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Achieving zero hunger

This document estimates the investments needed to achieve zero hunger by 2030. It finds that an average annual investment of $267 billion is required, with $181 billion going to rural areas. This includes $116 billion for social protection programs to immediately assist extremely poor people, and $151 billion for pro-poor investments in agriculture and rural development to stimulate long-term income growth for the poor. Social protection would initially help the poor meet basic food needs, while targeted investments would accelerate rural economic growth and employment to gradually reduce poverty and hunger over time as poor people's incomes rise. A combination of social protection and pro-poor investments is needed to both immediately help the extreme poor while also fostering sustainable escapes from poverty.

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Achieving Zero Hunger The critical role of investments in social protection and agriculture
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FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 2015 Achieving Zero Hunger The critical role of investments in social protection and agriculture
iii iv Advocacy note vi Executive Summary viii Acknowledgements 1 Introduction 3 Investing for development 5 The baseline scenario to 2030: business as usual 9 Achieving zero hunger by investing in social protection and pro-poor development 13 Targeted pro-poor investment in rural areas: possible domains 17 Further considerations and concluding remarks 19 Appendix 1. Achieving zero hunger by investing in social protection 23 Appendix 2. Achieving zero hunger by investing in growth 31 Appendix 3. Step-wise approach for investing in growth 33 Appendix 4. Statistical tables Contents
iv F AO, IFAD and WFP have prepared new estimates on the additional investments required for sustainably ending hunger by 2030, in line with the highest aspirations of the post-2015 Sustainable Development agenda and the draft Addis Ababa Accord which clearly states, “Our goal is to end poverty and hunger”. FAO, IFAD and WFP welcome this global commitment to end poverty, hunger and malnutrition by 2030. We are making our proposal on how to achieve zero hunger by 2030 in the context of the proposed Sustainable Development Goal 2 to eliminate hunger and malnutrition by 2030 which goes hand-in-hand with the proposed Strategic Development Goal 1 to eliminate poverty at the same time. With almost 800 million people suffering from hunger and four-fifths of the poor living in rural areas, it is necessary to raise agricultural and rural incomes to achieve the two most important Strategic Development Goals. The ‘dollar-a-day’ extreme poverty line - adopted for Millennium Development Goal 1 monitoring purposes - was originally based on the estimated costs for individuals to meet their basic needs, of which access to food was, by far, the most significant. Food expenditure generally ranged between 50 to 70 percent of the poverty line income, depending on the country and context. The so called dollar-a-day extreme poverty line was last adjusted by the World Bank to US$1.25 a day. Hence, the extreme poverty line is a reasonably good indicator of who goes hungry, although the poverty and hunger numbers differ due to the different data and methodological approaches used. ■■ We can end poverty and hunger! We can end poverty and hunger by 2030. But we will need a new approach that combines public investment in social protection with public and private efforts to raise investment levels in productive sectors - especially in rural areas and particularly agriculture - to much higher levels than in a ‘business as usual’ scenario. To eliminate hunger by 2030, much more investment will be needed, than what is expected in what may be described as a business as usual scenario. An average of US$267 billion per year during 2016-2030, i.e. 0.3 percent of world economic output in 2014, is required to fund social protection and additional targeted pro-poor investments, of which rural areas would receive US$181 billion annually. This would average US$160 annually for each of the extreme poor over the 15-year period. ■■ Agricultural investment and rural development Increasing aggregate investments is expected to increase growth, employment and thus, incomes. Properly designed and implemented investments in zero hunger will increase the productivity and incomes of small-scale producers, while offering broader opportunities for the poor and vulnerable. Of the total average annual financing of US$267 billion needed, some US$151 billion will be for additional pro- poor investments in the productive sectors – US$105 billion for rural development and agriculture and US$46 billion for urban areas. To sustainably eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, we need to boost both private and public investment to raise rural and agricultural productivity and incomes, as well as to promote more productive, sustainable and inclusive food systems. Farmers are the major source of investment in the sector, but formal systems of credit and insurance often discriminate against them, especially smallholder family farmers and others less well endowed. Most developing countries are characterized by high unemployment and underemployment, with youth unemployment growing rapidly. Sadly, this has also become a feature of many developed economies in recent years following the adoption of fiscal austerity measures. Advocacy note
v Furthermore, there remains continued uncertainty about future economic prospects, especially with the recent slowing down of the world economy. As there are few effective measures in place likely to reverse this situation, we cannot rely on business as usual investment and growth to eliminate hunger and poverty by 2030. ■■ Social protection To break the vicious cycle of poverty and hunger, people who are extremely poor and hungry have to be assisted -- through social protection. Adequate, well designed social protection would enable the people in this category to quickly overcome poverty, hunger and undernutrition. From the total investment of US$267 billion, an investment of US$116 billion per annum is needed for social protection programmes, of which US$75 billion will go to rural areas, where most of the poor live, and US$41 billion to urban areas. While many may see social protection simply as consumption, the evidence is strong and growing that even modest savings will be deployed by the poor to enhance their productive capacities and their incomes. Also, better nutrition raises productivity, and thus, incomes, both in the short and long term. Social protection is a powerful investment in human capacities and the productive potential of the poor. Thus, the combination of social protection and pro-poor investments will enable most of the rural poor to escape poverty and hunger sustainably. As other enabling factors are also needed, social protection and pro-poor investments are necessary, though not sufficient. As rural incomes rise due to targeted, additional, pro-poor rural investments, there should be a corresponding decline in the amount of social protection needed. ■■ Funding issues The UN’s Third International Conference on Financing for Development in Addis Ababa seeks to ensure that all countries, especially developing countries, have the means to implement national policies and programs to achieve their development objectives, including the post-2015 Sustainable Development Goals. Currently, low income countries have very meagre fiscal resources because they are able to impose few taxes on relatively low national incomes. The least developed and other low-income countries must be enabled to enhance their fiscal resources efficiently and equitably. Their funding gap should be closed and this can be achieved through more generous international resource transfers than what has been the case in the last quarter century. Such transfers should be used to increase poor countries’ budget envelopes, to accelerate progress in eliminating poverty, hunger and malnutrition from our planet. International cooperation can also help share and develop appropriate know-how. Other factors will need to be taken into account. For example, with the continued increase in greenhouse gas emissions, average temperatures and extreme weather events, efforts have to be made to address both adaptation to as well as mitigation of climate change. We intend to address these issues in the near future, especially in relation to agriculture. This technical report should assure everyone that our proposal to end poverty, hunger and malnutrition is clearly viable and affordable, provided that a strong political will exists. This has been demonstrated in large and small countries, and also in middle income as well as poor countries. We look forward to working with governments and the rest of the international community to ensure that hunger and poverty will be history by 2030. José Graziano da Silva FAO Director-General Kanayo F. Nwanze IFAD President Ertharin Cousin WFP Executive Director
vi D espite progress in recent decades, including the near achievement of the Millennium Development Goal target of halving the proportion of hungry people in the world by the end of 2015, about 795 million people – or around one in nine – still suffer from chronic (dietary energy) undernourishment, or hunger. The eradication of hunger by 2030 is likely to be a target of the new Sustainable Development Goal 2 (SDG2) to be approved in September 2015 at the 70th Session of the United Nations General Assembly. Ending hunger is also in line with the Zero Hunger Campaign promoted by the UN Secretary-General, and closely linked to the Sustainable Development Goal 1 target to eliminate poverty by 2030. Governments in various regions have responded to that call of the UN Secretary-General and have committed to eradicating hunger as a major step towards poverty reduction. Almost four-fifths of the world’s poor live in rural areas. To achieve zero hunger (ZH) by 2030, the international community needs to build upon approaches and options that have proven to be effective, and which ensure continuous access to food for the undernourished, and improve livelihood opportunities for the poor and hungry. This paper presents new estimates on investments required to eradicate hunger by 2030. To estimate the additional investment requirements, we begin with reference to a “baseline” “business as usual” scenario. In this scenario, around 650 million people would still suffer from hunger, or chronically inadequate dietary energy, in 2030. We then estimate the investment requirements to eliminate hunger by 2030. This paper specifically considers how hunger can be eliminated through a combination of social protection and targeted pro-poor investments. The investment requirements proposed in this paper are prepared for the Third International Conference on Financing for Development taking place from 13 to 16 July 2015, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. ■■ Social Protection Hunger, undernutrition and poverty can be rapidly eliminated through social protection as soon as possible. Access to food is the most significant basic need by far, with the minimal cost of basic food ranging between 50 to 70 percent of the total poverty line income. Income is provided to the poor and hungry through social protection so that they can afford sufficient food to meet their basic nourishment needs. Bringing people to the US$1.25/day extreme poverty line income in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms would ensure that everyone has access to their basic food needs. The poor can be immediately brought to the US$1.25/ day poverty line through social protection by a “Transfer to cover the Poverty Gap” (PGT). This PGT eliminates poverty and hunger as soon as possible. The PGT is thus the cost of bringing all those with less than US$1.25/day to that income level. ■■ Accelerating pro-poor growth In the longer term, additional investment is required to stimulate and to sustain higher pro-poor rural growth of incomes and employment than in the business as usual scenario. To be pro-poor, investments in urban and rural areas, including in agriculture, should be properly targeted so that the poor could earn enough to overcome poverty. In the longer term, as the incomes of the poor increase because of investments, the need for social protection to close the poverty gap declines. Consequently, the cost of this approach will require adding the costs of both components while also recognizing the implications of the higher incomes generated. First, the annual average “gross PGT” – inclusive of a mark-up of Executive Summary
vii 20 percent for administrative costs and leakages –between 2016 and 2030 is estimated. Second, the additional annual global investment requirements are also estimated. An average of US$267 (bn) per year is estimated to be required to fund the PGT and additional targeted agricultural investments from 2016 to 2030, of which rural areas would receive US$181 bn annually. Initially, the poor are expected to earn incomes from wage work and their meagre productive assets (such as land), but are not expected to be able to invest much. This means that to induce private investments, the additional investment required has to be adequately remunerated. However, as the poor save more, they are able to invest more, and thus become more productive and increase their earnings. Both public and private investments can help to accelerate the transition from social protection to production. While private agents including farmers are, by far, the largest source of investment in rural areas, investment in public goods, such as rural transport and other infrastructure as well as productivity-enhancing research, development and extension, should attract more productive investments. Additional public investment can also diversify sources of rural income and expand the provision of rural and agricultural goods and services. To summarize, hunger and extreme poverty can be eliminated immediately with adequate investments in social protection. However, low income countries will find it unaffordable, and will require continuous external support until they are able to raise incomes and tax revenues sufficiently. A combination of social protection and targeted pro-poor investments can quickly take people out of hunger and extreme poverty while raising earned incomes for the poor in the medium term. Doing so requires an appropriate mix of public and private investments, and appropriate policies and coordinated programmes to ensure that the poor actually benefit from such additional investment and the growth and employment opportunities thus generated. ■■ Appendices Pro-poor growth can be organized in many different ways. Appendix 1 considers the costs and benefits of providing more generous social protection by comparing the likely implications of transfers equivalent to a poverty line of US$2/ day compared to US$1.25/day. Additional social protection over the poverty line can assure access to basic food and other needs and augment investments by the poor, enabling them to become more productive and to earn more. This option is premised on the “from protection to production” assumption that additional social protection will increase investments by the poor, enabling them to become more productive and earn more, thus transitioning from a vicious cycle of poverty, hunger, and low productivity to a virtuous cycle by enabling income growth. A higher PGT would enable more diverse and thus healthier diets. The higher PGT can also improve nutrition by addressing ‘hidden hunger’, or micronutrient deficiencies, due to the inadequate intake of vitamins, minerals and trace elements critical for a healthy human life. Improving nutrition in the short and long term should enable the poor to engage more productively in economic activities, improving their incomes and livelihoods. More generous transfers would also enable the poor to save and invest parts of their income to improve their productivity, and livelihoods. After all, almost by definition, an income of US$1.25 a day would only cover basic needs, but would not enable saving and investing. Savings and investments would allow the poor to break out of vicious cycles of poverty, hunger, low productivity and incomes and to enter these virtuous cycles leading to higher incomes, more investments, greater resilience and lives of dignity. Appendix 2 considers the additional investment requirements of an alternative overall balanced growth scenario above that of the business as usual starting scenario. This approach would require, on average, an additional US$1463 bn per year between 2016 and 2030, of which about US$111 bn is expected to go to agriculture. In this scenario, an estimated 338 million people (up to 5 percent of the population in countries requiring additional investment) would still be unable to earn enough to overcome hunger or chronic (dietary energy) undernourishment after 2030. The average annual costs of a “Food Deficit Transfer” (FDT), i.e. to meet the Minimum Dietary Energy Requirement (MDER), for the bottom five percent “left behind” are estimated at US$14 bn (including a 20 percent mark-up for administrative costs and leakages).
ix T his paper has been prepared by FAO, IFAD, WFP. It was written, under the leadership of Jomo Kwame Sundaram and Kostas Stamoulis, by Lorenzo Giovanni Bellù, Senior Economist, Team Leader, Marc Mueller and Aikaterini Kavallari, Economists, FAO-Global Perspectives Studies (GPS) team. Jelle Bruinsma, FAO Senior Consultant, provided methodological support. IFAD, notably Josefina Stubbs and team and staff members in the SKD and Program Departments, and WFP, notably Arif Husain, Michelle Lacey and John McHarris from the Food Security Analysis and Trends Service, contributed to the document. The contributions of Isabel Ortiz and Andres Acuna, from ILO, are also acknowledged. They shared with GPS the ILO proposal for the costing of a “Social Protection Floor” and provided useful hints on the issue of social protection. Last, but certainly not least, the GPS team would like to thank all the FAO colleagues who constantly provided support with suggestions, comments and amendments of the various versions of the paper: Rob Vos, Boubaker Ben Belhassen, Guy Evers, Michael Clark, Lucas Tavares, Coumba Dieng Sow, Anna Rappazzo, Dorian Kalamvrezos Navarro, Sangita Dubey, Piero Conforti, Carlo Cafiero, Richard Allen and all the other colleagues who contributed to the preparation of this report. Graphic design was provided by Monica Umena, Publication Division (OCCP), Office for Corporate Communication (FAO) and final editing review by Alison Small, (OCCP). Acknowledgements
1 Introduction T his report presents estimates of the additional investment that would be required to achieve the objective of world-wide zero hunger (ZH) by 2030, i.e. virtually eliminating the prevalence of undernourishment. To estimate the additional investment requirements, we adopt and compare two alternative methodologies. The first methodology, which estimates the additional investment required to raise GDP to achieve zero hunger, builds upon Schmidhuber and Bruinsma (2011)1 . While this document follows the same broad steps, it complements the 2011 study with some new approaches using the FAO GAPS global partial equilibrium model for country-wise long term projections of food demand and supply2 , and estimation of a “Food Deficit Transfer” (FDT), i.e. the transfers required to enable people not able to earn enough to feed themselves, to no longer remain undernourished. This approach involves very large, economy-wide investments to achieve zero hunger by 2030, most of which are likely to involve private investments by farmers themselves, presumably according to their different means. The second methodology involves (targeted pro-poor) Social Protection (SP) to immediately lift people out of extreme poverty. This approach assumes that thanks to the possibility of meeting their basic needs, including diversifying their diets (thus improving their nutrition), the poor will enhance their productive capacities to increase their incomes. This will enable the poor to break out of a vicious cycle of poverty, hunger and low productivity into a virtuous cycle of higher productivity, and income generation. This progression from protection to production will accelerate the reduction of poverty, hunger and malnutrition, allowing the ZH target to be realized, no poverty as well as dietary diversity. 1 Schmidhuber, J. and J. Bruinsma (2011). “Investing towards a world free of hunger: lowering vulnerability and enhancing resilience”. Chapter 27 in Prakash, A. (2011) (ed.). Safeguarding Food Security in Volatile Global Markets. FAO, Rome. See: http://www.fao.org/economic/est/issues/volatility/ vgm/en/ 2 FAO (2015). Global Agriculture Perspectives System (GAPS), Version 1.0 Global Perspectives Studies Team. ESA. FAO. Rome. This report is structured as follows: Section 2 frames the need for investment to achieve zero hunger in the broader context of financing for development. Section 3 outlines the business as usual (BaU) scenario, which serves as a reference for all the subsequent scenarios. Section 4 presents the main scenario, where ZH is achieved by social protection measures, aimed at immediately taking people out of hunger, and targeted investments in rural areas and agriculture (ZHbotmea scenario), to sustainably raise incomes in the longer term. Section 5 specifies the types of investments required and priority areas for agricultural development, while Section 6 provides concluding remarks. Other scenarios considered are appended: Appendix 1 considers the costs and benefits of providing more generous social protection to cover a PGT for a poverty line equivalent to US$2 a day. Appendix 2 looks into a scenario where ZH is achieved through investment for economy-wide growth (ZHtotinv scenario) and a transfer to fill the Food Deficit Gap (FDT) for the bottom 5 percent “left behind” by the growth process. Finally, methodological details and statistical tables follow in Appendices 3 and 4.
3 Investing for development ■■ Funding the post-2015 development agenda The estimate of investment required to achieve zero hunger fits within the broader exercise of planning suitable investments to support the post-2015 development agenda and to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that will be adopted in September 2015 by the United Nations. The third international conference on Financing for Development (FfD3), to be held in Addis Ababa from 13 to 16 July 2015, is expected to identify the modalities for funding implementation of the post-2015 development agenda. ■■ The challenges ahead Setting achievable sustainable development objectives in a forward-looking global framework is both timely and urgent, in light of the challenges that humanity is facing. The world population, which was barely one billion at the beginning of the nineteenth century, is now, after two centuries, more than seven billion. While Gross World Product (GWP) in 1800 was around US$175 bn3 , it is now almost US$76,000 bn4 . Agriculture dramatically evolved during this period. For instance, wheat yields in Europe increased from around 1.2 tons per hectare in 18005 to around 7.0 tons per hectare today. Also globally, in the last fifty years, cereal yields have more than tripled, helping to feed the fast growing human and livestock populations. However, this dramatic increase in the production of goods and services has progressively stressed the capacity of the Earth to support human activities, hindering prospects for future development. “…Current policy, financing and investment patterns are not delivering the future we want… Some countries have fallen further behind, and inequalities 3 DeLong, J. Bradford (1998). “Estimating World GDP, One Million B.C. – Present 4 The World Bank (2014). Data Bank. Gross Domestic Product 2013. 5 Grigg, D.B. (1980). Population Growth and Agrarian Change: An Historical Perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. have increased... Shocks from economic crises, conflict, natural disasters, and disease outbreaks spread rapidly in our highly interconnected world. Environmental concerns, climate change and other global risks threaten to undermine past successes and future prospects” (UN 2015)6 . Climate change is of particular concern, inter alia, for food security and nutrition, as it is more severely impacting already fragile ecosystems where most food and nutrition insecure people live7 . All in all, it is estimated that our current “ecological footprint”, i.e. the quantity of land-equivalent required to absorb the impacts of our activities corresponds to one and half Earths. Under a business as usual scenario, we would need three planets by 20508 . Although these figures may be broad indicative estimates, they raise concerns about the sustainability of our development path on economic, environmental and social grounds. ■■ Sustainably Achieving Zero Hunger A major target of the SDG agenda is the eradication of hunger. This is a UN system-wide priority and the centrepiece of the Zero Hunger Campaign promoted by the UN Secretary General’s High-Level Task Force on World Food Security (HLTF). To achieve zero hunger by 2030, governments and the international community need to build upon approaches that have proven to be effective, and which combine three important elements: a. Providing immediate access. Promote immediate access to food and nutrition-related services to the hungry people through Social Protection programmes, including transfers 6 UN (2015). Zero-draft outcome of the third international conference on Financing for Development, Addis Ababa, July 2015. New York, March 2015. http://www.un.org/pga/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2015/03/160315_ ffd-zero-draft-outcome.pdf 7 IPCC (2014). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds)]. IPCC, Geneva, http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/ assessment-report/ar5/syr/SYR_AR5_FINAL_full.pdf 8 Global Footprint Network: www.footprintnetwork.org.
Achieving Zero Hunger: The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 4 of food and/or cash to immediately relieve hunger and also to increase human productive potential; b. Increasing opportunities. Create opportunities for the poor and hungry to improve their livelihoods by promoting decent labour conditions, promoting investment to improve farm productivity, rural infrastructure and market access, knowledge generation, learning and information; c. Ensuring sustainability. Increase the sustainability of food systems by conserving natural resources and adopting sustainable agricultural practices, reducing food losses in production and processing, modify unsustainable dietary preferences, reduce levels of food waste in consumption, and reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from agriculture and other sectors, to slow the pace of climate change and ensure the food security of future generations (HLPE, 2012)9 . 9 HLPE (2012). Food security and climate change. A Report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Committee on World Food Security, Rome. ■■ Investing in agriculture. Investing in agriculture is a way of increasing the productivity of agricultural labour and land. Productivity increases enable better remuneration, as productivity is a major determinant of farm incomes, thus contributing to raising the living conditions of food insecure strata of the population while helping to reduce pressure on scarce natural resources. Private agents, including farmers, are, by far, the largest source of investment in rural areas. However, public investment in public goods -- such as institution building, productivity-enhancing research, rural transport, health, education and social protection -- is needed to ensure food security, nutrition and inclusive sustainable development (FAO 2012, 2015)10 . 10 FAO (2012). State of Food and Agriculture, 2012. FAO, Rome. FAO (2015). State of Food and Agriculture, 2015 (forthcoming). FAO, Rome.
5 The baseline scenario to 2030: business as usual T o test the effectiveness of the various measures envisaged to achieve ZH by 2030, we begin by building a scenario to reflect a business as usual (BaU) situation. This scenario provides projections of undernourishment to 2030 assuming that no significant changes in policies and actions to achieve ZH will be undertaken. ■■ Measuring undernourishment. If the Dietary Energy Consumption (DEC) is a measure of the dietary energy nourishment of people, the Prevalence of Undernourishment (PoU) is calculated as the proportion of a population with a DEC below the minimum caloric intake to conduct a decent life, also known as the Minimum Daily Energy Requirement (MDER)11 . An increase of the DEC of undernourished people that brings them above the MDER reduces the prevalence of undernourishment. The prevalence of undernourishment is calculated on the basis of three parameters: the Average (per capita) Dietary Energy Consumption (ADEC), the MDER, and an estimate of the coefficient of variation (CV). ■■ The base year To build the BaU scenario, reference is made to the period 2005-2007, the base years that anchor the projections of undernourishment in the future (FAO, 2012)12 . In the base 11 FAO (2014). State of World Food Insecurity, 2015. (SOFI 2015). Meeting the 2015 international hunger targets: taking stock of uneven progress. Annex 2. FAO, Rome. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4646e.pdf 12 Alexandratos, N. and J. Bruinsma (2012). “World agriculture: towards 2030 and 2050 – the 2012 revision”. ESA Working Paper No. 12-03, FAO, Rome, available at: http://www.fao.org/economic/esa/esag/en/ period, around 949 million people were undernourished13 . The large majority of the undernourished (829 million) were concentrated in 60 countries, expected to miss the zero hunger target by 2030 if no additional investment occurred. The others (120 million) were in 50 countries expected to be on target by 2030 with no additional investments (Table 1, first panel). Most undernourished people (920 million) were concentrated in low and medium income countries in five areas, notably sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), Near East and North Africa (MNA), Latin America and Caribbean (LAC), South Asia (SAS) and East Asia (EAS). In these areas, although ADEC greatly exceeded the MDER, almost 18 percent of the population was undernourished. The prevalence of undernourishment was particularly high in SSA (29 percent) and in SAS (20.5 percent)14 . ■■ Business as usual scenario to 2030 Food consumption projections to 2030 reveal that by 2030, 653 million people will still be undernourished. In the BaU scenario, the global world product is expected to grow at 2.4 percent per annum to 2030. In the various regions GDP is projected to increase at rates between 2.2 percent, as in LAC, and 4.5 percent, as in EAS (Table 2). At the same time, population and investments are also expected to grow. The shift in GDP is expected to raise the Average Dietary Energy Consumption (ADEC) from 2619 to 2857 kcal/person/ day (+9 percent) in low and middle income countries 13 Food consumption is distributed across the population according to calorie distribution functions calibrated on the prevalence of undernourishment reported in SOFI 2015. Due to calibration procedures to match the FAO GAPS model, which is calibrated on food consumption as in FAO AT 2030/50, and the SOFI dataset, the undernourishment indicators we obtain for the base year are only slightly different from the indicators reported in SOFI 2015. 14 These figures are substantially aligned with the statistics reported in SOFI 2015. Some discrepancies are due to calibration procedures.
Achieving Zero Hunger: The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 6 TABLE 1 Undernourishment in the business as usual (BaU) scenario   Population Minimum Daily Energy Requirements (MDER) Average Dietary Energy Consumption (ADEC) Coefficient of Variation (CV) Persons chronically undernourished   million kcal/person/day percent million 2005/07 (Base Year) World 6,568 1,846 2,769 0.297 14.4 949 High-Income countries 1,351 1,949 3,348 0.223 2.2 29 Low & middle income countries 5,216 1,819 2,619 0.317 17.6 920 sub-Saharan Africa 730 1,747 2,238 0.327 29.0 212 Near East / North Africa 432 1,832 3,007 0.285 8.3 36 Latin America /Caribbean 556 1,838 2,898 0.278 8.4 47 South Asia 1,520 1,769 2,292 0.276 20.5 311 East Asia 1,957 1,875 2,850 0.362 15.9 311 50 countries on target in 2030 2,626 1,886 3,122 0.243 4.6 120 60 countries not on target in 2030 3,941 1,819 2,534 0.333 21.0 828 25 worst-off countries* 492 1,752 2,062 0.373 39.8 196 2030 Business as Usual (BaU) scenario (Baseline) World 8,274 1,865 2,955 0.272 7.9 653 High-Income countries 1,437 1,941 3,425 0.217 1.1 16 Low & middle income countries 6,838 1,849 2,857 0.283 9.3 637 sub-Saharan Africa 1,245 1,812 2,528 0.288 17.4 216 Near East / North Africa 615 1,865 3,133 0.266 4.7 29 Latin America /Caribbean 682 1,872 3,091 0.258 4.0 27 South Asia 2,016 1,825 2,587 0.245 9.3 188 East Asia 2,247 1,878 3,133 0.327 7.8 175 50 countries on target in 2030 3,113 1,895 3,243 0.233 2.0 63 60 countries not on target in 2030 5,161 1,846 2,782 0.295 11.4 590 25 worst-off countries* 833 1,812 2,363 0.320 25.2 210 * The worst-off countries are defined as countries that would have to raise their average DEC in 2030 by more than 10 percent to eliminate hunger. Source: own calculations based on Alexandratos, N. and J. Bruinsma (2012) and SOFI 2015.
