of people
• countries whose names include words like kingdom, states or republic
• countries which have plural nouns as their names
• geographical features, such as mountain
• newspapers
• well known buildings or works of art
• families: the Obamas

With all, few, many, much, some, the
verb agrees with the preceding noun
or clause:
1
EXPRESSIONS
OF QUANTITY When majority/minority mean
a specific percentage, you may use
either a singular or a plural verb:
When majority/minority refers to
a specified set of persons, use a
plural verb:
2
Expressions of time, money and
distance usually take a singular verb:3WITH SUBJECTS THAT
INTRODUCE THE IDEA OF
QUANTITY SOME RULES
ARE NEEDED FOR
ACADEMIC WRITING
Adjectives preceded by the and used
as plural nouns take a plural verb:
Expressions using the phrase number
of depend on the meaning of the
phrase:
4
5

Following a verb (gerund or infinitive)
Both gerunds and infinitives can replace a
noun as the object of a verb. Whether you
use a gerund or an infinitive depends on the
main verb in the sentence.
1GEROUNDS
Following a preposition (gerund only)
Gerunds can follow a preposition;
infinitives cannot.
2
Following an indirect object (infinitive only)
Some verbs are followed by a pronoun or
noun referring to a person, and then an
infinitive. Gerunds cannot be used in this
position.
3
GERUNDS AND
INFINITIVES ARE VERB
FORMS THAT CAN TAKE
THE PLACE OF A NOUN IN
A SENTENCE.

REFERRING TO SOURCES
GRAMMATICAL PATTERN
1: reporting verb + that + subject + verb
Pattern
2: reporting
verb + somebody/something + for + noun/gerund
3: reporting
verb + somebody/something + as + noun/gerund/a
djective
You can indicate your attitude to the sources you
cite by choosing specific verbs to refer to them.
EXAMPLES
Da Souza argues that previous researchers have
misinterpreted the data.
VERBS FOR REFERRING TO SOURCES
Smith criticized Jones for his use of incomplete data
(OR for using incomplete data).
Jones describes the findings as resting on
irrefutable evidence.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Prof. C. A. Silber (n.d).Some General Advice on Academic Essay-Writing. Toronto, Canada.:
University of Toronto.
Web site: https://advice.writing.utoronto.ca/
Jerry Plotnick (n.d).Organizing an Essay. Toronto, Canada.: University of Toronto.
Deborah Knott (n.d).Researching. Toronto, Canada.: University of Toronto.

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