The Baseline Scenario to 2030: Business as Usual 7 (Table 2, second panel)15 . The latter implies that the Coefficient of Variation (CV) of food distribution drops and the overall percentage of the undernourished in those countries falls to 9.3 percent16 . However, this percentage remains high in SSA and SAS (at 17.4 percent and 9.3 percent respectively), and above target in four of the five areas under consideration. The projections of undernourishment to 2030 in the BaU clearly indicate that efforts are needed to increase food consumption for more than 650 million people who would otherwise remain undernourished. 15 The Average Dietary Energy Consumption (ADEC) is not merely net caloric intake, but a gross figure which includes a proportion of waste. 16 The drop of the Coefficient of Variation for Dietary Energy Consumption (DEC) distribution is obtained by keeping the Standard Deviation (SD) of the DEC distribution constant over time at its base year (2005/07) level for every country. Since CV = SD / ADEC, the CV declines when the ADEC increases with a constant SD. In the following sections, this paper explores a scenario (ZHbotmea) where ZH can be achieved through a mix of social protection and additional targeted “pro-poor” investments, specifically in rural areas, where the great majority of the poor live. Two alternative scenarios are also explored for comparative purposes, notably the achievement of ZH through social protection (ZHsocpro) to close a US$2 a day poverty gap and additional investment for economy-wide growth (ZHtotinv) complemented by financing to cover the remaining dietary energy gap for the bottom five percent presumed to be ‘left behind’. The findings for these scenarios are reported in Appendices 1 and 2 respectively17 . 17 The three main approaches adopted so far estimate the cost and related funding requirements for development goals as provided in the European Report on Development – 2015 (European Commission, 2015 pp 68-69: 1) “Unit cost-based analyses”; 2) Growth-based approaches; and 3) Computable General Equilibrium (CGE)-based approaches. The approaches adopted here for the estimation of social protection needs fit in the first family while those for the estimation of additional investment requirements belong to the second family. TABLE 2 GDP and Investment in the Business as Usual Scenario GDP (constant 2013 Billion US$) GDP growth (%) Average, p. a. 2016-2030 Av. Gr. Inv., bn US$ 2016-2030 2005/7 2030 BaU BaU BaU World 56,263 101,131 2.40 9,202 High-Income countries 42,388 61,530 1.65 4,189 Low & middle income countries 13,875 39,601 3.79 5,013 sub-Saharan Africa 548 1,629 4.01 163 Near East / North Africa 1,881 4,334 3.33 512 Latin America /Caribbean 3,588 6,413 2.02 517 South Asia 1,393 4,391 3.82 396 East Asia 6,037 21,859 4.52 3,303 50 countries on target in 2030 49,820 76,654 1.83 5,697 60 countries not on target in 2030 6,443 24,476 4.63 3,506 25 worst-off countries* 273 793 4.02 70
9 Achieving zero hunger by investing in social protection and pro-poor development I n this paper it is assumed that hunger is essentially caused by a lack of entitlements or purchasing power, that do not allow people to have access to sufficient and nutritious food. Therefore hunger can be defeated by providing people the opportunity to obtain enough income to afford sufficient and nutritious food and to satisfy basic needs for adequate food utilization. ■■ How much income is needed to exit hunger? People who are out of extreme poverty are also free of hunger. Assuming the US$1.25/day PPP poverty line as a threshold for extreme poverty, each person who disposes of at least US$1.25/day is also free of hunger. Therefore, the additional per capita income to exit poverty can be measured as the additional amount of income required on average by the poor to overcome the US$1.25/ day PPP poverty line, i.e. the so called “poverty gap”. On the basis of the poverty gap and the number of the poor, the total amount of income required each year to pull everybody out of poverty is calculated18 . In the BaU scenario, both the poverty gap and the number of the poor are projected to vary due to changes in national income, population and income distribution from 2016 to 2030. Therefore, the additional income needed to take people out of poverty varies as well. Table 3 provides the additional income required with respect to the BaU scenario to pull people out of poverty both in US$ and as percentage of the GDP for 2016, 2030 and on average from 2016 to 2030. Figure 1 shows the required additional income to pull people out of poverty from 2016 to 2030. While, overall, per capita GDP growth reduces the proportion of the poor as 18 The poverty gap and the number of the poor, calculated as total population times the percentage of the poor (prevalence of poverty) are estimated on the basis of country-wise log-normal distribution functions fitted to the poverty indicators in the World Bank Povcalnet database. The annual income required at country level to pull people out of poverty is calculated as the poverty gap (as percent of the poverty line) times the poverty line times the number of poor times 365. well as the poverty gap, the increase of the population will tend to increase the amount of additional income required with respect to the BaU to exit poverty. Globally, the additional income required decreases slightly from US$150 bn to US$147 bn. The average income requirements from 2016 to 2030 are estimated at around US$148 bn. ■■ How to provide additional income to the poor In this scenario (ZHbotmea), two instruments are considered to provide the poor with additional income to pull them out of poverty, namely: 1) investment in social protection; and 2) investment in agriculture and rural development. The two instruments are combined so that: a. Universal exit out of poverty and hunger is achieved as soon as possible; b. Productive capacities and earned incomes of the poor progressively increase, particularly in rural areas; c. Reliance on social protection incomes progressively declines. FIGURE 1 Additional income required to pull people out of poverty, 2016-2030 (US$ bn, constant 2013 prices) 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 Income requirements @ 1.25 PPP poverty line 2016-2030 average (US$Bn, 2013)
Achieving Zero Hunger: The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 10 ■■ The role of Social Protection. Achieving zero hunger as soon as possible requires immediately providing the poor with additional incomes to achieve satisfactory nutrition. In the initial periods all additional income required to pull all the poor out of poverty is provided through a Transfer to cover the Poverty Gap (PGT). In subsequent periods the PGT is expected to drop due to: 1. The growth of the whole economic system as projected in the BaU and 2. The progressive increase in earned income. The cost of the PGT, which in addition to the income to be transferred includes a 20 percent mark-up for administrative costs and leakages (gross PGT), amounting globally to US$116 bn annually on average, mostly concentrated in the low and middle income countries (Table 4). Although expenditure for social protection is usually viewed as current expenditure, social protection can contribute to investment and achievement of the zero hunger target. To achieve the target, selected groups of people, particularly landless workers or marginal smallholders in rural areas, need to be supported through appropriate Social Protection systems that ensure the predictability and regularity of income flows. This would increase their chances of being reinserted into productive sectors while contributing to improve their food and nutrition status. Social Protection, for instance, may help overcome household liquidity constraints, enhance human resources and enable individuals and communities to engage in more risk-taking, but profitable employment-generating activities. In the absence of social protection systems or other risk sharing arrangements, poor rural households are often forced to cope in ways that further increase their vulnerability and undermine their future income generation capacity such as, overexploitation of the natural resources they depend on, or refraining from making risky investments. In addition, many countries will need to provide social protection to meet the needs of ageing populations. Investing in Social Protection would also contribute to increasing overall economic growth. By providing the poor with enough income to satisfy their basic needs, and improving their nutritional status, they are likely to start accumulating productive resources through a saving-investment process. ■■ The role of investment While additional income has to be provided immediately through social protection, progressively higher earned incomes for the poor are expected thanks to the additional investment that increases the productivity of existing activities and stimulates new activities. Increasing earned incomes will increase their resilience and correspondingly reduce the need for and reliance on social protection. TABLE 3 Additional income required to pull people out of poverty at US$1.25 PPP poverty line Required additional income at US$1.25 PPP (US$bn, 2013) Required additional income at US$1.25 PPP (US$bn, 2013) Required additional income at US$1.25 PPP (US$bn, 2013) Required additional income at US$1.25 (% GDP) Required additional income at US$1.25 (% GDP) Required additional income at US$1.25 (% GDP) 2016 2030 Av.2016-2030 2016 2030 Av.2016-2030 World 150 147 148 0.21 0.15 0.17 High-Income countries 2 2 2 0.01 0.00 0.00 Low & middle income countries 147 145 146 0.63 0.37 0.47 sub-Saharan Africa 61 72 66 6.45 4.39 5.27 Near East / North Africa 3 3 3 0.10 0.07 0.09 Latin America /Caribbean 5 5 5 0.10 0.07 0.09 South Asia 57 51 54 2.20 1.16 1.58 East Asia 21 13 16 0.18 0.06 0.10 50 countries on target in 2030 29 30 30 0.05 0.04 0.04 60 countries not on target in 2030 121 116 118 0.93 0.48 0.65 25 worst-off countries* 40 48 44 8.83 6.04 7.22
Achieving Zero Hunger by Investing in Social Protection and Rural Development 11 It is assumed that by 2030, all the additional income required by the poor – except for the bottom 5 percent of the population, assumed to be “left behind” – will no longer come from the PGT, but will have become earned income. Investment requirements are calculated on the basis of the income that progressively has to be provided to people to keep them out of poverty, under the assumption that, by 2030 the PGT will be phased out, apart from the transfers to the 5 percent of the population19 . Globally, the investment required amounts to US$151 bn (Table 4, third column). Initially, the poor are expected to earn incomes from labour remuneration and their productive assets (such as land), as they will not be able to invest much. However, as the poor have the possibility to save and invest themselves, they are expected to increase their earnings. 19 The investment requirements are calculated on an annual basis with reference to an Incremental Capital Output Ratio, which is lower than the ones applied for the economy-wide investment in appendix B, to account for the higher marginal productivity of capital at lower levels of income. As the investors are entitled to the remuneration from the capital they invest, a provision is made to adequately remunerate the additional investment required20 . ■■ Where are the poor To the extent possible, income transfers and income-earning opportunities have to be provided to the poor wherever they are. Currently 78 percent of the poor are in rural areas. This implies that a corresponding share of the total additional income, as well as of additional investments, will be allocated to rural areas21 . Therefore, out of the total PGT of US$116 bn, 20 The provision for the remuneration of capital is based on country-specific capital-labour ratios derived from historical data. 21 This scenario raises some questions: first, how will the investment rate be effectively and sustainably raised; second, how will the tendency for the agricultural sector investment rate to be lower than the overall investment rate be reversed; third, how will the tendency for the agricultural sector wage rate to be lower than the overall wage rate be reversed enough so as to exceed the poverty line income. Here, the role of the public sector and solid institutions to create opportunities for and protect the poor becomes very important. TABLE 4 Average annual PGT and economy-wide investment from 2016 to 2030 (panel 1) and in rural areas (panel 2) (US$1.25 a day PPP) Average 2016-2030 annual values PGT at US$1.25 PPP (US$Bn, 2013) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (US$Bn, 2013) Aditional investment at US$1.25 PPP (US$Bn, 2013) Aditional investment at US$1.25 PPP (US$Bn, 2013) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% GDP) Aditional investment at US$1.25 PPP (% GDP) Total Rural Total Rural Total Total World 116 75 151 105 0.13 0.18 High-Income countries 2 1 1 1 0.00 0.00 Low & middle income countries 114 74 149 105 0.37 0.48 sub-Saharan Africa 47 32 80 53 3.73 6.41 Near East / North Africa 2 2 3 2 0.07 0.07 Latin America /Caribbean 5 1 3 1 0.08 0.05 South Asia 43 34 54 42 1.25 1.57 East Asia 16 5 9 5 0.10 0.05 50 countries on target in 2030 23 14 35 25 0.03 0.05 60 countries not on target in 2030 93 61 116 81 0.51 0.64 25 worst-off countries* 31 20 48 30 5.14 7.95 Source: Calculations based on WB Povcalnet data Note: Country-wise details are reported in table D3 in the appendix 4.
Achieving Zero Hunger: The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 12 US$75 bn is for poor people living in rural areas, and, of the US$151 bn in investment, US$105 bn is for rural areas. Table 4 provides annual averages for both the PGT and economy- wide investment, in rural and urban areas for the period 2016-2030. The results are also shown in Figure 2. The PGT, as designed in this scenario, is expected to shrink, both due to the economic growth projected in the BaU and the role of additional “pro-poor” targeted investment. However, it is assumed that five percent of the population, who will not benefit due to various reasons, such as personal disability, health and socio-economic conditions will continue to meet their basic needs through social protection transfers. In the medium-long run the PGT could be absorbed by more structured Social Protection Floors (SPFs). ILO has estimated the cost of SPF benefit package, i.e. the amount of money to be spent annually to ensure universal minimums for selected disadvantaged categories22 . These 22 ILO (2015). A Global Fund for Social Protection Floors in Least Developed Countries. Informal note prepared by the ILO Social Protection Department as a technical input for preparations for the Addis Ababa Conference on Financing for Development, 13-16 July 2015. This global estimate is based on the cost of: (i) a universal child benefit of 12 percent of a country’s national poverty line; (ii) a benefit of 100 percent of a country’s national poverty line to all orphans; (iii) a maternity benefit for 4 months, of 100 percent of a country’s national poverty line to all mothers with new-borns; (iv) unemployment support of 100 percent of a country’s minimum wage to one person per vulnerable household for 90 costs, as average shares of GDP, range between 1.9 percent for East Asia to 7.6 percent for the poorest countries, with an average of 3.1 percent of GDP for all low and middle income countries23 . The costs and benefits of the PGT are different from the ILO SPF, as the targeted people and measures are different. While the PGT targets the poor on the basis of the US$1.25 PPP, the SPF has several “universal” components and the costs of the transfers are calculated on the basis of national poverty lines. However, significant complementarities exist between the PGT and the SPFs. On the one hand, full implementation and realization of the SPFs will leave less room for hunger. On the other hand, if implementation and realization of nationally-defined social protection floors is to be achieved progressively, “temporary interventions could still be required”24 . While investment in agriculture and rural development will reduce the need for the PGT to 2030, effective SPFs can replace it. days; (v) a benefit of 100 percent of a country’s national poverty line to all persons with severe disabilities; and (vi) a universal pension of 100 percent of a country’s national poverty line. All these include administrative costs. 23 The aggregate percentages are own calculations. For countries without data, shares of similar countries or regional averages were assumed. ILO does not report data for the HICs. 24 Written comments on the zero draft of this paper by ILO. FIGURE 2 0 100 200 300 400 500 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 PGT + Additional income Required investment (US$Bn, 2013) PGT at US$1.25 PPP Additional income from investment at US$1.25 PPP Total 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 PGT + Additional income Required investment (US$Bn, 2013) PGT at US$1.25 PPP Additional income from investment at US$1.25 PPP Rural Annual PGT and investment from 2016 to 2030 in the ZHbotmea scenario economy-wide (panel 1) and for rural areas (panel 2) Annual PGT and investment from 2016 to 2030 in the ZHbotmea scenario economy-wide (panel 1) and for rural areas (panel 2)
13 Targeted pro-poor investment in rural areas: possible domains ■■ Pro-poor investment In this scenario, if a progressive reduction of the Poverty Gap Transfer has to be realized, investment has to generate enough income in the hands of the people targeted by the PGT, to bring them out of poverty. Economic growth generated by pro-poor investment has to be inclusive, so as to provide opportunities for improving the livelihoods of the poor (SOFI, 2015). Indeed, if hunger is to be overcome, the additional investment in rural development and agriculture has to be geared to economically, environmentally and socially sustainable development in domains that may be overlooked in a business as usual scenario, but are strategic to bring hunger reduction and poverty alleviation. A broad categorization of how agricultural capital stock is currently allocated among investment categories is reported in Table 5. The relative importance of each category varies across regions and countries.25 ■■ Possible domains for additional investment. Part of the additional pro-poor investment required to generate income in the hands of the poor may fit within the broad categories of Table 5. However, as the basic objective of additional investments is to increase access to food, they have to offer opportunities for the poorer and more vulnerable segments of the population to increase their incomes. 25 Allocation of investment for different purposes could be the subject of additional work. TABLE 5 Categories of capital stock in agriculture Land Development Machinery & Equipment Plantation Crops Livestock related assets Total % % % % % World 35.10 16.59 9.56 38.75 100.00 High-Income countries 31.10 36.82 4.47 27.61 100.00 Low & middle income countries 36.45 9.77 11.28 42.50 100.00 sub-Saharan Africa 26.88 3.56 9.47 60.10 100.00 Near East / North Africa 62.69 13.53 3.84 19.95 100.00 Latin America /Caribbean 27.73 7.99 7.80 56.48 100.00 South Asia 44.35 9.22 7.41 39.02 100.00 East Asia 33.33 10.51 13.63 42.53 100.00 50 countries on target in 2030 33.20 26.58 7.50 32.71   60 countries not on target in 2030 36.44 9.53 11.02 43.01 100.00 25 worst-off countries* 24.06 3.42 7.06 65.46 100.00 Source: FAOSTAT 2015.
Achieving Zero Hunger: The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 14 Table 6 allocates the annual average investment envelope for rural areas of low and middle-income countries to possible investment domains, following Schmidhuber et al. (2011), Schmidhuber and Bruinsma (2011) and FAO (2010)26 . This can comprise, for instance, investment enabling and incentivizing sustainable smallholder activities, such as investment in agricultural research and development, professional education and extension services land and water management and conservation. Also investment for the development of the rural space is strategic for creating income opportunities in rural areas. Transport infrastructure, electricity, and communication are key assets needed worldwide in rural areas. Rural financial services facilitate the access to credit and the management of households’ savings. In rural areas, the development of off-farm employment opportunities will have synergies with the development of the agricultural sector. On the one hand, additional investment in agriculture could increase the capital stock for sustainable agricultural production, increase the ratio of capital to worker (FAO, 2012), and smoothen structural changes. On the other hand, medium-to-longterm investment in other sectors in rural areas would allow developing employment opportunities likely to absorb the excess labour released by agriculture, should the structural transformation process of the sector continue, due for example to mechanization. Investment in agriculture should enhance sustainable agricultural practices, including soil and water conservation, improved irrigation systems, higher water efficiency, preservation of biodiversity as well as genetic improvements in agriculture, fisheries and forestry. Mechanization may also be required to increase agricultural productivity. Investments in agro-processing operations, such as milling cereals, extracting oil, ginning cotton, storage and marketing facilities should help reduce food losses and waste, and in turn increase quality and food safety. This would also require food inspection services with trained staff, upgraded laboratories and expertise to design and monitor food safety standards. Institution building, such as authorities providing services to secure tenure rights, is also important for protecting the assets of the poor to encourage productivity increases. 26 Schmidhuber, J., Bruinsma, J., and Boedeker, G. (2011). ‘Capital requirements for agriculture in developing countries to 2050’. In Conforti, P. (ed.). Looking Ahead in World Food and Agriculture: Perspectives to 2050. Agricultural Development Economics Division, Economic and Social Development Department, FAO, Rome, pp. 317-343. Schmidhuber, J. and Bruinsma, J. (2011). ‘Investing towards a World Free of Hunger: Lowering Vulnerability and Enhancing Resilience’. In Prakash, A. (ed.). Safeguarding Food Security in Volatile Global Markets. FAO, Rome, pp. 543-569 FAO (2010). ‘Investing in Food Security’. Processed, FAO. Retrieved from: https://www.responsibleagroinvestment.org Research and Development (R&D) useful to improve the productivity of the poor is also essential. ■■ Public and private investment While the bulk of investment in agriculture under the BaU scenario is and will be carried out by private agents, including small farmers, provision of goods and services in selected domains requires public investment. There are several reasons why public investments are needed: 1) the most needed goods and services are public goods, from which private investors would not profit enough to invest, due to non-excludability (e.g., rural roads); 2) the scale of investment is either beyond the reach of private investors; or 3) they are natural monopolies, such as irrigation systems, where only one network is required for efficiency reasons; 4) returns may only materialize in a time frame unattractive to private investors. This additional public investment is expected to complement private investment, mostly provided by farmers and other entrepreneurs in the BaU scenario. Additional public investment is also expected to accompany diversification of income sources with the expansion of goods and services provided by agriculture. As shown in Table 6, around 60 percent of the additional investment required to enhance the incomes of the poor in rural areas are public investments. These include public facilities, such as transport infrastructure, services with economies of scale, such as research and development, or services normally provided by public authorities, such as land titling and tenure security27 . ■■ Domestic and foreign investment The self-reliance of countries in funding additional investment depends on their capacity to save part of their income and allocate it to cover additional investment needs28 . ■■ Investment for zero hunger in a policy and governance context Investment is necessary to achieve zero hunger, and, more generally, the SDGs. If carried out in a context where policies are coherent, the authorities should effectively provide public goods and regulatory frameworks and institutions strong enough to coordinate the efforts of various agents, prevent and solve conflicts, exploit market opportunities and address market asymmetries and failures. For instance, the adoption 27 The shares of public investment reported in Table 10, given the limited information available, are based on expert judgement. 28 Preliminary estimates of the capacity of countries to fund additional investments by looking at their National Gross Savings (NGS) rate as a percentage of the GDP are available.
Targeted “pro-poor” investment in rural areas: possible domains 15 TABLE 6 Additional rural investment per investment domain and region (US$ million; constant 2013 prices) Sub-Saharan Africa Near East/ North Africa Latin America / Caribbean South Asia East Asia Total % of which public % of public over total Improving primary agriculture and natural resources: 21,698 21 5,842 27 Soil conservation 1,778 29 27 921 470 3,225 3 967 30 Water conservation/improved irrigation 1,444 361 25 4,097 189 6,115 6 1,835 30 Preservation/improvement of crop genetic resources 317 76 28 341 209 970 1 291 30 Preservation/improvement of animal genetic resources 147 60 29 258 147 641 1 192 30 Preservation/improvement of fish genetic resources 651 85 49 636 1,147 2,567 2 770 30 Preservation/improvement of forest genetic resources 4,021 92 104 276 348 4,841 5 1,452 30 Mechanization 941 55 32 2,221 90 3,339 3 334 10 Improving agro-processing operations: 16,502 16 4,056 25 Cold and dry storage 1,237 60 28 1,535 156 3,016 3 603 20 Rural and wholesale market facilities 2,517 113 25 2,461 143 5,259 5 2,630 50 First stage processing 3,275 177 47 4,380 348 8,228 8 823 10 Improving infrastructure: 34,089 33 29,542 87 Rural roads 13,186 336 169 8,324 697 22,712 22 20,441 90 Rural electrification 6,598 173 95 4,162 349 11,376 11 9,101 80 Improving institutional framework: 14,493 14 8,891 61 Land titling, tenure security 1,586 38 32 709 74 2,440 2 2,196 90 Rural finance 5,652 173 67 4,146 342 10,381 10 5,191 50 Food safety related regulations (incl. veterinary and pest controls, crop inspections) 705 42 24 835 65 1,672 2 1,505 90 Improving research, development and extension: 17,628 17 15,865 90 Research and development 2,385 113 48 2,770 288 5,605 5 5,044 90 Extension 7,140 216 77 4,159 432 12,023 12 10,821 90 Total 53,580 2,198 906 42,232 5,492 104,409 100 64,195 61
Achieving Zero Hunger: The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 16 in national legislations of principles highlighted in the Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests (FAO-CFS 2012)29 may contribute to shaping a sustainable pro-poor or pro- undernourished investment climate. Also, adoption of Responsible Agricultural Investment (RAI)30 principles and, more generally, the adoption of 29 FAO-CFS (2012). Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security. FAO, Rome. http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/i2801e/i2801e.pdf 30 FAO-CFS (2014). Principles for Responsible Investment in Agriculture and Food Systems. FAO, Rome. http://www.fao.org/3/a-au866e.pdf measures that maximize the domestic multiplier effects of investment and its benefits for the weaker members of society are most likely to speed up achievement of the zero hunger objective. This has to be associated with stricter regulations and monitoring of child labour in agriculture31 , as well as gender-balanced investment aimed at closing the gender gap in agriculture32 . 31 FAO (2015). Handbook for monitoring and evaluation of child labour in agriculture. FAO, Rome. 32 FAO (2011). State of Food and Agriculture, 2011. FAO, Rome. Quisumbing, A.R, Ruth Meinzen-Dick, Terri L. Raney, Andre Croppenstedt, Julia A. Behrman, Amber Peterman (eds) (2015). Gender in Agriculture: Closing the Knowledge Gap. Springer for FAO and IFPRI.
17 Further considerations and concluding remarks “Hunger in a world of plenty is not just a moral outrage; it is also short- sighted from the economic point of view”33 . The paper presents new estimates for financing hunger eradication by 2030, consistent with the aspirations of the post-2015 Sustainable Development agenda. In the UN system, the Secretary General’s High-level Task Force on World Food Security and Nutrition has also been focusing on the Zero Hunger Challenge which, inter alia, seeks to eliminate poverty, hunger and malnutrition. The proposed SDG2 to eliminate hunger by 2030 is paralleled by SDG1 to eliminate poverty at the same time. The hunger estimates for MDG monitoring purposes has involved chronic undernourishment defined in terms of dietary energy, i.e. carbohydrates, calories or joules. For MDG monitoring purposes, the dollar-a-day poverty line was adopted, which has recently been adjusted to $1.25 per day by the World Bank. Hence, to end hunger and rural poverty involves closing the ‘poverty gap’ using the MDG dollar (now US$1.25) a day poverty line. In other words, a minimal income of a dollar a day, or its current US$1.25 PPP equivalent, closing the gap between current incomes below the poverty line and the poverty line income itself will eliminate both poverty and hunger. Social assistance34 , including transfers, should 33 FAO (2002). Anti-Hunger programme. A twin-track approach to hunger reduction. Priorities for national and international action. ftp://ftp.fao.org/ docrep/fao/006/j0563e/j0563e00.pdf 34 Social protection, social assistance and other such terms have different meanings in different historical and cultural contexts. Usage in this paper is consistent with ILO terminological usage. therefore ensure that basic consumption needs are met, as also implied by UN General Assembly adoption of the term Social Protection Floor. Since the UN General Assembly’s commitment to establish a ‘social protection floor’ for all, there have been important efforts to cost the creation of such a floor throughout the world, most notably by the ILO. The ILO estimates use national poverty lines, which are often lower for many low income countries, but higher for some low-income countries, as well as for all high-income countries. This paper addresses the challenge of achieving zero hunger by presenting an alternative scenario 35 . While appreciative of the pioneering ILO work in this regard, it 35 The scope of the present study can be further extended. This will include, for instance, the development of other scenarios, to take into account inequality in income distribution and other factors likely to affect agricultural productivity, such as climate change. Climate change scenarios could be built, for instance, assuming shifts in yields due to climate change. In the FAO GAPS model, yields are explicitly modeled as crop/livestock “own-price” functions, shifted by country and time-dependent coefficients. Downward shifts in yields through alternative vectors of yield shifters can be used to obtain alternative zero hunger climate change scenarios. Reduced yields are likely to be reflected in higher food prices, and consequently, in reduced purchasing power. This, in turn, is expected to lead to further investment requirements achieve the zero hunger objective. Scenarios reflecting greater (or lower) inequality in food distribution could also be simulated through alternative hypotheses regarding the Coefficient of Variation (CV) for Dietary Energy Consumption (DEC). Last, but not least, the methodology described above only implicitly takes into consideration the multiplier effects that selected investment may have on domestic activities. This also applies to employment generation and related impacts on income distribution that specific investments may generate, and the impacts of growth on natural resource and environmental sustainability. Enlarging the scope of analysis to take into consideration these aspects requires: 1) applying a dynamic global economy-wide model that captures the relationships among investment, GDP, employment, income distribution and natural resources; 2) exploring investment priorities required to achieve specific economic, social and environmental sustainability objectives. All such extensions of the study would provide additional insights on investments required to eliminate poverty, hunger and undernutrition to 2030 and beyond. However, the work required is time and resource- consuming, and can only be completed in a work programme over a much longer period.
Achieving Zero Hunger: The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 18 departs from the ILO methodology by using the MDG’s US$1.25/day PPP adjusted poverty line for all countries, which may well exceed national poverty lines in low-income, some lower-middle income and other countries. If effectively and efficiently delivered, the US$1.25 PPP/ day social protection coverage will eliminate poverty and hunger immediately. Complementary investments, for example in agriculture, can reduce longer-term reliance on such income transfers with the acquisition of greater earned incomes, whether from wages or other productive assets. However, this requires a balanced mix of public and private investments and appropriate policies to ensure that the poor actually benefit from additional investment. While investments can indeed increase growth, employment and incomes, including in agriculture, such gains may not be linear and are unlikely to be equally shared. Most agricultural investments are made by farmers, but rarely by the poor. Hence, unless clearly pro-poor and inclusive, they may even increase inequality in farm productivity and factor incomes.
19 Appendix 1. Achieving zero hunger by investing in social protection T o compare the approach to achieve zero hunger by 2030 illustrated in the scenario ZHbotmea, with alternative options, the scenario ZHsocpro for the period from 2016 to 2030 is considered. In this scenario, poor people below the US$1.25 (PPP)/day poverty line are provided with a Transfer to fill the Poverty Gap (PGT), such that their incomes are raised to this poverty line. As this poverty line is believed to cover the minimum required food expenditure, people who receive the PGT at US$1.25 are considered to be free from hunger. The annual average PGT from 2016 to 2030 is reported in the first column of Table A1 net of administrative costs, while the estimate in column 2 includes a 20 percent mark-up for administrative costs and leakages. The PGT plus markup (gross PGT) globally amounts to US$177 bn annually on average, mostly concentrated in the low- and middle-income countries. India alone accounts for around US$50 bn, while SSA requires a total of US$79 bn. On average, the gross PGT is equivalent to 0.2 percent of projected annual Gross World Product (GWP) for the period 2016-2030 (Table A1, fourth column). However, the share of the PGT in GDP is greater for low- and middle-income countries (0.6 percent), particularly for SSA (6.3 percent). Globally, the PGT share of total public expenditure is 0.8 percent (Table A1, sixth column). However this share is more TABLE A1 Poverty Gap Transfer at $1.25 /day PPP (US$ bn: constant 2013 prices) US$Bn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$1.25 PPP (US$Bn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030     World 148 177 0.17 0.21 0.67 0.80 High-Income countries 2 3 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02 Low & middle income countries 146 175 0.47 0.57 2.30 2.76 sub-Saharan Africa 66 79 5.27 6.32 34.40 41.28 Near East / North Africa 3 4 0.09 0.10 0.31 0.37 Latin America /Caribbean 5 6 0.09 0.10 0.37 0.44 South Asia 54 65 1.58 1.90 10.33 12.39 East Asia 16 20 0.10 0.12 0.57 0.68 50 countries on target in 2030 30 36 0.04 0.05 0.16 0.20 60 countries not on target in 2030 118 142 0.65 0.78 3.64 4.37 25 worst-off countries* 44 53 7.22 8.66 44.70 53.64 Source: Calculations based on World Bank Povcalnet database. Data on public expenditure: World Development Indicators database. World Bank. Note: Country-wise details are reported in table D1 in appendix 4.
Achieving Zero Hunger: The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 20 pronounced for SAS, and particularly high for SSA (12.9 percent and 41.3 percent respectively). Funding the PGT may not be problematic for countries where the overall annual amount is a relatively small proportion of the GDP and public expenditure, such as for selected countries in Near East/ North Africa, Latin America or East Asia. However, the burden of the PGT may be not be affordable by other countries, specifically in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa where, on average, it could come to more than 40 percent of recent annual public expenditure35 . If countries spend up to 15 percent of their national budgets on social protection, it will cover 59 percent of the US$177 bn needed to provide universal social protection to close the poverty gap. The remaining US$72 bn needed will have to be externally funded by international transfers. Most of these external funds, almost US$60 bn will be required by SSA, as public budgets in SSA will cover only 20 percent of their PGT36 if no more than 15 percent is spent on the PGT. However, a careful assessment of countries’ “fiscal space” could be carried out, to explore the possibilities for domestic funding of the PGT and other Social Protection schemes (ILO, 2015)37 . 35 A statistical annex reports data on the share of PGT in GDP and Public Expenditure, by country, classified by income level. 36 Detailed tables by country are in annex. 37 ILO, 2014. World Social Protection Report 2014/15. Building economic recovery, inclusive development and social justice. International Labour Office, Geneva: pp 149-153. The evolution of the PGT over time is reported in Figure A1. Due to the growth of GDP in the baseline, both the prevalence of poverty and the poverty gap decline over time. This leads to a decline of the PGT. However, the increase of the population, particularly high in some regions, such as SSA, partially offsets this tendency. Table A2 and Figure A3 report for comparative purposes, the same calculations carried out with a US$2.00 PPP poverty line (Table A2 and Figure A3). As expected, the new PGT is greater than the PGT at US$1.25/day. Globally, the new PGT amounts to US$386 bn, more than double the previous PGT and costings 0.45 percent of the GWP. The US$2.00 PPP poverty line leaves more margin for improving nutritional status38 as well as the savings, investment, productivity and incomes of the poor. With the post-2015 SDGs, it is necessary to address ‘hidden hunger’, or micronutrient deficiencies, involving inadequate vitamins, minerals and trace elements, from the time of conception through the entire life cycle. Progress in 38 Following the Second International Conference on Nutrition, organized by FAO and the WHO last November, the world is now aware that for people to realize their full human potential, it is necessary not only to address hunger, or chronic undernourishment in terms of inadequate dietary energy, but also hidden hunger, or micronutrient deficiencies, best overcome through access to diverse diets. FIGURE A1 Gross Poverty Gap Transfer at US$1.25 PPP poverty line 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 Gross PGT at US$1.25 PPP poverty line 2016-2030 average (US$Bn, 2013) Sources: Calculations based on World Bank Povcalnet database. FIGURE A2 Gross Poverty Gap Transfer at US$2.00 PPP poverty line 375 380 385 390 395 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 Gross PGT at US$2.00 PPP poverty line 2016-2030 average (US$Bn, 2013) Sources: Calculations based on World Bank Povcalnet database.
Appendix 1. Achieving Zero Hunger by investing in social protection 21 improving nutrition will need reforms in our health and food systems and to ensure other complementary progress, e.g., in sanitation, pre- and post-natal maternal and childcare and nutrition education, to adequately address this challenge. Hence, all people, including the poor, will need to be enabled to have access to healthier, diverse diets. TABLE A2 Poverty Gap Transfer at $2.00 /day PPP (US$ bn: constant 2013 prices) US$Bn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$1.25 PPP (US$Bn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030     World 321 386 0.37 0.45 1.46 1.75 High-Income countries 7 9 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.06 Low & middle income countries 314 377 1.02 1.22 4.96 5.95 sub-Saharan Africa 130 156 10.40 12.48 67.89 81.47 Near East / North Africa 8 10 0.23 0.28 0.82 0.98 Latin America /Caribbean 13 16 0.24 0.29 1.01 1.22 South Asia 117 141 3.43 4.11 22.39 26.87 East Asia 43 51 0.26 0.31 1.47 1.76 50 countries on target in 2030 66 79 0.10 0.12 0.36 0.44 60 countries not on target in 2030 256 307 1.41 1.69 7.88 9.45 25 worst-off countries* 86 103 14.07 16.88 87.14 104.57 Source: Calculations based on World Bank Povcalnet database. Data on public expenditure: World Development Indicators database. World Bank. Note: Country-wise details are reported in table D1 in appendix 4.
23 Appendix 2. Achieving zero hunger by investing in growth U nder the scenario ZHtotinv, ZH is expected to be achieved through a general increase of the GDP generated by investment. The methodology followed to build this scenario is outlined below. ■■ Investment to reduce undernourishment The methodology to calculate the investment required to achieve zero hunger by 2030 hinges on the relationships between investment, output or gross domestic product (GDP) and level of Dietary Energy Consumption (DEC), on the assumption that hunger is mainly caused by poverty (lack of purchasing power). Additional investment, in agriculture and all other sectors of the economy, is expected to raise GDP. The GDP’s upward shift increases per capita income, which should lead to an upward shift in per capita food consumption and consequently, in Average Dietary Energy Consumption (ADEC), measured in kilocalories/day/person39 . It is also assumed that DEC is distributed across the population so that an increase in ADEC benefits all strata of the population. We assume that variability in the distribution of DEC across the national population is captured by an estimate of the Coefficient of Variation (CV) of the distribution40 . Figure B1 sketches the causal relationships implied by the proposed methodology to estimate the investments required in agriculture to achieve the zero hunger target by 2030. An appropriate upward shift of investment in the whole economic system is expected to lead, through the above- mentioned cause-effect relationships, to eliminate the 39 Higher demand for agricultural and food products will imply, inter alia, increasing levels of agricultural value added, rising with agricultural investment. This entails multiplier effects, which are implicitly accounted for using the incremental capital-output ratios (ICORs) in this methodology. 40 This approach essentially relies on the “trickle-down” of growth, i.e. it is assumed that the growth of per capita GDP will also benefit the poor and undernourished. See Kakwani, N., et al. (2004). Pro-poor growth: Concepts and measurement with country case studies. International Poverty Centre Working paper no. 1, August 2004, UNDP, Brasilia. http://www.ipc-undp. org/pub/IPCWorkingPaper1.pdf prevalence of undernourishment. The objective of this methodology is to determine the appropriate additional investment in agriculture (and the rest of the economic system) required to achieve the “zero” prevalence of hunger in each country, where undernourishment is projected to prevail until 2030. However, we also assume a minimum threshold of undernourishment below which it is not possible to go simply by means of GDP expansion. In this work, we adopt a prudential threshold of 5 percent of the population, compared to the 3 percent used in Schmidhuber and Bruinsma (2011). ■■ The zero hunger with total investment (ZHtotinv) and the business as usual (BaU) scenarios To determine the additional investment required above expected investment in a business as usual scenario, we compare the investment required to achieve the zero hunger target in 2030, i.e. under the so called zero hunger (ZHtotinv) scenario, with the baseline business as usual (BaU) scenario. The BaU scenario offers projections up to 2030, reported in the last FAO long-term projections of world agriculture to 2030 and 2050. The ZHtotinv scenario is instead built by using, in reverse order, the cause-effect relationships described in Figure 1 below (the backward arrow ← means: requires): Change in prevalence of undernourishment (targeted to be virtually zero) ← change in food intake of undernourished people ← change in Average (per capita) Dietary Energy Consumption (ADEC) ← change in per capita food expenditure ← change in expendable per capita income ← change in per capita GDP ← change in GDP ← change in investment.
Achieving Zero Hunger: The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 24 Following the above reverse cause-effect chain, the methodology develops as follows: 1. The starting point is to estimate by how much the Average Dietary Energy Consumption (ADEC) would need to be raised by 2030, given the way Dietary Energy Consumption (DEC) is distributed across the population, to bring all people above the Minimum Daily Energy Requirement (MDER). 2. As food consumption generally depends on income, in the next step, how much per capita income (approximated by GDP per capita) economy-wide should increase in order to increase ADEC to its desired level is calculated. Additional GDP is then calculated by multiplying additional per capita GDP by the population size. 3. The additional investment required to achieve the additional GDP is then calculated assuming a plausible gross Incremental Capital Output Ratio (ICOR). 4. The additional investment required in agriculture is then calculated as a share of total investment, assuming that the agricultural investment share is equivalent to the share of agricultural value-added in GDP. The findings of this step-wise methodology are reported below41 . 41 A more detailed step-wise procedure is reported in the Annex. ■■ ZHtotinv scenario to 2030 and comparison with the BaU While in the BaU scenario, per capita GDP is projected to increase due to technical progress and other factors, in this scenario, GDP has to increase further in order to reduce the prevalence of undernourishment in all countries to 5 percent or less. The ZHtotinv scenario is built step-wise, and then compared with the BaU scenario, to work out the additional investment required to achieve the zero hunger target. ■■ ZHtotinv Average Dietary Energy Consumption First, we estimate by how much the Average Dietary Energy Consumption (ADEC) would need to be raised by 2030, so that undernourishment (i.e. caloric intake below the Minimum Daily Energy Requirement MDER) would affect less than 5 percent of the population, assuming that the MDER and the distribution of Dietary Energy Consumption (DEC) across the population is as in the BaU scenario. In low- and middle-income countries, the ADEC has to further increase by more than 5 percent, from 2,857 to 3,019 kcal/person / day (Table B1, panels 1 and 2). For SSA and the 25 “worst- off” countries, this change is more marked (13.7 percent and 17.9 percent respectively). FIGURE B1 Causal relationships linking investment with the prevalence of undernourishment Change in investment in agriculture Change in GDP Change in food Consumption per capita Change in DEC of Undernourished people Change in per capita income (purchasing power) Change in average dietary energy consumption (ADEC) Change in prevalence of undernourishment Change in investment in non-agricultural sectors
Appendix 2. Achieving Zero Hunger by investing in growth 25 TABLE B1 Undernourishment in the BaU and ZHtotinv scenarios Population Minimum Daily Energy Requirements (MDER) Average Dietary Energy Consumption (ADEC) Coefficient of Variation (CV) Persons chronically undernourished million kcal/person/day   percent million 2030 Business as Usual (BaU) scenario (Baseline) World 8,274 1,865 2,955 0.272 7.9 653 High-Income countries 1,437 1,941 3,425 0.217 1.1 16 Low & middle income countries 6,838 1,849 2,857 0.283 9.3 637 sub-Saharan Africa 1,245 1,812 2,528 0.288 17.4 216 Near East / North Africa 615 1,865 3,133 0.266 4.7 29 Latin America /Caribbean 682 1,872 3,091 0.258 4.0 27 South Asia 2,016 1,825 2,587 0.245 9.3 188 East Asia 2,247 1,878 3,133 0.327 7.8 175 50 countries on target in 2030 3,113 1,895 3,243 0.233 2.0 63 60 countries not on target in 2030 5,161 1,846 2,782 0.295 11.4 590 25 worst-off countries* 833 1,812 2,363 0.320 25.2 210 2030 ZHtotinv scenario World 8,274 1,865 3,088 0.266 4.1 338 High-Income countries 1,437 1,941 3,415 0.248 1.8 26 Low & middle income countries 6,838 1,849 3,019 0.270 4.6 312 sub-Saharan Africa 1,245 1,812 2,868 0.252 4.6 57 Near East / North Africa 615 1,865 3,171 0.275 3.7 23 Latin America /Caribbean 682 1,872 3,099 0.266 3.8 26 South Asia 2,016 1,825 2,734 0.232 4.9 99 East Asia 2,247 1,878 3,294 0.313 4.7 106 50 countries on target in 2030 3,113 1,895 3,245 0.254 2.6 80 60 countries not on target in 2030 5,161 1,846 2,993 0.273 5.0 258 25 worst-off countries* 833 1,812 2,881 0.259 5.0 42 * The worst-off countries are defined as countries that would have to raise their average DEC in 2030 by more than 10 percent to eliminate hunger. Source: Calculations based on FAO GAPS and SOFI 2015 datasets.
Achieving Zero Hunger: The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 26 ■■ ZHtotinv GDP (and new prices of agricultural goods) Subsequently, we calculate the per capita income (approximated by per capita GDP) required for achieving the desired ADEC. This calculation is carried out using the FAO “Global Agriculture Perspectives System (GAPS)” partial equilibrium model. For countries that need to increase their ADECs, we fix the ADEC at the desired level and compute the per capita GDP sufficiently high to increase demand for food to meet the ADEC target42 . Food consumption in GAPS is a function of per capita income and prices. Hence, to target a higher level of food intake, per capita income needs to increase43 . Increased demand also stimulates domestic supply and trade, leading to new equilibrium prices. In GAPS, the new ADEC target requires additional physical consumption of food. However, on the assumption that additional output is only available at higher marginal cost, the additional demand also leads to price increases44 . Thus, the required per capita GDP is simultaneously determined with new prices that equilibrate demand and supply. GDP is then calculated by multiplying per capita GDP with the population. Table B2 reports the GDP required for the ZHtotinv scenario in the first panel. The second panel of Table B1 reports the annual GDP growth rates for zero hunger. They range from 2.1 percent in LAC to 5.8 percent in SAS. In the 25 “worst-off” countries, the average annual growth rate required is even larger (7.8 percent). These zero hunger GDP growth rates need to be compared with growth rates in the BaU scenario. All in all, the 60 countries not on target in 2030 would require almost 1.4 percent additional annual GDP growth to achieve the zero hunger target. Sub- Saharan Africa and SAS would require 1.8 percent and 1.5 percent more respectively. ■■ Investment for ZHtotinv (and BaU) GDP We then calculate the investment required to achieve the incremental GDP with respect to the base year, under both the ZHtotinv and BaU scenarios. To this end, we make use of the concept of a gross Incremental Capital Output Ratio 42 Only countries which have not reduced their prevalence of undernourishment to 5 percent or less by 2030 will have to increase their ADEC. Countries already on target will not require additional investment. 43 In GAPS, physical demand is linked to income via “income elasticities of demand”. For the purpose of this exercise, we keep income elasticities constant across periods. 44 In the GAPS model, this is reflected by upward sloping supply curves. A scenario where the expansion of demand occurs in a “fixed price” context was also explored. In this scenario, additional agricultural output is available at no additional production cost, due, for instance, to increased productivity of agricultural production factors. (ICOR)45 , which gives the amount of investment required to generate one additional unit of net output (GDP). Table B2 reports the economy-wide annual average gross investment necessary to achieve GDP growth under both the BaU and ZHtotinv scenarios and highlights the additional investment required by the zero hunger scenarios in the third panel, as compared with the BaU. Additional gross economy-wide investment under the ZHtotinv scenario amounts to US$1.5 trillion, all concentrated in low and middle income countries, as all HICs are already on target. It consists of a 15.9 percent increase with respect to BaU. This percentage change is different across regions, ranging from 3.3 percent in LAC to 68.6 percent in SAS. The 25 worst-off countries require much more than doubling their investment (+176 percent). ■■ ZHtotinv (and BaU) share of agriculture value added in GDP To work out the required additional investment in agriculture to achieve the zero hunger target, the share of total investment in agriculture is assumed to be broadly proportional to the share of agricultural value added (VA) in GDP. Using cross-sectional GDP shares in the base year, we estimate a relationship between agriculture VA and GDP. The share of agricultural VA in GDP decreases as GDP increases. We assume that the same relationship will also hold in the future. This allows us to calculate the share of agriculture VA in GDP for both the ZHtotinv and BaU scenarios. As GDP is larger under the ZHtotinv scenario (Table B2, first panel), the share of agriculture VA is lower, compared to the BaU scenario. 45 ICOR values were set in the base year at three for countries with a per capita income up to $2000, at four for countries with per capita GDP up to $4000, and at five for countries with GDP per capita over $4000. For each year from 2005/07 to 2030, annual investments were calculated as INVTt = ICORt * ΔGDPt. Annual investment was then cumulated. The ICOR was assumed to be country-specific and increasing with GDP. A similar ICOR- based approach was followed, for instance, by Devarajan, et al. (2002), to estimate the investment required to achieve selected MDGs (Devarajan, S., Miller, M. J. and Swanson, E. V. (2002) ‘Goals for Development: History, Prospects, and Costs’. Working Paper No. 2819, World Bank, Washington, DC. Recent estimates of ICORs, in the range of those we adopted, are found in: Taguchi, H. and Lowhachai, S. (2014), based on previous work by Sato (1971) and the seminal work of Kuznets (1960). Taguchi, H. and Lowhachai, S. (2014). A revisit to the incremental capital-output ratio: the case of Asian economies and Thailand. International Journal of Economic Policy in Emerging Economies, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 35-54. Kuznets, S. (1960). Quantitative aspects of the economic growth of nations: V. Capital formation proportions: international comparisons for recent years. Economic Development and Cultural Change, Part 2, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 1-96. Sato, K. (1971). International Variations in the Incremental Capital- Output Ratio. Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 621-640.
Appendix 2. Achieving Zero Hunger by investing in growth 27 ■■ ZH (and BaU) annual investment in agriculture We then calculate the investment in agriculture as a proportion of the total investment required to achieve the incremental GDP in both scenarios. To this end, we use the share of agriculture value added in GDP, as per the assumptions above. The cumulative investment, calculated on an annual basis from 2016 to 2030 in both scenarios is then averaged per annum. The results are provided in the third panel of Table B3. ■■ Additional zero hunger BaU investment In the last step, we compare the annual investment in the ZH scenario with annual investment under BaU. The figures for additional investment are provided in the fourth panel of Table B3. The additional average annual gross investment for the period 2016-2030 to achieve the zero hunger target is US$111 bn (in constant 2013 prices). Looking at the regional allocation of this amount, more than half (US$60 bn) is for EAS46 . In some areas, such as SSA and SAS, where the ZHtotinv scenario requires additional investments of 67 percent and 56 percent more than in the BaU respectively (Table B3, last column), implementing such an additional investment programme may be challenging, not only for funding reasons, but also for institutional, managerial and logistical ones. These difficulties could even be exacerbated in the worst-off countries, where the ZHtotinv scenario requires a shift in annual investment of around 132 percent. ■■ Gross and net investment The figures provided here refer to additional “gross” investment, i.e. investment required both to increase the capital asset-base of the countries and to replace fixed capital consumption (depreciation). To provide a rough order of magnitude, 20 percent to 40 percent of this additional 46 As the ZHtotinv scenario to 2030 is built with the partial equilibrium model “GAPS”, where food prices respond to interactions between supply and demand, the increased demand for agriculture and food items generated by the per capita GDP increase is satisfied by an expansion of supply associated with increased prices. However, this price increase, slightly below 10 percent on average, only partially offsets the increase in per capita income. TABLE B2 Additional economy-wide investment required for zero hunger GDP (constant 2013 Billion US$) GDP growth (%) Average, per annum Average Gross Annual Investment, billion US$ (2016 / 2030) Additional Gross Invest. Billion US$ Additional Gr. Invest. % change 2005/7 2030 2030 2016-2030   BaU ZH BaU ZH BaU ZH Diff. ZH-BaU ZH/BaU World 56,263 101,131 106,160 2.40 2.74 9,202 10,665 1,463 15.90 High-Income countries 42,388 61,530 61,530 1.65 1.65 4,189 4,189 0 0.00 Low & middle income countries 13,875 39,601 44,631 3.79 4.62 5,013 6,476 1,463 29.18 sub-Saharan Africa 548 1,629 2,099 4.01 5.78 163 265 101 62.08 Near East / North Africa 1,881 4,334 4,417 3.33 3.46 512 532 19 3.79 Latin America /Caribbean 3,588 6,413 6,477 2.02 2.09 517 534 17 3.26 South Asia 1,393 4,391 5,465 3.82 5.34 396 668 272 68.57 East Asia 6,037 21,859 25,137 4.52 5.50 3,303 4,336 1,034 31.31 50 countries on target in 2030 49,820 76,654 76,654 1.83 1.83 5,697 5,697 0 0.00 60 countries not on target in 2030 6,443 24,476 29,506 4.63 5.94 3,506 4,969 1,463 41.74 25 worst-off countries* 273 793 1,363 4.02 7.84 70 193 123 175.97 Source: Calculations based on FAO GAPS and SOFI 2015 datasets.
Achieving Zero Hunger: The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 28 investment would compensate for fixed capital consumption, depending on the countries and the specific period47 . Only the remaining share would actually be available to expand the capital base of the countries. ■■ Complementing additional investment with a transfer to cover the food deficit In the ZHtotinv scenario, we assume that a proportion of the undernourished, assumed here to be 5 percent of the population, is not going to benefit from the additional investment due to personal disability, health and socio- economic conditions. Therefore, their food deficit has to be filled by a Food Deficit Transfer, i.e. the annual transfer 47 Preliminary estimates. The share of fixed capital consumption in gross investment depends on the composition of the capital stock. Countries with a large share of physical structures and machinery have lower depreciation rates than countries with higher shares of transport and information technologies. Higher income countries tend to have larger depreciation rates, e.g. in 2011, the depreciation rate for the USA was 4.1 percent, while for China, it was 3.1 percent; see Inklaar, R. and Timmer, P.M. (2013). Capital Labor and TFP in PWT 8.0. University of Groningen. http://www.rug. nl/research/ggdc/data/pwt/v80/capital_labor_and_tfp_in_pwt80.pdf. TABLE B3 Additional investment in agriculture in the ZHtotinv scenario Share of agriculture VA in GDP (%) Annual investment in agriculture (constant 2013 Billion US$) Additional Agric. Invest. (constant 2013 Billion US$) Additional investment % change ZH/BaU2016 2030 2030 BaU ZH BaU ZH Diff. ZH-BaU World 4.55 4.11 4.11 469 580 111 23.61 High-Income countries 2.77 2.50 2.50 117 117 0 0.00 Low & middle income countries 8.32 6.63 6.32 352 462 111 31.50 sub-Saharan Africa 17.75 15.21 13.67 24 40 16 67.02 Near East / North Africa 7.19 5.97 5.98 29 32 3 8.53 Latin America /Caribbean 6.27 5.66 5.65 31 32 2 4.85 South Asia 15.51 12.42 11.03 53 83 30 55.97 East Asia 7.35 5.40 5.06 210 270 60 28.64 50 countries on target in 2030 3.33 3.03 3.03 196 196 0 0.00 60 countries not on target in 2030 10.26 7.52 6.91 273 384 111 40.55 25 worst-off countries* 21.33 18.52 14.06 14 33 19 131.53 Source: Calculations based on GAPS and SOFI 2015 datasets. needed to lift them out of hunger or undernourishment48 . The calculations are based on the estimated average food deficit expressed in kilocalories and an estimated unit cost of a kilocalorie country-wise49 . For the total annual cost of the food deficit, a mark-up of 20 percent, 48 The annual expenditure to pull undernourished people out of undernourishment in region r for period t, , net of implementation costs, can be calculated as the average share (across all the population) of the Minimum Daily Energy Requirement the undernourished lack to get out of undernourishment times the total population , times the Minimum Daily Energy Requirement , times the average (economy-wide) consumer price of one kilocalorie times the days in a year. 49 Source: ERS, USDA. Calculations based on annual household expenditure data from Euromonitor International, available at: http://www.euromonitor.com/
Appendix 2. Achieving Zero Hunger by investing in growth 29 assuming 10 percent for administrative costs and 10 percent for leakages, is added50 . The cost of this transfer, reported in the first column of Table B4, for low- and middle-income countries is US$11.2 bn, while it amounts to US$14.1 bn if high-income countries (HICs) are included. FDT as share of GDP, as expected, varies across regions. In the zero hunger scenario, it ranges from a minimum of 0.1 percent for the HICs to a maximum of 0.3 percent for the worst-off countries. Table B4 reports the summary findings for the ZHtotinv scenario. The average additional annual economy-wide investment required from 2016 to 2030 for zero hunger by 2030 is US$1,476.1 bn (in constant 2013 prices). This comprises a Food Deficit Transfer (FDT) of US$14.1 bn. 50 Varying estimates of mark-ups for administrative costs of cash transfer programmes exist, from 5 percent for universal cash transfer programmes adopted by ILO in the abovementioned exercise to 100 percent of the CT-OVC programme in Kenya. For a review of administrative costs of social protection programmes, see, for example: Caldés, N., Coady, D. and Maluccio, J. (2004). ‘The Cost of Poverty Alleviation Transfer Programs: a Comparative Analysis of Three Programs in Latin America’. Discussion Paper Brief 174, IFPRI, Washington, DC. Samson, M., van Niekerk, I. and MacQuene, K. (2006). ‘Designing and Implementing Social Transfer Programmes’. EPRI, Johannesburg. Globally, this amounts to 1.7 percent of average annual GDP from 2016 to 2030. However, this percentage rises to 7.5 percent for SSA, and to 15.1 percent for the worst-off countries. Of the total additional investment, US$110.7 bn is for agriculture. The annual additional investment in agriculture and the FDT amounts to US$124.8 bn. Globally, this amount is 0.1 percent of average global GDP from 2016 to 2030. At the country and regional level, however, it is 1.3 percent of the GDP in SSA, or 2.4 percent for the worst-off countries. TABLE B4 Summary findings of the ZHtotinv scenario FDT ≤ 5% Und. Annual aver. (B. US$) Additional TOT Ann.Invest. (B. US$) Annual FDT + Add.TOT.Inv. (B. US$) Annual FDT + Add.TOT.Inv. (% GDP) Additional Ann. AGR.Invest. (B. US$) Annual FDT + Add. AGR.Inv. (B. US$) Annual FDT + Add. AGR.Inv. (%GDP) ZHtotinv Zhtotinv Zhtotinv Zhtotinv Zhtotinv Zhtotinv Zhtotinv World 14.1 1,463.1 1,477.2 1.7 110.8 124.9 0.15 High-Income countries 2.9 - 2.9 0.0 - 2.9 0.01 Low & middle income countries 11.2 1,463.1 1,474.2 4.8 110.8 121.9 0.40 sub-Saharan Africa 1.9 101.5 103.3 8.3 16.2 18.1 1.44 Near East / North Africa 1.2 19.4 20.6 0.6 2.5 3.7 0.11 Latin America /Caribbean 2.2 16.9 19.1 0.3 1.5 3.7 0.07 South Asia 1.9 271.8 273.7 8.0 29.9 31.8 0.93 East Asia 3.8 1,033.9 1,037.8 6.4 60.1 63.9 0.39 50 countries on target in 2030 6.3 - 6.3 0.0 - 6.3 0.01 60 countries not on target in 2030 7.8 1,463.1 1,470.9 8.1 110.8 118.6 0.65 25 worst-off countries* 1.3 123.2 124.5 20.4 18.7 20.0 3.28
31 Appendix 3. Step-wise approach for investing in growth T he determination of the investment in agriculture required to achieve zero hunger to 2030 develops as follows. ■■ Definition of the zero hunger (ZH) scenario The definition of the zero hunger scenario implies the following steps: 1. Choice of a minimum threshold for prevalence of undernourishment. A minimum threshold for prevalence of undernourishment achievable through GDP growth (In previous works 3 percent prevalence of undernourishment was assumed as the minimum achievable through expansion of GDP) 2. Determination of the mean Minimum Dietary Energy Requirement (MDER) by country. This may vary depending on population cohorts, prevailing activities etc. 3. Determination of the ADEC (ZH) by country, i.e. the Average Dietary Energy Consumption required for bringing the DEC of all the undernourished people exceeding the 3 percent of the population above the MDER. This step is carried out assuming a given functional form of the distribution function of the DEC51 . 4. Determination of GDP level required to achieve the desired DEC. The GDP(ZH) by country is the GDP level required to achieve the desired DEC by country. The calculation of the GDP level is carried out using the FAO GAPS model. In the FAO GAPS model The ADEC (DES in GAPS terminology) in the BaU scenario is calculated as an accounting identity, depending on the levels of the endogenous physical consumption variables determined by the solution of the model, while GDP is exogenous. 51 SOFI 2012, 2013 and 2014 assume that the Dietary Energy Consumption is distributed as a Skewed Log-Normal distribution function characterized by three parameters: mean, variance and skewedness. However, previous studies similar to this one assume that the DEC is distributed according to a log-normal distribution function, defined by the mean and standard deviation. For practical purposes we keep this assumption. Thus, using GAPS for working out the GDP level that determines the required DEC implies: • Making the DEC variable exogenous, to be set at the desired level. • Making the GDP level endogenous, to allow the model to set it at a level required to with the desired DEC52 . Note that this results in a new equilibrium where a new vector of equilibrium prices and consumed/produced quantities are determined. The required GDP level therefore is co-determined with the price levels reflecting the (new) relative scarcity of goods. ■■ BaU scenario The BaU scenario to 2030 is defined according to the information provided in AT2030-2050, adopted in the GAPS model. Here, the BaU prevalence of undernourishment by country in 2030 has already been calculated on the basis of assumptions related to: • GDP projections (World Bank) • Population Projections (UN) • Technological shifts (AT 2030-2050) • Resulting country-wise consumption patterns; • Resulting ADEC (Average DES, in AT2050/GAPS terminology) • Assumed food distribution function and related variance ■■ Scenario comparison 5. Calculation of ∆GDP level by country. The difference ∆GDP = GDP(ZH) – GDP(BaU) provides the required expansion of GDP to generate the ADEC (ZH). 6. Calculation of required agricultural investment by country. The calculation of required investment by country is based on the Incremental Capital-Output Ratio (ICOR) by country and assumptions regarding the ratio of agricultural value 52 This implies, among other: a) adding two equations to the model: ADEC = f(Consumption by commodity, unit caloric content by commodity) ; ADEC = ADEC ; b) adding two variables: ADEC and GDP.
Achieving Zero Hunger: The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 32 added over GDP deemed necessary to meet the required food demand. Updated country-wide ICORs need to be retrieved. The calculation of the investment required INV (incremental capital) is calculated as: . ■■ Allocation of additional investment by sector 7. Allocation of investment by sector. To calculate the investment required by sector, the total INV needs to be allocated to sectors on the basis of some assumptions. In previous works the share of agricultural value added (VA) on GDP in the base year was used as allocation criterion to calculate investment required in the agricultural sector. The share of the agricultural value added in the GDP is retrieved from exogenous sources, and adjusted to the specific zero hunger scenario. As an alternative, if available, specific sectoral ICORs could be adopted. Note that the assumption that investment in agriculture determined according this methodology would allow reaching the zero hunger objective, implies that, among other things, all the other sectors invest at the same rate as the agricultural sector to move the GDP in such a way as to move the DEC as desired.
33 TABLE D1 Transfers to cover the Poverty Gap (PGT) at $1.25 PPP poverty line (US$ million; constant 2013 prices) (Scenario ZHsocpro) US$mn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$1.25 PPP (US$mn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 High-Income countries Australia 13 16 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Canada 4 5 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Central Asian Republics 114 137 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.07 European Union 27 443 531 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 Israel 1 2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Japan 12 14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 New Zealand 3 4 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 Rest of Eastern Europe 6 7 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 Rest of Western Europe 3 4 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Russian Federation 8 10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 United States of America 332 399 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 South Africa 1284 1541 0.32 0.39 1.06 1.28 Total 2224 2668 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02 Low & middle income countries sub-SaharanAfrica Angola 1468 1762 0.78 0.94 3.05 3.67 Burundi 951 1142 56.70 68.04 404.74 485.69 Benin 887 1064 8.55 10.26 65.02 78.02 Burkina Faso 1009 1210 6.07 7.29 50.50 60.60 Botswana 63 75 0.28 0.33 0.87 1.04 Central African Republic 536 643 19.11 22.94 127.34 152.81 Côte d'Ivoire 1194 1433 3.59 4.30 24.13 28.96 Cameroon 689 826 1.71 2.05 12.18 14.62 Democratic Republic of the Congo 15725 18870 71.43 85.71 683.53 820.24 Appendix 4. Statistical tables
Achieving Zero Hunger: The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 34 US$mn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$1.25 PPP (US$mn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Low & middle income countries sub-SaharanAfrica Congo 280 337 1.32 1.58 5.70 6.84 Eritrea 210 252 10.38 12.46 79.36 95.23 Ethiopia 412 494 0.66 0.79 5.01 6.02 Gabon 20 24 0.12 0.14 0.85 1.03 Ghana 545 654 1.25 1.50 6.26 7.51 Guinea 530 636 6.05 7.26 43.16 51.79 Gambia 27 32 1.88 2.25 14.07 16.89 Kenya 2298 2757 4.91 5.89 26.89 32.27 Liberia 860 1032 54.20 65.04 332.71 399.26 Lesotho 198 238 8.00 9.59 17.98 21.57 Madagascar 2564 3077 20.44 24.53 191.97 230.36 Mali 1087 1304 6.41 7.69 44.09 52.91 Mozambique 2335 2803 8.00 9.60 35.12 42.15 Mauritania 91 110 1.69 2.03 12.08 14.50 Mauritius 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Malawi 2039 2447 21.01 25.21 149.93 179.92 Namibia 150 180 1.07 1.28 3.83 4.60 Niger 722 866 7.36 8.83 73.55 88.26 Nigeria 12852 15422 4.09 4.91 47.73 57.28 Rwanda 1001 1201 8.83 10.60 59.60 71.52 Sudan 606 728 0.64 0.77 4.59 5.51 Senegal 772 926 3.35 4.02 20.27 24.32 Sierra Leone 465 558 15.15 18.18 83.14 99.77 Somalia 463 556 9.11 10.93 99.42 119.30 Swaziland 97 116 1.93 2.31 13.74 16.49 Chad 938 1126 5.56 6.67 39.66 47.59 Togo 547 657 13.03 15.63 83.04 99.64 United Republic of Tanzania 5644 6773 12.11 14.53 53.28 63.94 Uganda 1692 2031 4.93 5.92 27.62 33.15 Zambia 1633 1960 5.70 6.84 35.96 43.15 Zimbabwe 2293 2752 23.61 28.33 225.89 271.06 Total 65893 79071 5.27 6.32 34.40 41.28 TABLE D1 (Continued)
Appendix 4. Statistical tables 35 TABLE D1 (Continued) US$mn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$1.25 PPP (US$mn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Low & middle income countries NearEast/NorthAfrica Afghanistan 1850 2221 10.57 12.68 25.52 30.63 Algeria 134 161 0.06 0.07 0.26 0.31 Egypt 133 159 0.05 0.06 0.19 0.22 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 81 98 0.02 0.02 0.10 0.11 Iraq 147 176 0.16 0.20 0.61 0.73 Jordan 2 2 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.02 Lebanon 18 22 0.04 0.05 0.13 0.16 Libya 38 46 0.03 0.04 0.19 0.23 Morocco 168 202 0.15 0.17 0.49 0.59 Saudi Arabia 8 10 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 Syrian Arab Republic 90 108 0.14 0.17 0.79 0.95 Tunisia 5 7 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.03 Turkey 51 61 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 Yemen 260 313 0.63 0.75 2.34 2.80 Total 2986 3583 0.09 0.10 0.31 0.37 LatinAmerica/Caribbean Argentina 99 119 0.02 0.03 0.12 0.14 Bolivia (Plurinational State of) 60 72 0.28 0.34 1.09 1.30 Brazil 1105 1326 0.06 0.07 0.22 0.26 Chile 9 10 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02 Colombia 435 522 0.15 0.17 0.58 0.69 Costa Rica 7 9 0.02 0.02 0.07 0.09 Cuba 66 79 0.07 0.08 0.20 0.23 Dominican Republic 24 28 0.03 0.03 0.19 0.23 Ecuador 59 70 0.07 0.09 0.31 0.37 Guatemala 310 372 0.53 0.64 4.17 5.01 Guyana 46 55 1.75 2.10 7.59 9.11 Honduras 150 180 0.70 0.84 3.26 3.91 Haiti 1018 1222 12.91 15.49 56.04 67.25 Jamaica 27 32 0.17 0.20 0.49 0.58 Mexico 359 431 0.02 0.03 0.11 0.13 Nicaragua 27 32 0.27 0.33 1.94 2.32
Achieving Zero Hunger: The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 36 US$mn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$1.25 PPP (US$mn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Low & middle income countries LatinAmerica/Caribbean Panama 22 27 0.07 0.08 0.28 0.34 Peru 92 111 0.04 0.05 0.22 0.27 Paraguay 21 25 0.12 0.14 0.72 0.87 El Salvador 42 50 0.15 0.18 0.82 0.98 Suriname 45 54 1.18 1.41 4.78 5.74 Trinidad and Tobago 179 215 0.49 0.59 1.87 2.24 Uruguay 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) 639 766 0.24 0.28 0.96 1.16 Total 4840 5808 0.09 0.10 0.37 0.44 SouthAsia Bangladesh 7568 9082 5.68 6.82 62.02 74.42 India 41513 49815 1.42 1.70 9.18 11.01 Sri Lanka 90 107 0.14 0.16 0.66 0.79 Nepal 588 705 2.20 2.64 14.40 17.28 Pakistan 4308 5169 1.62 1.95 10.05 12.06 Total 54066 64879 1.58 1.90 10.33 12.39 EastAsia China 5817 6981 0.05 0.06 0.32 0.38 Hong Kong, China Special Administrative Region 3 3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Indonesia 3896 4675 0.43 0.51 2.58 3.10 Cambodia 164 196 0.94 1.13 10.18 12.22 Korea, Republic of 9 11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Lao People's Democratic Republic 192 230 2.10 2.52 19.46 23.35 Myanmar 2389 2867 3.82 4.59 114.09 136.90 Mongolia 135 162 1.65 1.98 6.71 8.05 Malaysia 10 11 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02 Philippines 1740 2088 0.60 0.72 3.53 4.24 Korea, Democratic People's Republic of 1159 1391 2.33 2.79 25.40 30.47 Thailand 25 30 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.03 Taiwan 5 6 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Viet Nam 916 1100 0.58 0.69 3.44 4.13 Total 16459 19751 0.10 0.12 0.57 0.68 Other 1380 1656 0.18 0.21 0.68 0.82 World (Grand Total) 147847 177417 0.17 0.21 0.67 0.80 TABLE D1 (Continued)
Appendix 4. Statistical tables 37 TABLE D2 Transfers to cover the Poverty Gap (PGT) at $2.00 PPP poverty line (US$ million; constant 2013 prices) (Scenario ZHsocpro) US$mn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$2.00 PPP (US$mn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$2.00 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$2.00 PPP |(% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 High-Income countries Australia 52 63 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02 Canada 23 28 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 Central Asian Republics 463 555 0.07 0.09 0.25 0.30 European Union 27 1966 2360 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.03 Israel 7 8 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 Japan 69 83 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 New Zealand 12 15 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 Rest of Eastern Europe 33 40 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.04 Rest of Western Europe 15 18 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 Russian Federation 46 55 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 United States of America 1331 1597 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.04 South Africa 3271 3925 0.83 0.99 2.71 3.25 Total 7289 8746 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.06 Low & middle income countries sub-SaharanAfrica Angola 2993 3592 1.60 1.92 6.23 7.47 Burundi 1701 2042 101.41 121.69 723.82 868.58 Benin 1871 2245 18.04 21.65 137.19 164.63 Burkina Faso 2423 2908 14.59 17.51 121.30 145.56 Botswana 150 180 0.67 0.80 2.09 2.50 Central African Republic 1228 1474 43.82 52.58 291.92 350.31 Côte d'Ivoire 2820 3384 8.47 10.16 57.00 68.40 Cameroon 1797 2156 4.45 5.34 31.79 38.14 Democratic Republic of the Congo 27632 33158 125.51 150.62 1201.10 1441.32 Congo 572 686 2.69 3.23 11.61 13.94 Eritrea 477 572 23.52 28.22 179.79 215.75 Ethiopia 2023 2428 3.22 3.87 24.64 29.56 Gabon 54 65 0.32 0.39 2.32 2.78 Ghana 1306 1567 3.00 3.60 14.99 17.98 Guinea 1227 1472 14.01 16.81 99.98 119.98 Gambia 98 118 6.87 8.24 51.49 61.79 Kenya 4875 5850 10.42 12.51 57.04 68.45 Liberia 1525 1830 96.10 115.32 589.94 707.93
Achieving Zero Hunger: The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 38 US$mn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$2.00 PPP (US$mn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$2.00 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$2.00 PPP |(% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Low & middle income countries sub-SaharanAfrica Lesotho 404 484 16.27 19.52 36.58 43.90 Madagascar 4389 5267 34.99 41.99 328.56 394.27 Mali 2248 2698 13.25 15.90 91.21 109.45 Mozambique 4993 5992 17.10 20.52 75.09 90.11 Mauritania 221 265 4.10 4.92 29.24 35.09 Mauritius 1 1 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 Malawi 4140 4968 42.65 51.18 304.43 365.32 Namibia 332 399 2.37 2.84 8.50 10.19 Niger 2360 2832 24.08 28.90 240.59 288.71 Nigeria 23363 28035 7.44 8.92 86.77 104.13 Rwanda 1968 2362 17.37 20.85 117.23 140.67 Sudan 1673 2007 1.77 2.13 12.67 15.20 Senegal 1799 2158 7.80 9.36 47.24 56.69 Sierra Leone 996 1195 32.45 38.94 178.12 213.74 Somalia 1075 1289 21.12 25.35 230.60 276.72 Swaziland 196 235 3.89 4.67 27.79 33.35 Chad 2088 2506 12.37 14.84 88.28 105.94 Togo 1211 1453 28.83 34.59 183.73 220.48 United Republic of Tanzania 10704 12844 22.97 27.56 101.04 121.25 Uganda 4293 5151 12.51 15.01 70.07 84.08 Zambia 2984 3581 10.42 12.50 65.69 78.83 Zimbabwe 3831 4597 39.44 47.33 377.40 452.87 Total 130037 156044 10.40 12.48 67.89 81.47 TABLE D2 (Continued)
Appendix 4. Statistical tables 39 TABLE D2 (Continued) US$mn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$2.00 PPP (US$mn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$2.00 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$2.00 PPP |(% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Low & middle income countries NearEast/NorthAfrica Afghanistan 3997 4797 22.82 27.39 55.13 66.16 Algeria 429 515 0.20 0.24 0.82 0.99 Egypt 472 567 0.19 0.23 0.66 0.79 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 314 377 0.08 0.09 0.37 0.44 Iraq 462 555 0.51 0.62 1.92 2.30 Jordan 10 12 0.03 0.03 0.09 0.11 Lebanon 61 73 0.13 0.16 0.45 0.54 Libya 109 131 0.10 0.12 0.55 0.66 Morocco 622 746 0.54 0.64 1.80 2.16 Saudi Arabia 33 40 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 Syrian Arab Republic 433 520 0.69 0.82 3.81 4.58 Tunisia 29 35 0.04 0.05 0.15 0.18 Turkey 233 280 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.06 Yemen 761 913 1.83 2.20 6.82 8.19 Total 7967 9560 0.23 0.28 0.82 0.98 LatinAmerica/Caribbean Argentina 364 437 0.08 0.10 0.43 0.52 Bolivia (Plurinational State of) 177 213 0.83 1.00 3.20 3.84 Brazil 3476 4171 0.17 0.21 0.68 0.82 Chile 40 48 0.02 0.02 0.08 0.10 Colombia 1299 1558 0.43 0.52 1.72 2.07 Costa Rica 27 32 0.07 0.08 0.26 0.31 Cuba 182 219 0.19 0.23 0.54 0.65 Dominican Republic 94 113 0.11 0.13 0.75 0.90 Ecuador 204 245 0.25 0.30 1.08 1.30 Guatemala 825 990 1.42 1.70 11.11 13.33 Guyana 84 100 3.20 3.84 13.90 16.68 Honduras 427 512 1.99 2.39 9.25 11.10 Haiti 1953 2344 24.77 29.72 107.49 128.99 Jamaica 70 84 0.45 0.54 1.28 1.54 Mexico 1334 1600 0.09 0.11 0.40 0.48 Nicaragua 113 136 1.17 1.41 8.28 9.93
Achieving Zero Hunger: The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 40 TABLE D2 (Continued) US$mn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$2.00 PPP (US$mn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$2.00 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$2.00 PPP |(% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Low & middle income countries LatinAmerica/Caribbean Panama 72 86 0.21 0.25 0.90 1.09 Peru 332 399 0.14 0.17 0.80 0.96 Paraguay 78 94 0.43 0.52 2.73 3.27 El Salvador 145 174 0.53 0.64 2.82 3.38 Suriname 84 100 2.18 2.62 8.86 10.63 Trinidad and Tobago 328 393 0.90 1.08 3.43 4.11 Uruguay 2 3 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.02 Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) 1574 1889 0.58 0.70 2.38 2.85 Total 13285 15942 0.24 0.29 1.01 1.22 SouthAsia Bangladesh 16077 19293 12.07 14.48 131.75 158.10 India 89321 107185 3.05 3.66 19.74 23.69 Sri Lanka 277 333 0.42 0.50 2.04 2.45 Nepal 1504 1805 5.64 6.77 36.88 44.25 Pakistan 10047 12056 3.79 4.55 23.44 28.13 Total 117226 140671 3.43 4.11 22.39 26.87 EastAsia China 18166 21799 0.17 0.20 0.99 1.19 Hong Kong, China Special Administrative Region 11 13 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02 Indonesia 9014 10817 0.99 1.19 5.97 7.17 Cambodia 528 634 3.04 3.64 32.86 39.44 Korea, Republic of 44 52 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 Lao People's Democratic Republic 409 491 4.48 5.38 41.50 49.80 Myanmar 4886 5864 7.82 9.38 233.33 279.99 Mongolia 261 313 3.18 3.82 12.91 15.50 Malaysia 45 54 0.01 0.01 0.06 0.07 Philippines 4378 5254 1.52 1.82 8.90 10.68 Korea, Democratic People's Republic of 2276 2731 4.57 5.48 49.88 59.85 Thailand 117 140 0.02 0.03 0.13 0.16 Taiwan 25 30 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 Viet Nam 2522 3027 1.59 1.91 9.47 11.36 Total 42683 51219 0.26 0.31 1.47 1.76 Other 2886 3463 0.37 0.44 1.43 1.71 World (Grand Total) 321372 385647 0.37 0.45 1.46 1.75
Appendix 4. Statistical tables 41 TABLE D3 Transfers to cover the Poverty Gap (PGT) at $1.25 PPP poverty line and required investment to generate income to overcome poverty (US$ million; constant 2013 prices) (Scenario ZHbotmea) Average 2016-2030 annual values Gross PGT (@ 20% admin costs) (US$mn, 2013) Gross PGT (@ 20% admin costs) (US$mn, 2013) Aditional investment (US$mn, 2013) Aditional investment (US$mn, 2013) Gross PGT(@ 20% admin costs) (% GDP) Aditional investment (% GDP) Total Rural Total Rural Total Total High-Income countries Australia 16 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Canada 5 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Central Asian Republics 137 87 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 European Union 27 531 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Israel 2 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Japan 14 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 New Zealand 4 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Rest of Eastern Europe 7 3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Rest of Western Europe 4 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Russian Federation 10 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 United States of America 399 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 South Africa 1060 597 1246.19 702.39 0.27 0.31 Total 2187 688 1246 702 0.00 0.00 Low & middle income countries sub-SaharanAfrica Angola 1177 1153 1256.15 1230.38 0.63 0.67 Burundi 639 595 1101.48 1025.31 38.11 65.65 Benin 593 376 1099.73 696.32 5.72 10.60 Burkina Faso 779 732 1050.68 987.69 4.69 6.33 Botswana 53 33 56.77 34.59 0.24 0.25 Central African Republic 383 264 715.41 492.73 13.65 25.52 Côte d'Ivoire 842 537 1702.02 1085.22 2.53 5.11 Cameroon 572 398 664.91 462.40 1.42 1.65 Democratic Republic of the Congo 10843 7198 17230.66 11437.76 49.25 78.27 Congo 213 115 268.34 145.32 1.00 1.26 Eritrea 148 126 226.24 192.14 7.31 11.16 Ethiopia 494 420 0.00 0.00 0.79 0.00 Gabon 18 4 14.28 3.23 0.11 0.09 Ghana 395 281 561.74 400.25 0.91 1.29 Guinea 421 341 465.46 377.61 4.80 5.31 Gambia 25 16 16.05 10.71 1.73 1.13 Kenya 1563 1309 2856.80 2393.59 3.34 6.11 Liberia 587 332 957.48 541.11 37.00 60.34
Achieving Zero Hunger: The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 42 TABLE D3 (Continued) Average 2016-2030 annual values Gross PGT (@ 20% admin costs) (US$mn, 2013) Gross PGT (@ 20% admin costs) (US$mn, 2013) Aditional investment (US$mn, 2013) Aditional investment (US$mn, 2013) Gross PGT(@ 20% admin costs) (% GDP) Aditional investment (% GDP) Total Rural Total Rural Total Total Low & middle income countries sub-SaharanAfrica Lesotho 140 115 220.96 182.23 5.63 8.91 Madagascar 1683 1293 2993.32 2298.62 13.42 23.86 Mali 815 645 1051.77 832.80 4.80 6.20 Mozambique 1945 1400 2597.76 1869.92 6.66 8.90 Mauritania 67 41 102.08 62.98 1.24 1.89 Mauritius 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Malawi 1456 1347 2126.57 1967.12 15.01 21.91 Namibia 106 85 179.54 144.09 0.75 1.28 Niger 513 457 767.80 684.25 5.24 7.83 Nigeria 8431 5781 21553.36 14778.21 2.68 6.86 Rwanda 768 647 1097.26 924.91 6.78 9.69 Sudan 541 449 402.78 334.33 0.57 0.43 Senegal 598 423 789.28 558.21 2.59 3.42 Sierra Leone 311 237 568.11 432.37 10.14 18.52 Somalia 324 256 501.81 395.77 6.38 9.86 Swaziland 70 63 99.41 89.70 1.38 1.98 Chad 754 644 1089.08 931.38 4.46 6.45 Togo 374 291 800.66 623.88 8.90 19.07 United Republic of Tanzania 3981 0 7114.33 0.00 8.54 15.27 Uganda 1315 1260 1537.47 1473.27 3.83 4.48 Zambia 1140 900 1760.81 1389.25 3.98 6.15 Zimbabwe 1556 1215 2568.02 2005.70 16.01 26.44 Total 46632 31779 80166 53.50 3.73 6.41
Appendix 4. Statistical tables 43 TABLE D3 (Continued) Average 2016-2030 annual values Gross PGT (@ 20% admin costs) (US$mn, 2013) Gross PGT (@ 20% admin costs) (US$mn, 2013) Aditional investment (US$mn, 2013) Aditional investment (US$mn, 2013) Gross PGT(@ 20% admin costs) (% GDP) Aditional investment (% GDP) Total Rural Total Rural Total Total Low & middle income countries NearEast/NorthAfrica Afghanistan 1243 995 2243.91 1797.29 7.10 12.81 Algeria 161 78 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 Egypt 159 120 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 98 0 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 Iraq 147 80 94.30 51.11 0.16 0.10 Jordan 2 0 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 Lebanon 22 10 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 Libya 46 22 0.77 0.37 0.04 0.00 Morocco 198 146 9.05 6.65 0.17 0.01 Saudi Arabia 10 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Syrian Arab Republic 108 52 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.00 Tunisia 7 0 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 Turkey 61 37 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Yemen 221 181 212.15 173.73 0.53 0.51 Total 2481 1723 2560 2.03 0.07 0.07 LatinAmerica/Caribbean Argentina 119 0 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 Bolivia (Plurinational State of) 57 26 36.66 16.57 0.27 0.17 Brazil 1326 0 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 Chile 10 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Colombia 441 147 186.05 62.02 0.15 0.06 Costa Rica 9 3 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 Cuba 74 48 10.74 6.94 0.08 0.01 Dominican Republic 28 11 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 Ecuador 70 42 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.00 Guatemala 257 179 330.58 230.14 0.44 0.57 Guyana 35 0 44.51 0.00 1.33 1.71 Honduras 133 74 107.34 59.96 0.62 0.50 Haiti 677 0 1197.12 0.00 8.58 15.18 Jamaica 24 16 18.41 11.90 0.15 0.12 Mexico 431 127 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 Nicaragua 32 20 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.00
Achieving Zero Hunger: The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 44 TABLE D3 (Continued) Average 2016-2030 annual values Gross PGT (@ 20% admin costs) (US$mn, 2013) Gross PGT (@ 20% admin costs) (US$mn, 2013) Aditional investment (US$mn, 2013) Aditional investment (US$mn, 2013) Gross PGT(@ 20% admin costs) (% GDP) Aditional investment (% GDP) Total Rural Total Rural Total Total Low & middle income countries LatinAmerica/Caribbean Panama 27 17 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 Peru 111 45 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 Paraguay 25 13 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.00 El Salvador 47 21 7.43 3.32 0.17 0.03 Suriname 32 25 48.04 37.89 0.83 1.25 Trinidad and Tobago 135 107 176.26 139.01 0.37 0.49 Uruguay 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) 511 0 628.12 0.00 0.19 0.23 Total 4611 922 2791 568 0.08 0.05 SouthAsia Bangladesh 5429 4282 8265.78 6519.10 4.08 6.20 India 33442 26395 40675.92 32104.82 1.14 1.39 Sri Lanka 104 90 8.13 7.03 0.16 0.01 Nepal 533 482 390.00 352.71 2.00 1.46 Pakistan 3305 2543 4220.92 3247.44 1.25 1.59 Total 42812 33791 53561 42231 1.25 1.57 EastAsia China 6981 0 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 Hong Kong, China Special Administrative Region 3 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Indonesia 3405 2191 3042.13 1957.66 0.37 0.33 Cambodia 154 141 95.89 87.41 0.89 0.55 Korea, Republic of 11 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Lao People's Democratic Republic 143 119 197.55 163.98 1.57 2.16 Myanmar 1840 1451 2311.97 1823.42 2.94 3.70 Mongolia 101 41 131.18 53.51 1.24 1.60 Malaysia 11 8 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Philippines 1506 0 1422.62 0.00 0.52 0.49 Korea, Democratic People's Republic of 906 715 1089.90 859.59 1.82 2.19 Thailand 30 23 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 Taiwan 6 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Viet Nam 865 783 526.89 476.61 0.55 0.33 Total 15963 5472 8818 5422 0.10 0.05 Other 1066 706 1364 903 0.14 0.17 World (Grand Total) 115752 75079 150507 49882 0.13 0.18
I4777E/1/07.15 ISBN 978-92-5-108818-0 9 7 8 9 2 5 1 0 8 8 1 8 0 This paper provides estimates of investment costs, both public and private, required to eliminate chronic dietary energy deficits, or to achieve zero hunger by 2030. This target is consistent with achieving both the Sustainable Development Goal 2, to eliminate hunger by 2030, and the Sustainable Development Goal 1, to eradicate poverty. The study adopts a reference “baseline” scenario, reflecting a “business as usual” situation, to estimate the additional investment requirements. In this scenario, around 650 million people will still suffer from hunger in 2030. We then estimate the investment requirements to eliminate hunger by 2030. Hunger is eliminated through a combination of social protection and targeted “pro-poor” rural investments. The first component aims to bring the poor immediately to the US$1.25/day poverty line income in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms through social protection for a “Transfer to cover the Poverty Gap” (PGT). The second component requires additional investment to accelerate pro-poor rural growth of incomes and employment particularly in rural areas, where most of the poor live, than in the business as usual scenario. Targeted pro-poor rural, including rural and agricultural, investments are required to raise the earned incomes of the poor. This would, in turn, reduce the need for social protection to cover the PGT. The analysis is complemented by looking at alternative ways to achieve such pro-poor rural growth. Achieving Zero Hunger The critical role of investments in social protection and agriculture

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Achieving zero hunger

  • 1.
    Achieving Zero Hunger Thecritical role of investments in social protection and agriculture
  • 2.
    The designations employedand the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) or of the World Food Programme (WFP) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO, IFAD or WFP in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. ISBN 978-92-5-108818-0 FAO encourages the use, reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product. Except where otherwise indicated, material may be copied, downloaded and printed for private study, research and teaching purposes, or for use in non-commercial products or services, provided that appropriate acknowledgement of FAO as the source and copyright holder is given and that FAO’s endorsement of users’ views, products or services is not implied in any way. All requests for translation and adaptation rights, and for resale and other commercial use rights should be made via www.fao.org/contact-us/licence-request or addressed to [email protected]. FAO information products are available on the FAO website (www.fao.org/publications). © FAO 2015 Required citation: FAO, IFAD and WFP. 2015. Achieving Zero Hunger: the critical role of investments in social protection and agriculture ROME, FAO Cover photo: ©FAO/IFADWFP/Petterik Wiggers
  • 3.
    FOOD AND AGRICULTUREORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 2015 Achieving Zero Hunger The critical role of investments in social protection and agriculture
  • 4.
    iii iv Advocacy note vi Executive Summary viii Acknowledgements 1 Introduction 3 Investing for development 5 The baseline scenario to 2030: business as usual 9 Achieving zero hunger by investing in social protection and pro-poor development 13 Targeted pro-poor investment in rural areas: possible domains 17 Further considerations and concluding remarks 19 Appendix 1. Achieving zero hunger by investing in social protection 23 Appendix 2. Achieving zero hunger by investing in growth 31 Appendix 3. Step-wise approach for investing in growth 33 Appendix 4. Statistical tables Contents
  • 5.
    iv F AO, IFAD andWFP have prepared new estimates on the additional investments required for sustainably ending hunger by 2030, in line with the highest aspirations of the post-2015 Sustainable Development agenda and the draft Addis Ababa Accord which clearly states, “Our goal is to end poverty and hunger”. FAO, IFAD and WFP welcome this global commitment to end poverty, hunger and malnutrition by 2030. We are making our proposal on how to achieve zero hunger by 2030 in the context of the proposed Sustainable Development Goal 2 to eliminate hunger and malnutrition by 2030 which goes hand-in-hand with the proposed Strategic Development Goal 1 to eliminate poverty at the same time. With almost 800 million people suffering from hunger and four-fifths of the poor living in rural areas, it is necessary to raise agricultural and rural incomes to achieve the two most important Strategic Development Goals. The ‘dollar-a-day’ extreme poverty line - adopted for Millennium Development Goal 1 monitoring purposes - was originally based on the estimated costs for individuals to meet their basic needs, of which access to food was, by far, the most significant. Food expenditure generally ranged between 50 to 70 percent of the poverty line income, depending on the country and context. The so called dollar-a-day extreme poverty line was last adjusted by the World Bank to US$1.25 a day. Hence, the extreme poverty line is a reasonably good indicator of who goes hungry, although the poverty and hunger numbers differ due to the different data and methodological approaches used. ■■ We can end poverty and hunger! We can end poverty and hunger by 2030. But we will need a new approach that combines public investment in social protection with public and private efforts to raise investment levels in productive sectors - especially in rural areas and particularly agriculture - to much higher levels than in a ‘business as usual’ scenario. To eliminate hunger by 2030, much more investment will be needed, than what is expected in what may be described as a business as usual scenario. An average of US$267 billion per year during 2016-2030, i.e. 0.3 percent of world economic output in 2014, is required to fund social protection and additional targeted pro-poor investments, of which rural areas would receive US$181 billion annually. This would average US$160 annually for each of the extreme poor over the 15-year period. ■■ Agricultural investment and rural development Increasing aggregate investments is expected to increase growth, employment and thus, incomes. Properly designed and implemented investments in zero hunger will increase the productivity and incomes of small-scale producers, while offering broader opportunities for the poor and vulnerable. Of the total average annual financing of US$267 billion needed, some US$151 billion will be for additional pro- poor investments in the productive sectors – US$105 billion for rural development and agriculture and US$46 billion for urban areas. To sustainably eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, we need to boost both private and public investment to raise rural and agricultural productivity and incomes, as well as to promote more productive, sustainable and inclusive food systems. Farmers are the major source of investment in the sector, but formal systems of credit and insurance often discriminate against them, especially smallholder family farmers and others less well endowed. Most developing countries are characterized by high unemployment and underemployment, with youth unemployment growing rapidly. Sadly, this has also become a feature of many developed economies in recent years following the adoption of fiscal austerity measures. Advocacy note
  • 6.
    v Furthermore, there remainscontinued uncertainty about future economic prospects, especially with the recent slowing down of the world economy. As there are few effective measures in place likely to reverse this situation, we cannot rely on business as usual investment and growth to eliminate hunger and poverty by 2030. ■■ Social protection To break the vicious cycle of poverty and hunger, people who are extremely poor and hungry have to be assisted -- through social protection. Adequate, well designed social protection would enable the people in this category to quickly overcome poverty, hunger and undernutrition. From the total investment of US$267 billion, an investment of US$116 billion per annum is needed for social protection programmes, of which US$75 billion will go to rural areas, where most of the poor live, and US$41 billion to urban areas. While many may see social protection simply as consumption, the evidence is strong and growing that even modest savings will be deployed by the poor to enhance their productive capacities and their incomes. Also, better nutrition raises productivity, and thus, incomes, both in the short and long term. Social protection is a powerful investment in human capacities and the productive potential of the poor. Thus, the combination of social protection and pro-poor investments will enable most of the rural poor to escape poverty and hunger sustainably. As other enabling factors are also needed, social protection and pro-poor investments are necessary, though not sufficient. As rural incomes rise due to targeted, additional, pro-poor rural investments, there should be a corresponding decline in the amount of social protection needed. ■■ Funding issues The UN’s Third International Conference on Financing for Development in Addis Ababa seeks to ensure that all countries, especially developing countries, have the means to implement national policies and programs to achieve their development objectives, including the post-2015 Sustainable Development Goals. Currently, low income countries have very meagre fiscal resources because they are able to impose few taxes on relatively low national incomes. The least developed and other low-income countries must be enabled to enhance their fiscal resources efficiently and equitably. Their funding gap should be closed and this can be achieved through more generous international resource transfers than what has been the case in the last quarter century. Such transfers should be used to increase poor countries’ budget envelopes, to accelerate progress in eliminating poverty, hunger and malnutrition from our planet. International cooperation can also help share and develop appropriate know-how. Other factors will need to be taken into account. For example, with the continued increase in greenhouse gas emissions, average temperatures and extreme weather events, efforts have to be made to address both adaptation to as well as mitigation of climate change. We intend to address these issues in the near future, especially in relation to agriculture. This technical report should assure everyone that our proposal to end poverty, hunger and malnutrition is clearly viable and affordable, provided that a strong political will exists. This has been demonstrated in large and small countries, and also in middle income as well as poor countries. We look forward to working with governments and the rest of the international community to ensure that hunger and poverty will be history by 2030. José Graziano da Silva FAO Director-General Kanayo F. Nwanze IFAD President Ertharin Cousin WFP Executive Director
  • 7.
    vi D espite progress inrecent decades, including the near achievement of the Millennium Development Goal target of halving the proportion of hungry people in the world by the end of 2015, about 795 million people – or around one in nine – still suffer from chronic (dietary energy) undernourishment, or hunger. The eradication of hunger by 2030 is likely to be a target of the new Sustainable Development Goal 2 (SDG2) to be approved in September 2015 at the 70th Session of the United Nations General Assembly. Ending hunger is also in line with the Zero Hunger Campaign promoted by the UN Secretary-General, and closely linked to the Sustainable Development Goal 1 target to eliminate poverty by 2030. Governments in various regions have responded to that call of the UN Secretary-General and have committed to eradicating hunger as a major step towards poverty reduction. Almost four-fifths of the world’s poor live in rural areas. To achieve zero hunger (ZH) by 2030, the international community needs to build upon approaches and options that have proven to be effective, and which ensure continuous access to food for the undernourished, and improve livelihood opportunities for the poor and hungry. This paper presents new estimates on investments required to eradicate hunger by 2030. To estimate the additional investment requirements, we begin with reference to a “baseline” “business as usual” scenario. In this scenario, around 650 million people would still suffer from hunger, or chronically inadequate dietary energy, in 2030. We then estimate the investment requirements to eliminate hunger by 2030. This paper specifically considers how hunger can be eliminated through a combination of social protection and targeted pro-poor investments. The investment requirements proposed in this paper are prepared for the Third International Conference on Financing for Development taking place from 13 to 16 July 2015, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. ■■ Social Protection Hunger, undernutrition and poverty can be rapidly eliminated through social protection as soon as possible. Access to food is the most significant basic need by far, with the minimal cost of basic food ranging between 50 to 70 percent of the total poverty line income. Income is provided to the poor and hungry through social protection so that they can afford sufficient food to meet their basic nourishment needs. Bringing people to the US$1.25/day extreme poverty line income in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms would ensure that everyone has access to their basic food needs. The poor can be immediately brought to the US$1.25/ day poverty line through social protection by a “Transfer to cover the Poverty Gap” (PGT). This PGT eliminates poverty and hunger as soon as possible. The PGT is thus the cost of bringing all those with less than US$1.25/day to that income level. ■■ Accelerating pro-poor growth In the longer term, additional investment is required to stimulate and to sustain higher pro-poor rural growth of incomes and employment than in the business as usual scenario. To be pro-poor, investments in urban and rural areas, including in agriculture, should be properly targeted so that the poor could earn enough to overcome poverty. In the longer term, as the incomes of the poor increase because of investments, the need for social protection to close the poverty gap declines. Consequently, the cost of this approach will require adding the costs of both components while also recognizing the implications of the higher incomes generated. First, the annual average “gross PGT” – inclusive of a mark-up of Executive Summary
  • 8.
    vii 20 percent foradministrative costs and leakages –between 2016 and 2030 is estimated. Second, the additional annual global investment requirements are also estimated. An average of US$267 (bn) per year is estimated to be required to fund the PGT and additional targeted agricultural investments from 2016 to 2030, of which rural areas would receive US$181 bn annually. Initially, the poor are expected to earn incomes from wage work and their meagre productive assets (such as land), but are not expected to be able to invest much. This means that to induce private investments, the additional investment required has to be adequately remunerated. However, as the poor save more, they are able to invest more, and thus become more productive and increase their earnings. Both public and private investments can help to accelerate the transition from social protection to production. While private agents including farmers are, by far, the largest source of investment in rural areas, investment in public goods, such as rural transport and other infrastructure as well as productivity-enhancing research, development and extension, should attract more productive investments. Additional public investment can also diversify sources of rural income and expand the provision of rural and agricultural goods and services. To summarize, hunger and extreme poverty can be eliminated immediately with adequate investments in social protection. However, low income countries will find it unaffordable, and will require continuous external support until they are able to raise incomes and tax revenues sufficiently. A combination of social protection and targeted pro-poor investments can quickly take people out of hunger and extreme poverty while raising earned incomes for the poor in the medium term. Doing so requires an appropriate mix of public and private investments, and appropriate policies and coordinated programmes to ensure that the poor actually benefit from such additional investment and the growth and employment opportunities thus generated. ■■ Appendices Pro-poor growth can be organized in many different ways. Appendix 1 considers the costs and benefits of providing more generous social protection by comparing the likely implications of transfers equivalent to a poverty line of US$2/ day compared to US$1.25/day. Additional social protection over the poverty line can assure access to basic food and other needs and augment investments by the poor, enabling them to become more productive and to earn more. This option is premised on the “from protection to production” assumption that additional social protection will increase investments by the poor, enabling them to become more productive and earn more, thus transitioning from a vicious cycle of poverty, hunger, and low productivity to a virtuous cycle by enabling income growth. A higher PGT would enable more diverse and thus healthier diets. The higher PGT can also improve nutrition by addressing ‘hidden hunger’, or micronutrient deficiencies, due to the inadequate intake of vitamins, minerals and trace elements critical for a healthy human life. Improving nutrition in the short and long term should enable the poor to engage more productively in economic activities, improving their incomes and livelihoods. More generous transfers would also enable the poor to save and invest parts of their income to improve their productivity, and livelihoods. After all, almost by definition, an income of US$1.25 a day would only cover basic needs, but would not enable saving and investing. Savings and investments would allow the poor to break out of vicious cycles of poverty, hunger, low productivity and incomes and to enter these virtuous cycles leading to higher incomes, more investments, greater resilience and lives of dignity. Appendix 2 considers the additional investment requirements of an alternative overall balanced growth scenario above that of the business as usual starting scenario. This approach would require, on average, an additional US$1463 bn per year between 2016 and 2030, of which about US$111 bn is expected to go to agriculture. In this scenario, an estimated 338 million people (up to 5 percent of the population in countries requiring additional investment) would still be unable to earn enough to overcome hunger or chronic (dietary energy) undernourishment after 2030. The average annual costs of a “Food Deficit Transfer” (FDT), i.e. to meet the Minimum Dietary Energy Requirement (MDER), for the bottom five percent “left behind” are estimated at US$14 bn (including a 20 percent mark-up for administrative costs and leakages).
  • 10.
    ix T his paper hasbeen prepared by FAO, IFAD, WFP. It was written, under the leadership of Jomo Kwame Sundaram and Kostas Stamoulis, by Lorenzo Giovanni Bellù, Senior Economist, Team Leader, Marc Mueller and Aikaterini Kavallari, Economists, FAO-Global Perspectives Studies (GPS) team. Jelle Bruinsma, FAO Senior Consultant, provided methodological support. IFAD, notably Josefina Stubbs and team and staff members in the SKD and Program Departments, and WFP, notably Arif Husain, Michelle Lacey and John McHarris from the Food Security Analysis and Trends Service, contributed to the document. The contributions of Isabel Ortiz and Andres Acuna, from ILO, are also acknowledged. They shared with GPS the ILO proposal for the costing of a “Social Protection Floor” and provided useful hints on the issue of social protection. Last, but certainly not least, the GPS team would like to thank all the FAO colleagues who constantly provided support with suggestions, comments and amendments of the various versions of the paper: Rob Vos, Boubaker Ben Belhassen, Guy Evers, Michael Clark, Lucas Tavares, Coumba Dieng Sow, Anna Rappazzo, Dorian Kalamvrezos Navarro, Sangita Dubey, Piero Conforti, Carlo Cafiero, Richard Allen and all the other colleagues who contributed to the preparation of this report. Graphic design was provided by Monica Umena, Publication Division (OCCP), Office for Corporate Communication (FAO) and final editing review by Alison Small, (OCCP). Acknowledgements
  • 12.
    1 Introduction T his report presentsestimates of the additional investment that would be required to achieve the objective of world-wide zero hunger (ZH) by 2030, i.e. virtually eliminating the prevalence of undernourishment. To estimate the additional investment requirements, we adopt and compare two alternative methodologies. The first methodology, which estimates the additional investment required to raise GDP to achieve zero hunger, builds upon Schmidhuber and Bruinsma (2011)1 . While this document follows the same broad steps, it complements the 2011 study with some new approaches using the FAO GAPS global partial equilibrium model for country-wise long term projections of food demand and supply2 , and estimation of a “Food Deficit Transfer” (FDT), i.e. the transfers required to enable people not able to earn enough to feed themselves, to no longer remain undernourished. This approach involves very large, economy-wide investments to achieve zero hunger by 2030, most of which are likely to involve private investments by farmers themselves, presumably according to their different means. The second methodology involves (targeted pro-poor) Social Protection (SP) to immediately lift people out of extreme poverty. This approach assumes that thanks to the possibility of meeting their basic needs, including diversifying their diets (thus improving their nutrition), the poor will enhance their productive capacities to increase their incomes. This will enable the poor to break out of a vicious cycle of poverty, hunger and low productivity into a virtuous cycle of higher productivity, and income generation. This progression from protection to production will accelerate the reduction of poverty, hunger and malnutrition, allowing the ZH target to be realized, no poverty as well as dietary diversity. 1 Schmidhuber, J. and J. Bruinsma (2011). “Investing towards a world free of hunger: lowering vulnerability and enhancing resilience”. Chapter 27 in Prakash, A. (2011) (ed.). Safeguarding Food Security in Volatile Global Markets. FAO, Rome. See: http://www.fao.org/economic/est/issues/volatility/ vgm/en/ 2 FAO (2015). Global Agriculture Perspectives System (GAPS), Version 1.0 Global Perspectives Studies Team. ESA. FAO. Rome. This report is structured as follows: Section 2 frames the need for investment to achieve zero hunger in the broader context of financing for development. Section 3 outlines the business as usual (BaU) scenario, which serves as a reference for all the subsequent scenarios. Section 4 presents the main scenario, where ZH is achieved by social protection measures, aimed at immediately taking people out of hunger, and targeted investments in rural areas and agriculture (ZHbotmea scenario), to sustainably raise incomes in the longer term. Section 5 specifies the types of investments required and priority areas for agricultural development, while Section 6 provides concluding remarks. Other scenarios considered are appended: Appendix 1 considers the costs and benefits of providing more generous social protection to cover a PGT for a poverty line equivalent to US$2 a day. Appendix 2 looks into a scenario where ZH is achieved through investment for economy-wide growth (ZHtotinv scenario) and a transfer to fill the Food Deficit Gap (FDT) for the bottom 5 percent “left behind” by the growth process. Finally, methodological details and statistical tables follow in Appendices 3 and 4.
  • 14.
    3 Investing for development ■■Funding the post-2015 development agenda The estimate of investment required to achieve zero hunger fits within the broader exercise of planning suitable investments to support the post-2015 development agenda and to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that will be adopted in September 2015 by the United Nations. The third international conference on Financing for Development (FfD3), to be held in Addis Ababa from 13 to 16 July 2015, is expected to identify the modalities for funding implementation of the post-2015 development agenda. ■■ The challenges ahead Setting achievable sustainable development objectives in a forward-looking global framework is both timely and urgent, in light of the challenges that humanity is facing. The world population, which was barely one billion at the beginning of the nineteenth century, is now, after two centuries, more than seven billion. While Gross World Product (GWP) in 1800 was around US$175 bn3 , it is now almost US$76,000 bn4 . Agriculture dramatically evolved during this period. For instance, wheat yields in Europe increased from around 1.2 tons per hectare in 18005 to around 7.0 tons per hectare today. Also globally, in the last fifty years, cereal yields have more than tripled, helping to feed the fast growing human and livestock populations. However, this dramatic increase in the production of goods and services has progressively stressed the capacity of the Earth to support human activities, hindering prospects for future development. “…Current policy, financing and investment patterns are not delivering the future we want… Some countries have fallen further behind, and inequalities 3 DeLong, J. Bradford (1998). “Estimating World GDP, One Million B.C. – Present 4 The World Bank (2014). Data Bank. Gross Domestic Product 2013. 5 Grigg, D.B. (1980). Population Growth and Agrarian Change: An Historical Perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. have increased... Shocks from economic crises, conflict, natural disasters, and disease outbreaks spread rapidly in our highly interconnected world. Environmental concerns, climate change and other global risks threaten to undermine past successes and future prospects” (UN 2015)6 . Climate change is of particular concern, inter alia, for food security and nutrition, as it is more severely impacting already fragile ecosystems where most food and nutrition insecure people live7 . All in all, it is estimated that our current “ecological footprint”, i.e. the quantity of land-equivalent required to absorb the impacts of our activities corresponds to one and half Earths. Under a business as usual scenario, we would need three planets by 20508 . Although these figures may be broad indicative estimates, they raise concerns about the sustainability of our development path on economic, environmental and social grounds. ■■ Sustainably Achieving Zero Hunger A major target of the SDG agenda is the eradication of hunger. This is a UN system-wide priority and the centrepiece of the Zero Hunger Campaign promoted by the UN Secretary General’s High-Level Task Force on World Food Security (HLTF). To achieve zero hunger by 2030, governments and the international community need to build upon approaches that have proven to be effective, and which combine three important elements: a. Providing immediate access. Promote immediate access to food and nutrition-related services to the hungry people through Social Protection programmes, including transfers 6 UN (2015). Zero-draft outcome of the third international conference on Financing for Development, Addis Ababa, July 2015. New York, March 2015. http://www.un.org/pga/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2015/03/160315_ ffd-zero-draft-outcome.pdf 7 IPCC (2014). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds)]. IPCC, Geneva, http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/ assessment-report/ar5/syr/SYR_AR5_FINAL_full.pdf 8 Global Footprint Network: www.footprintnetwork.org.
  • 15.
    Achieving Zero Hunger:The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 4 of food and/or cash to immediately relieve hunger and also to increase human productive potential; b. Increasing opportunities. Create opportunities for the poor and hungry to improve their livelihoods by promoting decent labour conditions, promoting investment to improve farm productivity, rural infrastructure and market access, knowledge generation, learning and information; c. Ensuring sustainability. Increase the sustainability of food systems by conserving natural resources and adopting sustainable agricultural practices, reducing food losses in production and processing, modify unsustainable dietary preferences, reduce levels of food waste in consumption, and reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from agriculture and other sectors, to slow the pace of climate change and ensure the food security of future generations (HLPE, 2012)9 . 9 HLPE (2012). Food security and climate change. A Report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Committee on World Food Security, Rome. ■■ Investing in agriculture. Investing in agriculture is a way of increasing the productivity of agricultural labour and land. Productivity increases enable better remuneration, as productivity is a major determinant of farm incomes, thus contributing to raising the living conditions of food insecure strata of the population while helping to reduce pressure on scarce natural resources. Private agents, including farmers, are, by far, the largest source of investment in rural areas. However, public investment in public goods -- such as institution building, productivity-enhancing research, rural transport, health, education and social protection -- is needed to ensure food security, nutrition and inclusive sustainable development (FAO 2012, 2015)10 . 10 FAO (2012). State of Food and Agriculture, 2012. FAO, Rome. FAO (2015). State of Food and Agriculture, 2015 (forthcoming). FAO, Rome.
  • 16.
    5 The baseline scenarioto 2030: business as usual T o test the effectiveness of the various measures envisaged to achieve ZH by 2030, we begin by building a scenario to reflect a business as usual (BaU) situation. This scenario provides projections of undernourishment to 2030 assuming that no significant changes in policies and actions to achieve ZH will be undertaken. ■■ Measuring undernourishment. If the Dietary Energy Consumption (DEC) is a measure of the dietary energy nourishment of people, the Prevalence of Undernourishment (PoU) is calculated as the proportion of a population with a DEC below the minimum caloric intake to conduct a decent life, also known as the Minimum Daily Energy Requirement (MDER)11 . An increase of the DEC of undernourished people that brings them above the MDER reduces the prevalence of undernourishment. The prevalence of undernourishment is calculated on the basis of three parameters: the Average (per capita) Dietary Energy Consumption (ADEC), the MDER, and an estimate of the coefficient of variation (CV). ■■ The base year To build the BaU scenario, reference is made to the period 2005-2007, the base years that anchor the projections of undernourishment in the future (FAO, 2012)12 . In the base 11 FAO (2014). State of World Food Insecurity, 2015. (SOFI 2015). Meeting the 2015 international hunger targets: taking stock of uneven progress. Annex 2. FAO, Rome. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4646e.pdf 12 Alexandratos, N. and J. Bruinsma (2012). “World agriculture: towards 2030 and 2050 – the 2012 revision”. ESA Working Paper No. 12-03, FAO, Rome, available at: http://www.fao.org/economic/esa/esag/en/ period, around 949 million people were undernourished13 . The large majority of the undernourished (829 million) were concentrated in 60 countries, expected to miss the zero hunger target by 2030 if no additional investment occurred. The others (120 million) were in 50 countries expected to be on target by 2030 with no additional investments (Table 1, first panel). Most undernourished people (920 million) were concentrated in low and medium income countries in five areas, notably sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), Near East and North Africa (MNA), Latin America and Caribbean (LAC), South Asia (SAS) and East Asia (EAS). In these areas, although ADEC greatly exceeded the MDER, almost 18 percent of the population was undernourished. The prevalence of undernourishment was particularly high in SSA (29 percent) and in SAS (20.5 percent)14 . ■■ Business as usual scenario to 2030 Food consumption projections to 2030 reveal that by 2030, 653 million people will still be undernourished. In the BaU scenario, the global world product is expected to grow at 2.4 percent per annum to 2030. In the various regions GDP is projected to increase at rates between 2.2 percent, as in LAC, and 4.5 percent, as in EAS (Table 2). At the same time, population and investments are also expected to grow. The shift in GDP is expected to raise the Average Dietary Energy Consumption (ADEC) from 2619 to 2857 kcal/person/ day (+9 percent) in low and middle income countries 13 Food consumption is distributed across the population according to calorie distribution functions calibrated on the prevalence of undernourishment reported in SOFI 2015. Due to calibration procedures to match the FAO GAPS model, which is calibrated on food consumption as in FAO AT 2030/50, and the SOFI dataset, the undernourishment indicators we obtain for the base year are only slightly different from the indicators reported in SOFI 2015. 14 These figures are substantially aligned with the statistics reported in SOFI 2015. Some discrepancies are due to calibration procedures.
  • 17.
    Achieving Zero Hunger:The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 6 TABLE 1 Undernourishment in the business as usual (BaU) scenario   Population Minimum Daily Energy Requirements (MDER) Average Dietary Energy Consumption (ADEC) Coefficient of Variation (CV) Persons chronically undernourished   million kcal/person/day percent million 2005/07 (Base Year) World 6,568 1,846 2,769 0.297 14.4 949 High-Income countries 1,351 1,949 3,348 0.223 2.2 29 Low & middle income countries 5,216 1,819 2,619 0.317 17.6 920 sub-Saharan Africa 730 1,747 2,238 0.327 29.0 212 Near East / North Africa 432 1,832 3,007 0.285 8.3 36 Latin America /Caribbean 556 1,838 2,898 0.278 8.4 47 South Asia 1,520 1,769 2,292 0.276 20.5 311 East Asia 1,957 1,875 2,850 0.362 15.9 311 50 countries on target in 2030 2,626 1,886 3,122 0.243 4.6 120 60 countries not on target in 2030 3,941 1,819 2,534 0.333 21.0 828 25 worst-off countries* 492 1,752 2,062 0.373 39.8 196 2030 Business as Usual (BaU) scenario (Baseline) World 8,274 1,865 2,955 0.272 7.9 653 High-Income countries 1,437 1,941 3,425 0.217 1.1 16 Low & middle income countries 6,838 1,849 2,857 0.283 9.3 637 sub-Saharan Africa 1,245 1,812 2,528 0.288 17.4 216 Near East / North Africa 615 1,865 3,133 0.266 4.7 29 Latin America /Caribbean 682 1,872 3,091 0.258 4.0 27 South Asia 2,016 1,825 2,587 0.245 9.3 188 East Asia 2,247 1,878 3,133 0.327 7.8 175 50 countries on target in 2030 3,113 1,895 3,243 0.233 2.0 63 60 countries not on target in 2030 5,161 1,846 2,782 0.295 11.4 590 25 worst-off countries* 833 1,812 2,363 0.320 25.2 210 * The worst-off countries are defined as countries that would have to raise their average DEC in 2030 by more than 10 percent to eliminate hunger. Source: own calculations based on Alexandratos, N. and J. Bruinsma (2012) and SOFI 2015.
  • 18.
    The Baseline Scenarioto 2030: Business as Usual 7 (Table 2, second panel)15 . The latter implies that the Coefficient of Variation (CV) of food distribution drops and the overall percentage of the undernourished in those countries falls to 9.3 percent16 . However, this percentage remains high in SSA and SAS (at 17.4 percent and 9.3 percent respectively), and above target in four of the five areas under consideration. The projections of undernourishment to 2030 in the BaU clearly indicate that efforts are needed to increase food consumption for more than 650 million people who would otherwise remain undernourished. 15 The Average Dietary Energy Consumption (ADEC) is not merely net caloric intake, but a gross figure which includes a proportion of waste. 16 The drop of the Coefficient of Variation for Dietary Energy Consumption (DEC) distribution is obtained by keeping the Standard Deviation (SD) of the DEC distribution constant over time at its base year (2005/07) level for every country. Since CV = SD / ADEC, the CV declines when the ADEC increases with a constant SD. In the following sections, this paper explores a scenario (ZHbotmea) where ZH can be achieved through a mix of social protection and additional targeted “pro-poor” investments, specifically in rural areas, where the great majority of the poor live. Two alternative scenarios are also explored for comparative purposes, notably the achievement of ZH through social protection (ZHsocpro) to close a US$2 a day poverty gap and additional investment for economy-wide growth (ZHtotinv) complemented by financing to cover the remaining dietary energy gap for the bottom five percent presumed to be ‘left behind’. The findings for these scenarios are reported in Appendices 1 and 2 respectively17 . 17 The three main approaches adopted so far estimate the cost and related funding requirements for development goals as provided in the European Report on Development – 2015 (European Commission, 2015 pp 68-69: 1) “Unit cost-based analyses”; 2) Growth-based approaches; and 3) Computable General Equilibrium (CGE)-based approaches. The approaches adopted here for the estimation of social protection needs fit in the first family while those for the estimation of additional investment requirements belong to the second family. TABLE 2 GDP and Investment in the Business as Usual Scenario GDP (constant 2013 Billion US$) GDP growth (%) Average, p. a. 2016-2030 Av. Gr. Inv., bn US$ 2016-2030 2005/7 2030 BaU BaU BaU World 56,263 101,131 2.40 9,202 High-Income countries 42,388 61,530 1.65 4,189 Low & middle income countries 13,875 39,601 3.79 5,013 sub-Saharan Africa 548 1,629 4.01 163 Near East / North Africa 1,881 4,334 3.33 512 Latin America /Caribbean 3,588 6,413 2.02 517 South Asia 1,393 4,391 3.82 396 East Asia 6,037 21,859 4.52 3,303 50 countries on target in 2030 49,820 76,654 1.83 5,697 60 countries not on target in 2030 6,443 24,476 4.63 3,506 25 worst-off countries* 273 793 4.02 70
  • 20.
    9 Achieving zero hungerby investing in social protection and pro-poor development I n this paper it is assumed that hunger is essentially caused by a lack of entitlements or purchasing power, that do not allow people to have access to sufficient and nutritious food. Therefore hunger can be defeated by providing people the opportunity to obtain enough income to afford sufficient and nutritious food and to satisfy basic needs for adequate food utilization. ■■ How much income is needed to exit hunger? People who are out of extreme poverty are also free of hunger. Assuming the US$1.25/day PPP poverty line as a threshold for extreme poverty, each person who disposes of at least US$1.25/day is also free of hunger. Therefore, the additional per capita income to exit poverty can be measured as the additional amount of income required on average by the poor to overcome the US$1.25/ day PPP poverty line, i.e. the so called “poverty gap”. On the basis of the poverty gap and the number of the poor, the total amount of income required each year to pull everybody out of poverty is calculated18 . In the BaU scenario, both the poverty gap and the number of the poor are projected to vary due to changes in national income, population and income distribution from 2016 to 2030. Therefore, the additional income needed to take people out of poverty varies as well. Table 3 provides the additional income required with respect to the BaU scenario to pull people out of poverty both in US$ and as percentage of the GDP for 2016, 2030 and on average from 2016 to 2030. Figure 1 shows the required additional income to pull people out of poverty from 2016 to 2030. While, overall, per capita GDP growth reduces the proportion of the poor as 18 The poverty gap and the number of the poor, calculated as total population times the percentage of the poor (prevalence of poverty) are estimated on the basis of country-wise log-normal distribution functions fitted to the poverty indicators in the World Bank Povcalnet database. The annual income required at country level to pull people out of poverty is calculated as the poverty gap (as percent of the poverty line) times the poverty line times the number of poor times 365. well as the poverty gap, the increase of the population will tend to increase the amount of additional income required with respect to the BaU to exit poverty. Globally, the additional income required decreases slightly from US$150 bn to US$147 bn. The average income requirements from 2016 to 2030 are estimated at around US$148 bn. ■■ How to provide additional income to the poor In this scenario (ZHbotmea), two instruments are considered to provide the poor with additional income to pull them out of poverty, namely: 1) investment in social protection; and 2) investment in agriculture and rural development. The two instruments are combined so that: a. Universal exit out of poverty and hunger is achieved as soon as possible; b. Productive capacities and earned incomes of the poor progressively increase, particularly in rural areas; c. Reliance on social protection incomes progressively declines. FIGURE 1 Additional income required to pull people out of poverty, 2016-2030 (US$ bn, constant 2013 prices) 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 Income requirements @ 1.25 PPP poverty line 2016-2030 average (US$Bn, 2013)
  • 21.
    Achieving Zero Hunger:The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 10 ■■ The role of Social Protection. Achieving zero hunger as soon as possible requires immediately providing the poor with additional incomes to achieve satisfactory nutrition. In the initial periods all additional income required to pull all the poor out of poverty is provided through a Transfer to cover the Poverty Gap (PGT). In subsequent periods the PGT is expected to drop due to: 1. The growth of the whole economic system as projected in the BaU and 2. The progressive increase in earned income. The cost of the PGT, which in addition to the income to be transferred includes a 20 percent mark-up for administrative costs and leakages (gross PGT), amounting globally to US$116 bn annually on average, mostly concentrated in the low and middle income countries (Table 4). Although expenditure for social protection is usually viewed as current expenditure, social protection can contribute to investment and achievement of the zero hunger target. To achieve the target, selected groups of people, particularly landless workers or marginal smallholders in rural areas, need to be supported through appropriate Social Protection systems that ensure the predictability and regularity of income flows. This would increase their chances of being reinserted into productive sectors while contributing to improve their food and nutrition status. Social Protection, for instance, may help overcome household liquidity constraints, enhance human resources and enable individuals and communities to engage in more risk-taking, but profitable employment-generating activities. In the absence of social protection systems or other risk sharing arrangements, poor rural households are often forced to cope in ways that further increase their vulnerability and undermine their future income generation capacity such as, overexploitation of the natural resources they depend on, or refraining from making risky investments. In addition, many countries will need to provide social protection to meet the needs of ageing populations. Investing in Social Protection would also contribute to increasing overall economic growth. By providing the poor with enough income to satisfy their basic needs, and improving their nutritional status, they are likely to start accumulating productive resources through a saving-investment process. ■■ The role of investment While additional income has to be provided immediately through social protection, progressively higher earned incomes for the poor are expected thanks to the additional investment that increases the productivity of existing activities and stimulates new activities. Increasing earned incomes will increase their resilience and correspondingly reduce the need for and reliance on social protection. TABLE 3 Additional income required to pull people out of poverty at US$1.25 PPP poverty line Required additional income at US$1.25 PPP (US$bn, 2013) Required additional income at US$1.25 PPP (US$bn, 2013) Required additional income at US$1.25 PPP (US$bn, 2013) Required additional income at US$1.25 (% GDP) Required additional income at US$1.25 (% GDP) Required additional income at US$1.25 (% GDP) 2016 2030 Av.2016-2030 2016 2030 Av.2016-2030 World 150 147 148 0.21 0.15 0.17 High-Income countries 2 2 2 0.01 0.00 0.00 Low & middle income countries 147 145 146 0.63 0.37 0.47 sub-Saharan Africa 61 72 66 6.45 4.39 5.27 Near East / North Africa 3 3 3 0.10 0.07 0.09 Latin America /Caribbean 5 5 5 0.10 0.07 0.09 South Asia 57 51 54 2.20 1.16 1.58 East Asia 21 13 16 0.18 0.06 0.10 50 countries on target in 2030 29 30 30 0.05 0.04 0.04 60 countries not on target in 2030 121 116 118 0.93 0.48 0.65 25 worst-off countries* 40 48 44 8.83 6.04 7.22
  • 22.
    Achieving Zero Hungerby Investing in Social Protection and Rural Development 11 It is assumed that by 2030, all the additional income required by the poor – except for the bottom 5 percent of the population, assumed to be “left behind” – will no longer come from the PGT, but will have become earned income. Investment requirements are calculated on the basis of the income that progressively has to be provided to people to keep them out of poverty, under the assumption that, by 2030 the PGT will be phased out, apart from the transfers to the 5 percent of the population19 . Globally, the investment required amounts to US$151 bn (Table 4, third column). Initially, the poor are expected to earn incomes from labour remuneration and their productive assets (such as land), as they will not be able to invest much. However, as the poor have the possibility to save and invest themselves, they are expected to increase their earnings. 19 The investment requirements are calculated on an annual basis with reference to an Incremental Capital Output Ratio, which is lower than the ones applied for the economy-wide investment in appendix B, to account for the higher marginal productivity of capital at lower levels of income. As the investors are entitled to the remuneration from the capital they invest, a provision is made to adequately remunerate the additional investment required20 . ■■ Where are the poor To the extent possible, income transfers and income-earning opportunities have to be provided to the poor wherever they are. Currently 78 percent of the poor are in rural areas. This implies that a corresponding share of the total additional income, as well as of additional investments, will be allocated to rural areas21 . Therefore, out of the total PGT of US$116 bn, 20 The provision for the remuneration of capital is based on country-specific capital-labour ratios derived from historical data. 21 This scenario raises some questions: first, how will the investment rate be effectively and sustainably raised; second, how will the tendency for the agricultural sector investment rate to be lower than the overall investment rate be reversed; third, how will the tendency for the agricultural sector wage rate to be lower than the overall wage rate be reversed enough so as to exceed the poverty line income. Here, the role of the public sector and solid institutions to create opportunities for and protect the poor becomes very important. TABLE 4 Average annual PGT and economy-wide investment from 2016 to 2030 (panel 1) and in rural areas (panel 2) (US$1.25 a day PPP) Average 2016-2030 annual values PGT at US$1.25 PPP (US$Bn, 2013) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (US$Bn, 2013) Aditional investment at US$1.25 PPP (US$Bn, 2013) Aditional investment at US$1.25 PPP (US$Bn, 2013) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% GDP) Aditional investment at US$1.25 PPP (% GDP) Total Rural Total Rural Total Total World 116 75 151 105 0.13 0.18 High-Income countries 2 1 1 1 0.00 0.00 Low & middle income countries 114 74 149 105 0.37 0.48 sub-Saharan Africa 47 32 80 53 3.73 6.41 Near East / North Africa 2 2 3 2 0.07 0.07 Latin America /Caribbean 5 1 3 1 0.08 0.05 South Asia 43 34 54 42 1.25 1.57 East Asia 16 5 9 5 0.10 0.05 50 countries on target in 2030 23 14 35 25 0.03 0.05 60 countries not on target in 2030 93 61 116 81 0.51 0.64 25 worst-off countries* 31 20 48 30 5.14 7.95 Source: Calculations based on WB Povcalnet data Note: Country-wise details are reported in table D3 in the appendix 4.
  • 23.
    Achieving Zero Hunger:The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 12 US$75 bn is for poor people living in rural areas, and, of the US$151 bn in investment, US$105 bn is for rural areas. Table 4 provides annual averages for both the PGT and economy- wide investment, in rural and urban areas for the period 2016-2030. The results are also shown in Figure 2. The PGT, as designed in this scenario, is expected to shrink, both due to the economic growth projected in the BaU and the role of additional “pro-poor” targeted investment. However, it is assumed that five percent of the population, who will not benefit due to various reasons, such as personal disability, health and socio-economic conditions will continue to meet their basic needs through social protection transfers. In the medium-long run the PGT could be absorbed by more structured Social Protection Floors (SPFs). ILO has estimated the cost of SPF benefit package, i.e. the amount of money to be spent annually to ensure universal minimums for selected disadvantaged categories22 . These 22 ILO (2015). A Global Fund for Social Protection Floors in Least Developed Countries. Informal note prepared by the ILO Social Protection Department as a technical input for preparations for the Addis Ababa Conference on Financing for Development, 13-16 July 2015. This global estimate is based on the cost of: (i) a universal child benefit of 12 percent of a country’s national poverty line; (ii) a benefit of 100 percent of a country’s national poverty line to all orphans; (iii) a maternity benefit for 4 months, of 100 percent of a country’s national poverty line to all mothers with new-borns; (iv) unemployment support of 100 percent of a country’s minimum wage to one person per vulnerable household for 90 costs, as average shares of GDP, range between 1.9 percent for East Asia to 7.6 percent for the poorest countries, with an average of 3.1 percent of GDP for all low and middle income countries23 . The costs and benefits of the PGT are different from the ILO SPF, as the targeted people and measures are different. While the PGT targets the poor on the basis of the US$1.25 PPP, the SPF has several “universal” components and the costs of the transfers are calculated on the basis of national poverty lines. However, significant complementarities exist between the PGT and the SPFs. On the one hand, full implementation and realization of the SPFs will leave less room for hunger. On the other hand, if implementation and realization of nationally-defined social protection floors is to be achieved progressively, “temporary interventions could still be required”24 . While investment in agriculture and rural development will reduce the need for the PGT to 2030, effective SPFs can replace it. days; (v) a benefit of 100 percent of a country’s national poverty line to all persons with severe disabilities; and (vi) a universal pension of 100 percent of a country’s national poverty line. All these include administrative costs. 23 The aggregate percentages are own calculations. For countries without data, shares of similar countries or regional averages were assumed. ILO does not report data for the HICs. 24 Written comments on the zero draft of this paper by ILO. FIGURE 2 0 100 200 300 400 500 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 PGT + Additional income Required investment (US$Bn, 2013) PGT at US$1.25 PPP Additional income from investment at US$1.25 PPP Total 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 PGT + Additional income Required investment (US$Bn, 2013) PGT at US$1.25 PPP Additional income from investment at US$1.25 PPP Rural Annual PGT and investment from 2016 to 2030 in the ZHbotmea scenario economy-wide (panel 1) and for rural areas (panel 2) Annual PGT and investment from 2016 to 2030 in the ZHbotmea scenario economy-wide (panel 1) and for rural areas (panel 2)
  • 24.
    13 Targeted pro-poor investmentin rural areas: possible domains ■■ Pro-poor investment In this scenario, if a progressive reduction of the Poverty Gap Transfer has to be realized, investment has to generate enough income in the hands of the people targeted by the PGT, to bring them out of poverty. Economic growth generated by pro-poor investment has to be inclusive, so as to provide opportunities for improving the livelihoods of the poor (SOFI, 2015). Indeed, if hunger is to be overcome, the additional investment in rural development and agriculture has to be geared to economically, environmentally and socially sustainable development in domains that may be overlooked in a business as usual scenario, but are strategic to bring hunger reduction and poverty alleviation. A broad categorization of how agricultural capital stock is currently allocated among investment categories is reported in Table 5. The relative importance of each category varies across regions and countries.25 ■■ Possible domains for additional investment. Part of the additional pro-poor investment required to generate income in the hands of the poor may fit within the broad categories of Table 5. However, as the basic objective of additional investments is to increase access to food, they have to offer opportunities for the poorer and more vulnerable segments of the population to increase their incomes. 25 Allocation of investment for different purposes could be the subject of additional work. TABLE 5 Categories of capital stock in agriculture Land Development Machinery & Equipment Plantation Crops Livestock related assets Total % % % % % World 35.10 16.59 9.56 38.75 100.00 High-Income countries 31.10 36.82 4.47 27.61 100.00 Low & middle income countries 36.45 9.77 11.28 42.50 100.00 sub-Saharan Africa 26.88 3.56 9.47 60.10 100.00 Near East / North Africa 62.69 13.53 3.84 19.95 100.00 Latin America /Caribbean 27.73 7.99 7.80 56.48 100.00 South Asia 44.35 9.22 7.41 39.02 100.00 East Asia 33.33 10.51 13.63 42.53 100.00 50 countries on target in 2030 33.20 26.58 7.50 32.71   60 countries not on target in 2030 36.44 9.53 11.02 43.01 100.00 25 worst-off countries* 24.06 3.42 7.06 65.46 100.00 Source: FAOSTAT 2015.
  • 25.
    Achieving Zero Hunger:The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 14 Table 6 allocates the annual average investment envelope for rural areas of low and middle-income countries to possible investment domains, following Schmidhuber et al. (2011), Schmidhuber and Bruinsma (2011) and FAO (2010)26 . This can comprise, for instance, investment enabling and incentivizing sustainable smallholder activities, such as investment in agricultural research and development, professional education and extension services land and water management and conservation. Also investment for the development of the rural space is strategic for creating income opportunities in rural areas. Transport infrastructure, electricity, and communication are key assets needed worldwide in rural areas. Rural financial services facilitate the access to credit and the management of households’ savings. In rural areas, the development of off-farm employment opportunities will have synergies with the development of the agricultural sector. On the one hand, additional investment in agriculture could increase the capital stock for sustainable agricultural production, increase the ratio of capital to worker (FAO, 2012), and smoothen structural changes. On the other hand, medium-to-longterm investment in other sectors in rural areas would allow developing employment opportunities likely to absorb the excess labour released by agriculture, should the structural transformation process of the sector continue, due for example to mechanization. Investment in agriculture should enhance sustainable agricultural practices, including soil and water conservation, improved irrigation systems, higher water efficiency, preservation of biodiversity as well as genetic improvements in agriculture, fisheries and forestry. Mechanization may also be required to increase agricultural productivity. Investments in agro-processing operations, such as milling cereals, extracting oil, ginning cotton, storage and marketing facilities should help reduce food losses and waste, and in turn increase quality and food safety. This would also require food inspection services with trained staff, upgraded laboratories and expertise to design and monitor food safety standards. Institution building, such as authorities providing services to secure tenure rights, is also important for protecting the assets of the poor to encourage productivity increases. 26 Schmidhuber, J., Bruinsma, J., and Boedeker, G. (2011). ‘Capital requirements for agriculture in developing countries to 2050’. In Conforti, P. (ed.). Looking Ahead in World Food and Agriculture: Perspectives to 2050. Agricultural Development Economics Division, Economic and Social Development Department, FAO, Rome, pp. 317-343. Schmidhuber, J. and Bruinsma, J. (2011). ‘Investing towards a World Free of Hunger: Lowering Vulnerability and Enhancing Resilience’. In Prakash, A. (ed.). Safeguarding Food Security in Volatile Global Markets. FAO, Rome, pp. 543-569 FAO (2010). ‘Investing in Food Security’. Processed, FAO. Retrieved from: https://www.responsibleagroinvestment.org Research and Development (R&D) useful to improve the productivity of the poor is also essential. ■■ Public and private investment While the bulk of investment in agriculture under the BaU scenario is and will be carried out by private agents, including small farmers, provision of goods and services in selected domains requires public investment. There are several reasons why public investments are needed: 1) the most needed goods and services are public goods, from which private investors would not profit enough to invest, due to non-excludability (e.g., rural roads); 2) the scale of investment is either beyond the reach of private investors; or 3) they are natural monopolies, such as irrigation systems, where only one network is required for efficiency reasons; 4) returns may only materialize in a time frame unattractive to private investors. This additional public investment is expected to complement private investment, mostly provided by farmers and other entrepreneurs in the BaU scenario. Additional public investment is also expected to accompany diversification of income sources with the expansion of goods and services provided by agriculture. As shown in Table 6, around 60 percent of the additional investment required to enhance the incomes of the poor in rural areas are public investments. These include public facilities, such as transport infrastructure, services with economies of scale, such as research and development, or services normally provided by public authorities, such as land titling and tenure security27 . ■■ Domestic and foreign investment The self-reliance of countries in funding additional investment depends on their capacity to save part of their income and allocate it to cover additional investment needs28 . ■■ Investment for zero hunger in a policy and governance context Investment is necessary to achieve zero hunger, and, more generally, the SDGs. If carried out in a context where policies are coherent, the authorities should effectively provide public goods and regulatory frameworks and institutions strong enough to coordinate the efforts of various agents, prevent and solve conflicts, exploit market opportunities and address market asymmetries and failures. For instance, the adoption 27 The shares of public investment reported in Table 10, given the limited information available, are based on expert judgement. 28 Preliminary estimates of the capacity of countries to fund additional investments by looking at their National Gross Savings (NGS) rate as a percentage of the GDP are available.
  • 26.
    Targeted “pro-poor” investmentin rural areas: possible domains 15 TABLE 6 Additional rural investment per investment domain and region (US$ million; constant 2013 prices) Sub-Saharan Africa Near East/ North Africa Latin America / Caribbean South Asia East Asia Total % of which public % of public over total Improving primary agriculture and natural resources: 21,698 21 5,842 27 Soil conservation 1,778 29 27 921 470 3,225 3 967 30 Water conservation/improved irrigation 1,444 361 25 4,097 189 6,115 6 1,835 30 Preservation/improvement of crop genetic resources 317 76 28 341 209 970 1 291 30 Preservation/improvement of animal genetic resources 147 60 29 258 147 641 1 192 30 Preservation/improvement of fish genetic resources 651 85 49 636 1,147 2,567 2 770 30 Preservation/improvement of forest genetic resources 4,021 92 104 276 348 4,841 5 1,452 30 Mechanization 941 55 32 2,221 90 3,339 3 334 10 Improving agro-processing operations: 16,502 16 4,056 25 Cold and dry storage 1,237 60 28 1,535 156 3,016 3 603 20 Rural and wholesale market facilities 2,517 113 25 2,461 143 5,259 5 2,630 50 First stage processing 3,275 177 47 4,380 348 8,228 8 823 10 Improving infrastructure: 34,089 33 29,542 87 Rural roads 13,186 336 169 8,324 697 22,712 22 20,441 90 Rural electrification 6,598 173 95 4,162 349 11,376 11 9,101 80 Improving institutional framework: 14,493 14 8,891 61 Land titling, tenure security 1,586 38 32 709 74 2,440 2 2,196 90 Rural finance 5,652 173 67 4,146 342 10,381 10 5,191 50 Food safety related regulations (incl. veterinary and pest controls, crop inspections) 705 42 24 835 65 1,672 2 1,505 90 Improving research, development and extension: 17,628 17 15,865 90 Research and development 2,385 113 48 2,770 288 5,605 5 5,044 90 Extension 7,140 216 77 4,159 432 12,023 12 10,821 90 Total 53,580 2,198 906 42,232 5,492 104,409 100 64,195 61
  • 27.
    Achieving Zero Hunger:The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 16 in national legislations of principles highlighted in the Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests (FAO-CFS 2012)29 may contribute to shaping a sustainable pro-poor or pro- undernourished investment climate. Also, adoption of Responsible Agricultural Investment (RAI)30 principles and, more generally, the adoption of 29 FAO-CFS (2012). Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security. FAO, Rome. http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/i2801e/i2801e.pdf 30 FAO-CFS (2014). Principles for Responsible Investment in Agriculture and Food Systems. FAO, Rome. http://www.fao.org/3/a-au866e.pdf measures that maximize the domestic multiplier effects of investment and its benefits for the weaker members of society are most likely to speed up achievement of the zero hunger objective. This has to be associated with stricter regulations and monitoring of child labour in agriculture31 , as well as gender-balanced investment aimed at closing the gender gap in agriculture32 . 31 FAO (2015). Handbook for monitoring and evaluation of child labour in agriculture. FAO, Rome. 32 FAO (2011). State of Food and Agriculture, 2011. FAO, Rome. Quisumbing, A.R, Ruth Meinzen-Dick, Terri L. Raney, Andre Croppenstedt, Julia A. Behrman, Amber Peterman (eds) (2015). Gender in Agriculture: Closing the Knowledge Gap. Springer for FAO and IFPRI.
  • 28.
    17 Further considerations and concludingremarks “Hunger in a world of plenty is not just a moral outrage; it is also short- sighted from the economic point of view”33 . The paper presents new estimates for financing hunger eradication by 2030, consistent with the aspirations of the post-2015 Sustainable Development agenda. In the UN system, the Secretary General’s High-level Task Force on World Food Security and Nutrition has also been focusing on the Zero Hunger Challenge which, inter alia, seeks to eliminate poverty, hunger and malnutrition. The proposed SDG2 to eliminate hunger by 2030 is paralleled by SDG1 to eliminate poverty at the same time. The hunger estimates for MDG monitoring purposes has involved chronic undernourishment defined in terms of dietary energy, i.e. carbohydrates, calories or joules. For MDG monitoring purposes, the dollar-a-day poverty line was adopted, which has recently been adjusted to $1.25 per day by the World Bank. Hence, to end hunger and rural poverty involves closing the ‘poverty gap’ using the MDG dollar (now US$1.25) a day poverty line. In other words, a minimal income of a dollar a day, or its current US$1.25 PPP equivalent, closing the gap between current incomes below the poverty line and the poverty line income itself will eliminate both poverty and hunger. Social assistance34 , including transfers, should 33 FAO (2002). Anti-Hunger programme. A twin-track approach to hunger reduction. Priorities for national and international action. ftp://ftp.fao.org/ docrep/fao/006/j0563e/j0563e00.pdf 34 Social protection, social assistance and other such terms have different meanings in different historical and cultural contexts. Usage in this paper is consistent with ILO terminological usage. therefore ensure that basic consumption needs are met, as also implied by UN General Assembly adoption of the term Social Protection Floor. Since the UN General Assembly’s commitment to establish a ‘social protection floor’ for all, there have been important efforts to cost the creation of such a floor throughout the world, most notably by the ILO. The ILO estimates use national poverty lines, which are often lower for many low income countries, but higher for some low-income countries, as well as for all high-income countries. This paper addresses the challenge of achieving zero hunger by presenting an alternative scenario 35 . While appreciative of the pioneering ILO work in this regard, it 35 The scope of the present study can be further extended. This will include, for instance, the development of other scenarios, to take into account inequality in income distribution and other factors likely to affect agricultural productivity, such as climate change. Climate change scenarios could be built, for instance, assuming shifts in yields due to climate change. In the FAO GAPS model, yields are explicitly modeled as crop/livestock “own-price” functions, shifted by country and time-dependent coefficients. Downward shifts in yields through alternative vectors of yield shifters can be used to obtain alternative zero hunger climate change scenarios. Reduced yields are likely to be reflected in higher food prices, and consequently, in reduced purchasing power. This, in turn, is expected to lead to further investment requirements achieve the zero hunger objective. Scenarios reflecting greater (or lower) inequality in food distribution could also be simulated through alternative hypotheses regarding the Coefficient of Variation (CV) for Dietary Energy Consumption (DEC). Last, but not least, the methodology described above only implicitly takes into consideration the multiplier effects that selected investment may have on domestic activities. This also applies to employment generation and related impacts on income distribution that specific investments may generate, and the impacts of growth on natural resource and environmental sustainability. Enlarging the scope of analysis to take into consideration these aspects requires: 1) applying a dynamic global economy-wide model that captures the relationships among investment, GDP, employment, income distribution and natural resources; 2) exploring investment priorities required to achieve specific economic, social and environmental sustainability objectives. All such extensions of the study would provide additional insights on investments required to eliminate poverty, hunger and undernutrition to 2030 and beyond. However, the work required is time and resource- consuming, and can only be completed in a work programme over a much longer period.
  • 29.
    Achieving Zero Hunger:The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 18 departs from the ILO methodology by using the MDG’s US$1.25/day PPP adjusted poverty line for all countries, which may well exceed national poverty lines in low-income, some lower-middle income and other countries. If effectively and efficiently delivered, the US$1.25 PPP/ day social protection coverage will eliminate poverty and hunger immediately. Complementary investments, for example in agriculture, can reduce longer-term reliance on such income transfers with the acquisition of greater earned incomes, whether from wages or other productive assets. However, this requires a balanced mix of public and private investments and appropriate policies to ensure that the poor actually benefit from additional investment. While investments can indeed increase growth, employment and incomes, including in agriculture, such gains may not be linear and are unlikely to be equally shared. Most agricultural investments are made by farmers, but rarely by the poor. Hence, unless clearly pro-poor and inclusive, they may even increase inequality in farm productivity and factor incomes.
  • 30.
    19 Appendix 1. Achievingzero hunger by investing in social protection T o compare the approach to achieve zero hunger by 2030 illustrated in the scenario ZHbotmea, with alternative options, the scenario ZHsocpro for the period from 2016 to 2030 is considered. In this scenario, poor people below the US$1.25 (PPP)/day poverty line are provided with a Transfer to fill the Poverty Gap (PGT), such that their incomes are raised to this poverty line. As this poverty line is believed to cover the minimum required food expenditure, people who receive the PGT at US$1.25 are considered to be free from hunger. The annual average PGT from 2016 to 2030 is reported in the first column of Table A1 net of administrative costs, while the estimate in column 2 includes a 20 percent mark-up for administrative costs and leakages. The PGT plus markup (gross PGT) globally amounts to US$177 bn annually on average, mostly concentrated in the low- and middle-income countries. India alone accounts for around US$50 bn, while SSA requires a total of US$79 bn. On average, the gross PGT is equivalent to 0.2 percent of projected annual Gross World Product (GWP) for the period 2016-2030 (Table A1, fourth column). However, the share of the PGT in GDP is greater for low- and middle-income countries (0.6 percent), particularly for SSA (6.3 percent). Globally, the PGT share of total public expenditure is 0.8 percent (Table A1, sixth column). However this share is more TABLE A1 Poverty Gap Transfer at $1.25 /day PPP (US$ bn: constant 2013 prices) US$Bn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$1.25 PPP (US$Bn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030     World 148 177 0.17 0.21 0.67 0.80 High-Income countries 2 3 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02 Low & middle income countries 146 175 0.47 0.57 2.30 2.76 sub-Saharan Africa 66 79 5.27 6.32 34.40 41.28 Near East / North Africa 3 4 0.09 0.10 0.31 0.37 Latin America /Caribbean 5 6 0.09 0.10 0.37 0.44 South Asia 54 65 1.58 1.90 10.33 12.39 East Asia 16 20 0.10 0.12 0.57 0.68 50 countries on target in 2030 30 36 0.04 0.05 0.16 0.20 60 countries not on target in 2030 118 142 0.65 0.78 3.64 4.37 25 worst-off countries* 44 53 7.22 8.66 44.70 53.64 Source: Calculations based on World Bank Povcalnet database. Data on public expenditure: World Development Indicators database. World Bank. Note: Country-wise details are reported in table D1 in appendix 4.
  • 31.
    Achieving Zero Hunger:The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 20 pronounced for SAS, and particularly high for SSA (12.9 percent and 41.3 percent respectively). Funding the PGT may not be problematic for countries where the overall annual amount is a relatively small proportion of the GDP and public expenditure, such as for selected countries in Near East/ North Africa, Latin America or East Asia. However, the burden of the PGT may be not be affordable by other countries, specifically in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa where, on average, it could come to more than 40 percent of recent annual public expenditure35 . If countries spend up to 15 percent of their national budgets on social protection, it will cover 59 percent of the US$177 bn needed to provide universal social protection to close the poverty gap. The remaining US$72 bn needed will have to be externally funded by international transfers. Most of these external funds, almost US$60 bn will be required by SSA, as public budgets in SSA will cover only 20 percent of their PGT36 if no more than 15 percent is spent on the PGT. However, a careful assessment of countries’ “fiscal space” could be carried out, to explore the possibilities for domestic funding of the PGT and other Social Protection schemes (ILO, 2015)37 . 35 A statistical annex reports data on the share of PGT in GDP and Public Expenditure, by country, classified by income level. 36 Detailed tables by country are in annex. 37 ILO, 2014. World Social Protection Report 2014/15. Building economic recovery, inclusive development and social justice. International Labour Office, Geneva: pp 149-153. The evolution of the PGT over time is reported in Figure A1. Due to the growth of GDP in the baseline, both the prevalence of poverty and the poverty gap decline over time. This leads to a decline of the PGT. However, the increase of the population, particularly high in some regions, such as SSA, partially offsets this tendency. Table A2 and Figure A3 report for comparative purposes, the same calculations carried out with a US$2.00 PPP poverty line (Table A2 and Figure A3). As expected, the new PGT is greater than the PGT at US$1.25/day. Globally, the new PGT amounts to US$386 bn, more than double the previous PGT and costings 0.45 percent of the GWP. The US$2.00 PPP poverty line leaves more margin for improving nutritional status38 as well as the savings, investment, productivity and incomes of the poor. With the post-2015 SDGs, it is necessary to address ‘hidden hunger’, or micronutrient deficiencies, involving inadequate vitamins, minerals and trace elements, from the time of conception through the entire life cycle. Progress in 38 Following the Second International Conference on Nutrition, organized by FAO and the WHO last November, the world is now aware that for people to realize their full human potential, it is necessary not only to address hunger, or chronic undernourishment in terms of inadequate dietary energy, but also hidden hunger, or micronutrient deficiencies, best overcome through access to diverse diets. FIGURE A1 Gross Poverty Gap Transfer at US$1.25 PPP poverty line 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 Gross PGT at US$1.25 PPP poverty line 2016-2030 average (US$Bn, 2013) Sources: Calculations based on World Bank Povcalnet database. FIGURE A2 Gross Poverty Gap Transfer at US$2.00 PPP poverty line 375 380 385 390 395 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 Gross PGT at US$2.00 PPP poverty line 2016-2030 average (US$Bn, 2013) Sources: Calculations based on World Bank Povcalnet database.
  • 32.
    Appendix 1. AchievingZero Hunger by investing in social protection 21 improving nutrition will need reforms in our health and food systems and to ensure other complementary progress, e.g., in sanitation, pre- and post-natal maternal and childcare and nutrition education, to adequately address this challenge. Hence, all people, including the poor, will need to be enabled to have access to healthier, diverse diets. TABLE A2 Poverty Gap Transfer at $2.00 /day PPP (US$ bn: constant 2013 prices) US$Bn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$1.25 PPP (US$Bn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030     World 321 386 0.37 0.45 1.46 1.75 High-Income countries 7 9 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.06 Low & middle income countries 314 377 1.02 1.22 4.96 5.95 sub-Saharan Africa 130 156 10.40 12.48 67.89 81.47 Near East / North Africa 8 10 0.23 0.28 0.82 0.98 Latin America /Caribbean 13 16 0.24 0.29 1.01 1.22 South Asia 117 141 3.43 4.11 22.39 26.87 East Asia 43 51 0.26 0.31 1.47 1.76 50 countries on target in 2030 66 79 0.10 0.12 0.36 0.44 60 countries not on target in 2030 256 307 1.41 1.69 7.88 9.45 25 worst-off countries* 86 103 14.07 16.88 87.14 104.57 Source: Calculations based on World Bank Povcalnet database. Data on public expenditure: World Development Indicators database. World Bank. Note: Country-wise details are reported in table D1 in appendix 4.
  • 34.
    23 Appendix 2. Achievingzero hunger by investing in growth U nder the scenario ZHtotinv, ZH is expected to be achieved through a general increase of the GDP generated by investment. The methodology followed to build this scenario is outlined below. ■■ Investment to reduce undernourishment The methodology to calculate the investment required to achieve zero hunger by 2030 hinges on the relationships between investment, output or gross domestic product (GDP) and level of Dietary Energy Consumption (DEC), on the assumption that hunger is mainly caused by poverty (lack of purchasing power). Additional investment, in agriculture and all other sectors of the economy, is expected to raise GDP. The GDP’s upward shift increases per capita income, which should lead to an upward shift in per capita food consumption and consequently, in Average Dietary Energy Consumption (ADEC), measured in kilocalories/day/person39 . It is also assumed that DEC is distributed across the population so that an increase in ADEC benefits all strata of the population. We assume that variability in the distribution of DEC across the national population is captured by an estimate of the Coefficient of Variation (CV) of the distribution40 . Figure B1 sketches the causal relationships implied by the proposed methodology to estimate the investments required in agriculture to achieve the zero hunger target by 2030. An appropriate upward shift of investment in the whole economic system is expected to lead, through the above- mentioned cause-effect relationships, to eliminate the 39 Higher demand for agricultural and food products will imply, inter alia, increasing levels of agricultural value added, rising with agricultural investment. This entails multiplier effects, which are implicitly accounted for using the incremental capital-output ratios (ICORs) in this methodology. 40 This approach essentially relies on the “trickle-down” of growth, i.e. it is assumed that the growth of per capita GDP will also benefit the poor and undernourished. See Kakwani, N., et al. (2004). Pro-poor growth: Concepts and measurement with country case studies. International Poverty Centre Working paper no. 1, August 2004, UNDP, Brasilia. http://www.ipc-undp. org/pub/IPCWorkingPaper1.pdf prevalence of undernourishment. The objective of this methodology is to determine the appropriate additional investment in agriculture (and the rest of the economic system) required to achieve the “zero” prevalence of hunger in each country, where undernourishment is projected to prevail until 2030. However, we also assume a minimum threshold of undernourishment below which it is not possible to go simply by means of GDP expansion. In this work, we adopt a prudential threshold of 5 percent of the population, compared to the 3 percent used in Schmidhuber and Bruinsma (2011). ■■ The zero hunger with total investment (ZHtotinv) and the business as usual (BaU) scenarios To determine the additional investment required above expected investment in a business as usual scenario, we compare the investment required to achieve the zero hunger target in 2030, i.e. under the so called zero hunger (ZHtotinv) scenario, with the baseline business as usual (BaU) scenario. The BaU scenario offers projections up to 2030, reported in the last FAO long-term projections of world agriculture to 2030 and 2050. The ZHtotinv scenario is instead built by using, in reverse order, the cause-effect relationships described in Figure 1 below (the backward arrow ← means: requires): Change in prevalence of undernourishment (targeted to be virtually zero) ← change in food intake of undernourished people ← change in Average (per capita) Dietary Energy Consumption (ADEC) ← change in per capita food expenditure ← change in expendable per capita income ← change in per capita GDP ← change in GDP ← change in investment.
  • 35.
    Achieving Zero Hunger:The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 24 Following the above reverse cause-effect chain, the methodology develops as follows: 1. The starting point is to estimate by how much the Average Dietary Energy Consumption (ADEC) would need to be raised by 2030, given the way Dietary Energy Consumption (DEC) is distributed across the population, to bring all people above the Minimum Daily Energy Requirement (MDER). 2. As food consumption generally depends on income, in the next step, how much per capita income (approximated by GDP per capita) economy-wide should increase in order to increase ADEC to its desired level is calculated. Additional GDP is then calculated by multiplying additional per capita GDP by the population size. 3. The additional investment required to achieve the additional GDP is then calculated assuming a plausible gross Incremental Capital Output Ratio (ICOR). 4. The additional investment required in agriculture is then calculated as a share of total investment, assuming that the agricultural investment share is equivalent to the share of agricultural value-added in GDP. The findings of this step-wise methodology are reported below41 . 41 A more detailed step-wise procedure is reported in the Annex. ■■ ZHtotinv scenario to 2030 and comparison with the BaU While in the BaU scenario, per capita GDP is projected to increase due to technical progress and other factors, in this scenario, GDP has to increase further in order to reduce the prevalence of undernourishment in all countries to 5 percent or less. The ZHtotinv scenario is built step-wise, and then compared with the BaU scenario, to work out the additional investment required to achieve the zero hunger target. ■■ ZHtotinv Average Dietary Energy Consumption First, we estimate by how much the Average Dietary Energy Consumption (ADEC) would need to be raised by 2030, so that undernourishment (i.e. caloric intake below the Minimum Daily Energy Requirement MDER) would affect less than 5 percent of the population, assuming that the MDER and the distribution of Dietary Energy Consumption (DEC) across the population is as in the BaU scenario. In low- and middle-income countries, the ADEC has to further increase by more than 5 percent, from 2,857 to 3,019 kcal/person / day (Table B1, panels 1 and 2). For SSA and the 25 “worst- off” countries, this change is more marked (13.7 percent and 17.9 percent respectively). FIGURE B1 Causal relationships linking investment with the prevalence of undernourishment Change in investment in agriculture Change in GDP Change in food Consumption per capita Change in DEC of Undernourished people Change in per capita income (purchasing power) Change in average dietary energy consumption (ADEC) Change in prevalence of undernourishment Change in investment in non-agricultural sectors
  • 36.
    Appendix 2. AchievingZero Hunger by investing in growth 25 TABLE B1 Undernourishment in the BaU and ZHtotinv scenarios Population Minimum Daily Energy Requirements (MDER) Average Dietary Energy Consumption (ADEC) Coefficient of Variation (CV) Persons chronically undernourished million kcal/person/day   percent million 2030 Business as Usual (BaU) scenario (Baseline) World 8,274 1,865 2,955 0.272 7.9 653 High-Income countries 1,437 1,941 3,425 0.217 1.1 16 Low & middle income countries 6,838 1,849 2,857 0.283 9.3 637 sub-Saharan Africa 1,245 1,812 2,528 0.288 17.4 216 Near East / North Africa 615 1,865 3,133 0.266 4.7 29 Latin America /Caribbean 682 1,872 3,091 0.258 4.0 27 South Asia 2,016 1,825 2,587 0.245 9.3 188 East Asia 2,247 1,878 3,133 0.327 7.8 175 50 countries on target in 2030 3,113 1,895 3,243 0.233 2.0 63 60 countries not on target in 2030 5,161 1,846 2,782 0.295 11.4 590 25 worst-off countries* 833 1,812 2,363 0.320 25.2 210 2030 ZHtotinv scenario World 8,274 1,865 3,088 0.266 4.1 338 High-Income countries 1,437 1,941 3,415 0.248 1.8 26 Low & middle income countries 6,838 1,849 3,019 0.270 4.6 312 sub-Saharan Africa 1,245 1,812 2,868 0.252 4.6 57 Near East / North Africa 615 1,865 3,171 0.275 3.7 23 Latin America /Caribbean 682 1,872 3,099 0.266 3.8 26 South Asia 2,016 1,825 2,734 0.232 4.9 99 East Asia 2,247 1,878 3,294 0.313 4.7 106 50 countries on target in 2030 3,113 1,895 3,245 0.254 2.6 80 60 countries not on target in 2030 5,161 1,846 2,993 0.273 5.0 258 25 worst-off countries* 833 1,812 2,881 0.259 5.0 42 * The worst-off countries are defined as countries that would have to raise their average DEC in 2030 by more than 10 percent to eliminate hunger. Source: Calculations based on FAO GAPS and SOFI 2015 datasets.
  • 37.
    Achieving Zero Hunger:The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 26 ■■ ZHtotinv GDP (and new prices of agricultural goods) Subsequently, we calculate the per capita income (approximated by per capita GDP) required for achieving the desired ADEC. This calculation is carried out using the FAO “Global Agriculture Perspectives System (GAPS)” partial equilibrium model. For countries that need to increase their ADECs, we fix the ADEC at the desired level and compute the per capita GDP sufficiently high to increase demand for food to meet the ADEC target42 . Food consumption in GAPS is a function of per capita income and prices. Hence, to target a higher level of food intake, per capita income needs to increase43 . Increased demand also stimulates domestic supply and trade, leading to new equilibrium prices. In GAPS, the new ADEC target requires additional physical consumption of food. However, on the assumption that additional output is only available at higher marginal cost, the additional demand also leads to price increases44 . Thus, the required per capita GDP is simultaneously determined with new prices that equilibrate demand and supply. GDP is then calculated by multiplying per capita GDP with the population. Table B2 reports the GDP required for the ZHtotinv scenario in the first panel. The second panel of Table B1 reports the annual GDP growth rates for zero hunger. They range from 2.1 percent in LAC to 5.8 percent in SAS. In the 25 “worst-off” countries, the average annual growth rate required is even larger (7.8 percent). These zero hunger GDP growth rates need to be compared with growth rates in the BaU scenario. All in all, the 60 countries not on target in 2030 would require almost 1.4 percent additional annual GDP growth to achieve the zero hunger target. Sub- Saharan Africa and SAS would require 1.8 percent and 1.5 percent more respectively. ■■ Investment for ZHtotinv (and BaU) GDP We then calculate the investment required to achieve the incremental GDP with respect to the base year, under both the ZHtotinv and BaU scenarios. To this end, we make use of the concept of a gross Incremental Capital Output Ratio 42 Only countries which have not reduced their prevalence of undernourishment to 5 percent or less by 2030 will have to increase their ADEC. Countries already on target will not require additional investment. 43 In GAPS, physical demand is linked to income via “income elasticities of demand”. For the purpose of this exercise, we keep income elasticities constant across periods. 44 In the GAPS model, this is reflected by upward sloping supply curves. A scenario where the expansion of demand occurs in a “fixed price” context was also explored. In this scenario, additional agricultural output is available at no additional production cost, due, for instance, to increased productivity of agricultural production factors. (ICOR)45 , which gives the amount of investment required to generate one additional unit of net output (GDP). Table B2 reports the economy-wide annual average gross investment necessary to achieve GDP growth under both the BaU and ZHtotinv scenarios and highlights the additional investment required by the zero hunger scenarios in the third panel, as compared with the BaU. Additional gross economy-wide investment under the ZHtotinv scenario amounts to US$1.5 trillion, all concentrated in low and middle income countries, as all HICs are already on target. It consists of a 15.9 percent increase with respect to BaU. This percentage change is different across regions, ranging from 3.3 percent in LAC to 68.6 percent in SAS. The 25 worst-off countries require much more than doubling their investment (+176 percent). ■■ ZHtotinv (and BaU) share of agriculture value added in GDP To work out the required additional investment in agriculture to achieve the zero hunger target, the share of total investment in agriculture is assumed to be broadly proportional to the share of agricultural value added (VA) in GDP. Using cross-sectional GDP shares in the base year, we estimate a relationship between agriculture VA and GDP. The share of agricultural VA in GDP decreases as GDP increases. We assume that the same relationship will also hold in the future. This allows us to calculate the share of agriculture VA in GDP for both the ZHtotinv and BaU scenarios. As GDP is larger under the ZHtotinv scenario (Table B2, first panel), the share of agriculture VA is lower, compared to the BaU scenario. 45 ICOR values were set in the base year at three for countries with a per capita income up to $2000, at four for countries with per capita GDP up to $4000, and at five for countries with GDP per capita over $4000. For each year from 2005/07 to 2030, annual investments were calculated as INVTt = ICORt * ΔGDPt. Annual investment was then cumulated. The ICOR was assumed to be country-specific and increasing with GDP. A similar ICOR- based approach was followed, for instance, by Devarajan, et al. (2002), to estimate the investment required to achieve selected MDGs (Devarajan, S., Miller, M. J. and Swanson, E. V. (2002) ‘Goals for Development: History, Prospects, and Costs’. Working Paper No. 2819, World Bank, Washington, DC. Recent estimates of ICORs, in the range of those we adopted, are found in: Taguchi, H. and Lowhachai, S. (2014), based on previous work by Sato (1971) and the seminal work of Kuznets (1960). Taguchi, H. and Lowhachai, S. (2014). A revisit to the incremental capital-output ratio: the case of Asian economies and Thailand. International Journal of Economic Policy in Emerging Economies, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 35-54. Kuznets, S. (1960). Quantitative aspects of the economic growth of nations: V. Capital formation proportions: international comparisons for recent years. Economic Development and Cultural Change, Part 2, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 1-96. Sato, K. (1971). International Variations in the Incremental Capital- Output Ratio. Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 621-640.
  • 38.
    Appendix 2. AchievingZero Hunger by investing in growth 27 ■■ ZH (and BaU) annual investment in agriculture We then calculate the investment in agriculture as a proportion of the total investment required to achieve the incremental GDP in both scenarios. To this end, we use the share of agriculture value added in GDP, as per the assumptions above. The cumulative investment, calculated on an annual basis from 2016 to 2030 in both scenarios is then averaged per annum. The results are provided in the third panel of Table B3. ■■ Additional zero hunger BaU investment In the last step, we compare the annual investment in the ZH scenario with annual investment under BaU. The figures for additional investment are provided in the fourth panel of Table B3. The additional average annual gross investment for the period 2016-2030 to achieve the zero hunger target is US$111 bn (in constant 2013 prices). Looking at the regional allocation of this amount, more than half (US$60 bn) is for EAS46 . In some areas, such as SSA and SAS, where the ZHtotinv scenario requires additional investments of 67 percent and 56 percent more than in the BaU respectively (Table B3, last column), implementing such an additional investment programme may be challenging, not only for funding reasons, but also for institutional, managerial and logistical ones. These difficulties could even be exacerbated in the worst-off countries, where the ZHtotinv scenario requires a shift in annual investment of around 132 percent. ■■ Gross and net investment The figures provided here refer to additional “gross” investment, i.e. investment required both to increase the capital asset-base of the countries and to replace fixed capital consumption (depreciation). To provide a rough order of magnitude, 20 percent to 40 percent of this additional 46 As the ZHtotinv scenario to 2030 is built with the partial equilibrium model “GAPS”, where food prices respond to interactions between supply and demand, the increased demand for agriculture and food items generated by the per capita GDP increase is satisfied by an expansion of supply associated with increased prices. However, this price increase, slightly below 10 percent on average, only partially offsets the increase in per capita income. TABLE B2 Additional economy-wide investment required for zero hunger GDP (constant 2013 Billion US$) GDP growth (%) Average, per annum Average Gross Annual Investment, billion US$ (2016 / 2030) Additional Gross Invest. Billion US$ Additional Gr. Invest. % change 2005/7 2030 2030 2016-2030   BaU ZH BaU ZH BaU ZH Diff. ZH-BaU ZH/BaU World 56,263 101,131 106,160 2.40 2.74 9,202 10,665 1,463 15.90 High-Income countries 42,388 61,530 61,530 1.65 1.65 4,189 4,189 0 0.00 Low & middle income countries 13,875 39,601 44,631 3.79 4.62 5,013 6,476 1,463 29.18 sub-Saharan Africa 548 1,629 2,099 4.01 5.78 163 265 101 62.08 Near East / North Africa 1,881 4,334 4,417 3.33 3.46 512 532 19 3.79 Latin America /Caribbean 3,588 6,413 6,477 2.02 2.09 517 534 17 3.26 South Asia 1,393 4,391 5,465 3.82 5.34 396 668 272 68.57 East Asia 6,037 21,859 25,137 4.52 5.50 3,303 4,336 1,034 31.31 50 countries on target in 2030 49,820 76,654 76,654 1.83 1.83 5,697 5,697 0 0.00 60 countries not on target in 2030 6,443 24,476 29,506 4.63 5.94 3,506 4,969 1,463 41.74 25 worst-off countries* 273 793 1,363 4.02 7.84 70 193 123 175.97 Source: Calculations based on FAO GAPS and SOFI 2015 datasets.
  • 39.
    Achieving Zero Hunger:The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 28 investment would compensate for fixed capital consumption, depending on the countries and the specific period47 . Only the remaining share would actually be available to expand the capital base of the countries. ■■ Complementing additional investment with a transfer to cover the food deficit In the ZHtotinv scenario, we assume that a proportion of the undernourished, assumed here to be 5 percent of the population, is not going to benefit from the additional investment due to personal disability, health and socio- economic conditions. Therefore, their food deficit has to be filled by a Food Deficit Transfer, i.e. the annual transfer 47 Preliminary estimates. The share of fixed capital consumption in gross investment depends on the composition of the capital stock. Countries with a large share of physical structures and machinery have lower depreciation rates than countries with higher shares of transport and information technologies. Higher income countries tend to have larger depreciation rates, e.g. in 2011, the depreciation rate for the USA was 4.1 percent, while for China, it was 3.1 percent; see Inklaar, R. and Timmer, P.M. (2013). Capital Labor and TFP in PWT 8.0. University of Groningen. http://www.rug. nl/research/ggdc/data/pwt/v80/capital_labor_and_tfp_in_pwt80.pdf. TABLE B3 Additional investment in agriculture in the ZHtotinv scenario Share of agriculture VA in GDP (%) Annual investment in agriculture (constant 2013 Billion US$) Additional Agric. Invest. (constant 2013 Billion US$) Additional investment % change ZH/BaU2016 2030 2030 BaU ZH BaU ZH Diff. ZH-BaU World 4.55 4.11 4.11 469 580 111 23.61 High-Income countries 2.77 2.50 2.50 117 117 0 0.00 Low & middle income countries 8.32 6.63 6.32 352 462 111 31.50 sub-Saharan Africa 17.75 15.21 13.67 24 40 16 67.02 Near East / North Africa 7.19 5.97 5.98 29 32 3 8.53 Latin America /Caribbean 6.27 5.66 5.65 31 32 2 4.85 South Asia 15.51 12.42 11.03 53 83 30 55.97 East Asia 7.35 5.40 5.06 210 270 60 28.64 50 countries on target in 2030 3.33 3.03 3.03 196 196 0 0.00 60 countries not on target in 2030 10.26 7.52 6.91 273 384 111 40.55 25 worst-off countries* 21.33 18.52 14.06 14 33 19 131.53 Source: Calculations based on GAPS and SOFI 2015 datasets. needed to lift them out of hunger or undernourishment48 . The calculations are based on the estimated average food deficit expressed in kilocalories and an estimated unit cost of a kilocalorie country-wise49 . For the total annual cost of the food deficit, a mark-up of 20 percent, 48 The annual expenditure to pull undernourished people out of undernourishment in region r for period t, , net of implementation costs, can be calculated as the average share (across all the population) of the Minimum Daily Energy Requirement the undernourished lack to get out of undernourishment times the total population , times the Minimum Daily Energy Requirement , times the average (economy-wide) consumer price of one kilocalorie times the days in a year. 49 Source: ERS, USDA. Calculations based on annual household expenditure data from Euromonitor International, available at: http://www.euromonitor.com/
  • 40.
    Appendix 2. AchievingZero Hunger by investing in growth 29 assuming 10 percent for administrative costs and 10 percent for leakages, is added50 . The cost of this transfer, reported in the first column of Table B4, for low- and middle-income countries is US$11.2 bn, while it amounts to US$14.1 bn if high-income countries (HICs) are included. FDT as share of GDP, as expected, varies across regions. In the zero hunger scenario, it ranges from a minimum of 0.1 percent for the HICs to a maximum of 0.3 percent for the worst-off countries. Table B4 reports the summary findings for the ZHtotinv scenario. The average additional annual economy-wide investment required from 2016 to 2030 for zero hunger by 2030 is US$1,476.1 bn (in constant 2013 prices). This comprises a Food Deficit Transfer (FDT) of US$14.1 bn. 50 Varying estimates of mark-ups for administrative costs of cash transfer programmes exist, from 5 percent for universal cash transfer programmes adopted by ILO in the abovementioned exercise to 100 percent of the CT-OVC programme in Kenya. For a review of administrative costs of social protection programmes, see, for example: Caldés, N., Coady, D. and Maluccio, J. (2004). ‘The Cost of Poverty Alleviation Transfer Programs: a Comparative Analysis of Three Programs in Latin America’. Discussion Paper Brief 174, IFPRI, Washington, DC. Samson, M., van Niekerk, I. and MacQuene, K. (2006). ‘Designing and Implementing Social Transfer Programmes’. EPRI, Johannesburg. Globally, this amounts to 1.7 percent of average annual GDP from 2016 to 2030. However, this percentage rises to 7.5 percent for SSA, and to 15.1 percent for the worst-off countries. Of the total additional investment, US$110.7 bn is for agriculture. The annual additional investment in agriculture and the FDT amounts to US$124.8 bn. Globally, this amount is 0.1 percent of average global GDP from 2016 to 2030. At the country and regional level, however, it is 1.3 percent of the GDP in SSA, or 2.4 percent for the worst-off countries. TABLE B4 Summary findings of the ZHtotinv scenario FDT ≤ 5% Und. Annual aver. (B. US$) Additional TOT Ann.Invest. (B. US$) Annual FDT + Add.TOT.Inv. (B. US$) Annual FDT + Add.TOT.Inv. (% GDP) Additional Ann. AGR.Invest. (B. US$) Annual FDT + Add. AGR.Inv. (B. US$) Annual FDT + Add. AGR.Inv. (%GDP) ZHtotinv Zhtotinv Zhtotinv Zhtotinv Zhtotinv Zhtotinv Zhtotinv World 14.1 1,463.1 1,477.2 1.7 110.8 124.9 0.15 High-Income countries 2.9 - 2.9 0.0 - 2.9 0.01 Low & middle income countries 11.2 1,463.1 1,474.2 4.8 110.8 121.9 0.40 sub-Saharan Africa 1.9 101.5 103.3 8.3 16.2 18.1 1.44 Near East / North Africa 1.2 19.4 20.6 0.6 2.5 3.7 0.11 Latin America /Caribbean 2.2 16.9 19.1 0.3 1.5 3.7 0.07 South Asia 1.9 271.8 273.7 8.0 29.9 31.8 0.93 East Asia 3.8 1,033.9 1,037.8 6.4 60.1 63.9 0.39 50 countries on target in 2030 6.3 - 6.3 0.0 - 6.3 0.01 60 countries not on target in 2030 7.8 1,463.1 1,470.9 8.1 110.8 118.6 0.65 25 worst-off countries* 1.3 123.2 124.5 20.4 18.7 20.0 3.28
  • 42.
    31 Appendix 3. Step-wiseapproach for investing in growth T he determination of the investment in agriculture required to achieve zero hunger to 2030 develops as follows. ■■ Definition of the zero hunger (ZH) scenario The definition of the zero hunger scenario implies the following steps: 1. Choice of a minimum threshold for prevalence of undernourishment. A minimum threshold for prevalence of undernourishment achievable through GDP growth (In previous works 3 percent prevalence of undernourishment was assumed as the minimum achievable through expansion of GDP) 2. Determination of the mean Minimum Dietary Energy Requirement (MDER) by country. This may vary depending on population cohorts, prevailing activities etc. 3. Determination of the ADEC (ZH) by country, i.e. the Average Dietary Energy Consumption required for bringing the DEC of all the undernourished people exceeding the 3 percent of the population above the MDER. This step is carried out assuming a given functional form of the distribution function of the DEC51 . 4. Determination of GDP level required to achieve the desired DEC. The GDP(ZH) by country is the GDP level required to achieve the desired DEC by country. The calculation of the GDP level is carried out using the FAO GAPS model. In the FAO GAPS model The ADEC (DES in GAPS terminology) in the BaU scenario is calculated as an accounting identity, depending on the levels of the endogenous physical consumption variables determined by the solution of the model, while GDP is exogenous. 51 SOFI 2012, 2013 and 2014 assume that the Dietary Energy Consumption is distributed as a Skewed Log-Normal distribution function characterized by three parameters: mean, variance and skewedness. However, previous studies similar to this one assume that the DEC is distributed according to a log-normal distribution function, defined by the mean and standard deviation. For practical purposes we keep this assumption. Thus, using GAPS for working out the GDP level that determines the required DEC implies: • Making the DEC variable exogenous, to be set at the desired level. • Making the GDP level endogenous, to allow the model to set it at a level required to with the desired DEC52 . Note that this results in a new equilibrium where a new vector of equilibrium prices and consumed/produced quantities are determined. The required GDP level therefore is co-determined with the price levels reflecting the (new) relative scarcity of goods. ■■ BaU scenario The BaU scenario to 2030 is defined according to the information provided in AT2030-2050, adopted in the GAPS model. Here, the BaU prevalence of undernourishment by country in 2030 has already been calculated on the basis of assumptions related to: • GDP projections (World Bank) • Population Projections (UN) • Technological shifts (AT 2030-2050) • Resulting country-wise consumption patterns; • Resulting ADEC (Average DES, in AT2050/GAPS terminology) • Assumed food distribution function and related variance ■■ Scenario comparison 5. Calculation of ∆GDP level by country. The difference ∆GDP = GDP(ZH) – GDP(BaU) provides the required expansion of GDP to generate the ADEC (ZH). 6. Calculation of required agricultural investment by country. The calculation of required investment by country is based on the Incremental Capital-Output Ratio (ICOR) by country and assumptions regarding the ratio of agricultural value 52 This implies, among other: a) adding two equations to the model: ADEC = f(Consumption by commodity, unit caloric content by commodity) ; ADEC = ADEC ; b) adding two variables: ADEC and GDP.
  • 43.
    Achieving Zero Hunger:The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 32 added over GDP deemed necessary to meet the required food demand. Updated country-wide ICORs need to be retrieved. The calculation of the investment required INV (incremental capital) is calculated as: . ■■ Allocation of additional investment by sector 7. Allocation of investment by sector. To calculate the investment required by sector, the total INV needs to be allocated to sectors on the basis of some assumptions. In previous works the share of agricultural value added (VA) on GDP in the base year was used as allocation criterion to calculate investment required in the agricultural sector. The share of the agricultural value added in the GDP is retrieved from exogenous sources, and adjusted to the specific zero hunger scenario. As an alternative, if available, specific sectoral ICORs could be adopted. Note that the assumption that investment in agriculture determined according this methodology would allow reaching the zero hunger objective, implies that, among other things, all the other sectors invest at the same rate as the agricultural sector to move the GDP in such a way as to move the DEC as desired.
  • 44.
    33 TABLE D1 Transfers tocover the Poverty Gap (PGT) at $1.25 PPP poverty line (US$ million; constant 2013 prices) (Scenario ZHsocpro) US$mn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$1.25 PPP (US$mn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 High-Income countries Australia 13 16 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Canada 4 5 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Central Asian Republics 114 137 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.07 European Union 27 443 531 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 Israel 1 2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Japan 12 14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 New Zealand 3 4 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 Rest of Eastern Europe 6 7 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 Rest of Western Europe 3 4 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Russian Federation 8 10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 United States of America 332 399 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 South Africa 1284 1541 0.32 0.39 1.06 1.28 Total 2224 2668 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02 Low & middle income countries sub-SaharanAfrica Angola 1468 1762 0.78 0.94 3.05 3.67 Burundi 951 1142 56.70 68.04 404.74 485.69 Benin 887 1064 8.55 10.26 65.02 78.02 Burkina Faso 1009 1210 6.07 7.29 50.50 60.60 Botswana 63 75 0.28 0.33 0.87 1.04 Central African Republic 536 643 19.11 22.94 127.34 152.81 Côte d'Ivoire 1194 1433 3.59 4.30 24.13 28.96 Cameroon 689 826 1.71 2.05 12.18 14.62 Democratic Republic of the Congo 15725 18870 71.43 85.71 683.53 820.24 Appendix 4. Statistical tables
  • 45.
    Achieving Zero Hunger:The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 34 US$mn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$1.25 PPP (US$mn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Low & middle income countries sub-SaharanAfrica Congo 280 337 1.32 1.58 5.70 6.84 Eritrea 210 252 10.38 12.46 79.36 95.23 Ethiopia 412 494 0.66 0.79 5.01 6.02 Gabon 20 24 0.12 0.14 0.85 1.03 Ghana 545 654 1.25 1.50 6.26 7.51 Guinea 530 636 6.05 7.26 43.16 51.79 Gambia 27 32 1.88 2.25 14.07 16.89 Kenya 2298 2757 4.91 5.89 26.89 32.27 Liberia 860 1032 54.20 65.04 332.71 399.26 Lesotho 198 238 8.00 9.59 17.98 21.57 Madagascar 2564 3077 20.44 24.53 191.97 230.36 Mali 1087 1304 6.41 7.69 44.09 52.91 Mozambique 2335 2803 8.00 9.60 35.12 42.15 Mauritania 91 110 1.69 2.03 12.08 14.50 Mauritius 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Malawi 2039 2447 21.01 25.21 149.93 179.92 Namibia 150 180 1.07 1.28 3.83 4.60 Niger 722 866 7.36 8.83 73.55 88.26 Nigeria 12852 15422 4.09 4.91 47.73 57.28 Rwanda 1001 1201 8.83 10.60 59.60 71.52 Sudan 606 728 0.64 0.77 4.59 5.51 Senegal 772 926 3.35 4.02 20.27 24.32 Sierra Leone 465 558 15.15 18.18 83.14 99.77 Somalia 463 556 9.11 10.93 99.42 119.30 Swaziland 97 116 1.93 2.31 13.74 16.49 Chad 938 1126 5.56 6.67 39.66 47.59 Togo 547 657 13.03 15.63 83.04 99.64 United Republic of Tanzania 5644 6773 12.11 14.53 53.28 63.94 Uganda 1692 2031 4.93 5.92 27.62 33.15 Zambia 1633 1960 5.70 6.84 35.96 43.15 Zimbabwe 2293 2752 23.61 28.33 225.89 271.06 Total 65893 79071 5.27 6.32 34.40 41.28 TABLE D1 (Continued)
  • 46.
    Appendix 4. Statisticaltables 35 TABLE D1 (Continued) US$mn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$1.25 PPP (US$mn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Low & middle income countries NearEast/NorthAfrica Afghanistan 1850 2221 10.57 12.68 25.52 30.63 Algeria 134 161 0.06 0.07 0.26 0.31 Egypt 133 159 0.05 0.06 0.19 0.22 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 81 98 0.02 0.02 0.10 0.11 Iraq 147 176 0.16 0.20 0.61 0.73 Jordan 2 2 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.02 Lebanon 18 22 0.04 0.05 0.13 0.16 Libya 38 46 0.03 0.04 0.19 0.23 Morocco 168 202 0.15 0.17 0.49 0.59 Saudi Arabia 8 10 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 Syrian Arab Republic 90 108 0.14 0.17 0.79 0.95 Tunisia 5 7 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.03 Turkey 51 61 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 Yemen 260 313 0.63 0.75 2.34 2.80 Total 2986 3583 0.09 0.10 0.31 0.37 LatinAmerica/Caribbean Argentina 99 119 0.02 0.03 0.12 0.14 Bolivia (Plurinational State of) 60 72 0.28 0.34 1.09 1.30 Brazil 1105 1326 0.06 0.07 0.22 0.26 Chile 9 10 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02 Colombia 435 522 0.15 0.17 0.58 0.69 Costa Rica 7 9 0.02 0.02 0.07 0.09 Cuba 66 79 0.07 0.08 0.20 0.23 Dominican Republic 24 28 0.03 0.03 0.19 0.23 Ecuador 59 70 0.07 0.09 0.31 0.37 Guatemala 310 372 0.53 0.64 4.17 5.01 Guyana 46 55 1.75 2.10 7.59 9.11 Honduras 150 180 0.70 0.84 3.26 3.91 Haiti 1018 1222 12.91 15.49 56.04 67.25 Jamaica 27 32 0.17 0.20 0.49 0.58 Mexico 359 431 0.02 0.03 0.11 0.13 Nicaragua 27 32 0.27 0.33 1.94 2.32
  • 47.
    Achieving Zero Hunger:The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 36 US$mn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$1.25 PPP (US$mn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$1.25 PPP (% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Low & middle income countries LatinAmerica/Caribbean Panama 22 27 0.07 0.08 0.28 0.34 Peru 92 111 0.04 0.05 0.22 0.27 Paraguay 21 25 0.12 0.14 0.72 0.87 El Salvador 42 50 0.15 0.18 0.82 0.98 Suriname 45 54 1.18 1.41 4.78 5.74 Trinidad and Tobago 179 215 0.49 0.59 1.87 2.24 Uruguay 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) 639 766 0.24 0.28 0.96 1.16 Total 4840 5808 0.09 0.10 0.37 0.44 SouthAsia Bangladesh 7568 9082 5.68 6.82 62.02 74.42 India 41513 49815 1.42 1.70 9.18 11.01 Sri Lanka 90 107 0.14 0.16 0.66 0.79 Nepal 588 705 2.20 2.64 14.40 17.28 Pakistan 4308 5169 1.62 1.95 10.05 12.06 Total 54066 64879 1.58 1.90 10.33 12.39 EastAsia China 5817 6981 0.05 0.06 0.32 0.38 Hong Kong, China Special Administrative Region 3 3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Indonesia 3896 4675 0.43 0.51 2.58 3.10 Cambodia 164 196 0.94 1.13 10.18 12.22 Korea, Republic of 9 11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Lao People's Democratic Republic 192 230 2.10 2.52 19.46 23.35 Myanmar 2389 2867 3.82 4.59 114.09 136.90 Mongolia 135 162 1.65 1.98 6.71 8.05 Malaysia 10 11 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02 Philippines 1740 2088 0.60 0.72 3.53 4.24 Korea, Democratic People's Republic of 1159 1391 2.33 2.79 25.40 30.47 Thailand 25 30 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.03 Taiwan 5 6 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Viet Nam 916 1100 0.58 0.69 3.44 4.13 Total 16459 19751 0.10 0.12 0.57 0.68 Other 1380 1656 0.18 0.21 0.68 0.82 World (Grand Total) 147847 177417 0.17 0.21 0.67 0.80 TABLE D1 (Continued)
  • 48.
    Appendix 4. Statisticaltables 37 TABLE D2 Transfers to cover the Poverty Gap (PGT) at $2.00 PPP poverty line (US$ million; constant 2013 prices) (Scenario ZHsocpro) US$mn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$2.00 PPP (US$mn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$2.00 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$2.00 PPP |(% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 High-Income countries Australia 52 63 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02 Canada 23 28 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 Central Asian Republics 463 555 0.07 0.09 0.25 0.30 European Union 27 1966 2360 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.03 Israel 7 8 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 Japan 69 83 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 New Zealand 12 15 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 Rest of Eastern Europe 33 40 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.04 Rest of Western Europe 15 18 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 Russian Federation 46 55 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 United States of America 1331 1597 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.04 South Africa 3271 3925 0.83 0.99 2.71 3.25 Total 7289 8746 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.06 Low & middle income countries sub-SaharanAfrica Angola 2993 3592 1.60 1.92 6.23 7.47 Burundi 1701 2042 101.41 121.69 723.82 868.58 Benin 1871 2245 18.04 21.65 137.19 164.63 Burkina Faso 2423 2908 14.59 17.51 121.30 145.56 Botswana 150 180 0.67 0.80 2.09 2.50 Central African Republic 1228 1474 43.82 52.58 291.92 350.31 Côte d'Ivoire 2820 3384 8.47 10.16 57.00 68.40 Cameroon 1797 2156 4.45 5.34 31.79 38.14 Democratic Republic of the Congo 27632 33158 125.51 150.62 1201.10 1441.32 Congo 572 686 2.69 3.23 11.61 13.94 Eritrea 477 572 23.52 28.22 179.79 215.75 Ethiopia 2023 2428 3.22 3.87 24.64 29.56 Gabon 54 65 0.32 0.39 2.32 2.78 Ghana 1306 1567 3.00 3.60 14.99 17.98 Guinea 1227 1472 14.01 16.81 99.98 119.98 Gambia 98 118 6.87 8.24 51.49 61.79 Kenya 4875 5850 10.42 12.51 57.04 68.45 Liberia 1525 1830 96.10 115.32 589.94 707.93
  • 49.
    Achieving Zero Hunger:The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 38 US$mn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$2.00 PPP (US$mn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$2.00 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$2.00 PPP |(% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Low & middle income countries sub-SaharanAfrica Lesotho 404 484 16.27 19.52 36.58 43.90 Madagascar 4389 5267 34.99 41.99 328.56 394.27 Mali 2248 2698 13.25 15.90 91.21 109.45 Mozambique 4993 5992 17.10 20.52 75.09 90.11 Mauritania 221 265 4.10 4.92 29.24 35.09 Mauritius 1 1 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 Malawi 4140 4968 42.65 51.18 304.43 365.32 Namibia 332 399 2.37 2.84 8.50 10.19 Niger 2360 2832 24.08 28.90 240.59 288.71 Nigeria 23363 28035 7.44 8.92 86.77 104.13 Rwanda 1968 2362 17.37 20.85 117.23 140.67 Sudan 1673 2007 1.77 2.13 12.67 15.20 Senegal 1799 2158 7.80 9.36 47.24 56.69 Sierra Leone 996 1195 32.45 38.94 178.12 213.74 Somalia 1075 1289 21.12 25.35 230.60 276.72 Swaziland 196 235 3.89 4.67 27.79 33.35 Chad 2088 2506 12.37 14.84 88.28 105.94 Togo 1211 1453 28.83 34.59 183.73 220.48 United Republic of Tanzania 10704 12844 22.97 27.56 101.04 121.25 Uganda 4293 5151 12.51 15.01 70.07 84.08 Zambia 2984 3581 10.42 12.50 65.69 78.83 Zimbabwe 3831 4597 39.44 47.33 377.40 452.87 Total 130037 156044 10.40 12.48 67.89 81.47 TABLE D2 (Continued)
  • 50.
    Appendix 4. Statisticaltables 39 TABLE D2 (Continued) US$mn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$2.00 PPP (US$mn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$2.00 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$2.00 PPP |(% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Low & middle income countries NearEast/NorthAfrica Afghanistan 3997 4797 22.82 27.39 55.13 66.16 Algeria 429 515 0.20 0.24 0.82 0.99 Egypt 472 567 0.19 0.23 0.66 0.79 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 314 377 0.08 0.09 0.37 0.44 Iraq 462 555 0.51 0.62 1.92 2.30 Jordan 10 12 0.03 0.03 0.09 0.11 Lebanon 61 73 0.13 0.16 0.45 0.54 Libya 109 131 0.10 0.12 0.55 0.66 Morocco 622 746 0.54 0.64 1.80 2.16 Saudi Arabia 33 40 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 Syrian Arab Republic 433 520 0.69 0.82 3.81 4.58 Tunisia 29 35 0.04 0.05 0.15 0.18 Turkey 233 280 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.06 Yemen 761 913 1.83 2.20 6.82 8.19 Total 7967 9560 0.23 0.28 0.82 0.98 LatinAmerica/Caribbean Argentina 364 437 0.08 0.10 0.43 0.52 Bolivia (Plurinational State of) 177 213 0.83 1.00 3.20 3.84 Brazil 3476 4171 0.17 0.21 0.68 0.82 Chile 40 48 0.02 0.02 0.08 0.10 Colombia 1299 1558 0.43 0.52 1.72 2.07 Costa Rica 27 32 0.07 0.08 0.26 0.31 Cuba 182 219 0.19 0.23 0.54 0.65 Dominican Republic 94 113 0.11 0.13 0.75 0.90 Ecuador 204 245 0.25 0.30 1.08 1.30 Guatemala 825 990 1.42 1.70 11.11 13.33 Guyana 84 100 3.20 3.84 13.90 16.68 Honduras 427 512 1.99 2.39 9.25 11.10 Haiti 1953 2344 24.77 29.72 107.49 128.99 Jamaica 70 84 0.45 0.54 1.28 1.54 Mexico 1334 1600 0.09 0.11 0.40 0.48 Nicaragua 113 136 1.17 1.41 8.28 9.93
  • 51.
    Achieving Zero Hunger:The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 40 TABLE D2 (Continued) US$mn, 2013 % GDP % Public expenditures PGT at US$2.00 PPP (US$mn, 2013) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$2.00 PPP (% GDP) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) PGT at US$2.00 PPP |(% Gov. Expenditures) PGT+Admin. Cost (@ 20%) Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Av.2016-2030 Low & middle income countries LatinAmerica/Caribbean Panama 72 86 0.21 0.25 0.90 1.09 Peru 332 399 0.14 0.17 0.80 0.96 Paraguay 78 94 0.43 0.52 2.73 3.27 El Salvador 145 174 0.53 0.64 2.82 3.38 Suriname 84 100 2.18 2.62 8.86 10.63 Trinidad and Tobago 328 393 0.90 1.08 3.43 4.11 Uruguay 2 3 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.02 Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) 1574 1889 0.58 0.70 2.38 2.85 Total 13285 15942 0.24 0.29 1.01 1.22 SouthAsia Bangladesh 16077 19293 12.07 14.48 131.75 158.10 India 89321 107185 3.05 3.66 19.74 23.69 Sri Lanka 277 333 0.42 0.50 2.04 2.45 Nepal 1504 1805 5.64 6.77 36.88 44.25 Pakistan 10047 12056 3.79 4.55 23.44 28.13 Total 117226 140671 3.43 4.11 22.39 26.87 EastAsia China 18166 21799 0.17 0.20 0.99 1.19 Hong Kong, China Special Administrative Region 11 13 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02 Indonesia 9014 10817 0.99 1.19 5.97 7.17 Cambodia 528 634 3.04 3.64 32.86 39.44 Korea, Republic of 44 52 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 Lao People's Democratic Republic 409 491 4.48 5.38 41.50 49.80 Myanmar 4886 5864 7.82 9.38 233.33 279.99 Mongolia 261 313 3.18 3.82 12.91 15.50 Malaysia 45 54 0.01 0.01 0.06 0.07 Philippines 4378 5254 1.52 1.82 8.90 10.68 Korea, Democratic People's Republic of 2276 2731 4.57 5.48 49.88 59.85 Thailand 117 140 0.02 0.03 0.13 0.16 Taiwan 25 30 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 Viet Nam 2522 3027 1.59 1.91 9.47 11.36 Total 42683 51219 0.26 0.31 1.47 1.76 Other 2886 3463 0.37 0.44 1.43 1.71 World (Grand Total) 321372 385647 0.37 0.45 1.46 1.75
  • 52.
    Appendix 4. Statisticaltables 41 TABLE D3 Transfers to cover the Poverty Gap (PGT) at $1.25 PPP poverty line and required investment to generate income to overcome poverty (US$ million; constant 2013 prices) (Scenario ZHbotmea) Average 2016-2030 annual values Gross PGT (@ 20% admin costs) (US$mn, 2013) Gross PGT (@ 20% admin costs) (US$mn, 2013) Aditional investment (US$mn, 2013) Aditional investment (US$mn, 2013) Gross PGT(@ 20% admin costs) (% GDP) Aditional investment (% GDP) Total Rural Total Rural Total Total High-Income countries Australia 16 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Canada 5 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Central Asian Republics 137 87 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 European Union 27 531 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Israel 2 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Japan 14 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 New Zealand 4 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Rest of Eastern Europe 7 3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Rest of Western Europe 4 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Russian Federation 10 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 United States of America 399 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 South Africa 1060 597 1246.19 702.39 0.27 0.31 Total 2187 688 1246 702 0.00 0.00 Low & middle income countries sub-SaharanAfrica Angola 1177 1153 1256.15 1230.38 0.63 0.67 Burundi 639 595 1101.48 1025.31 38.11 65.65 Benin 593 376 1099.73 696.32 5.72 10.60 Burkina Faso 779 732 1050.68 987.69 4.69 6.33 Botswana 53 33 56.77 34.59 0.24 0.25 Central African Republic 383 264 715.41 492.73 13.65 25.52 Côte d'Ivoire 842 537 1702.02 1085.22 2.53 5.11 Cameroon 572 398 664.91 462.40 1.42 1.65 Democratic Republic of the Congo 10843 7198 17230.66 11437.76 49.25 78.27 Congo 213 115 268.34 145.32 1.00 1.26 Eritrea 148 126 226.24 192.14 7.31 11.16 Ethiopia 494 420 0.00 0.00 0.79 0.00 Gabon 18 4 14.28 3.23 0.11 0.09 Ghana 395 281 561.74 400.25 0.91 1.29 Guinea 421 341 465.46 377.61 4.80 5.31 Gambia 25 16 16.05 10.71 1.73 1.13 Kenya 1563 1309 2856.80 2393.59 3.34 6.11 Liberia 587 332 957.48 541.11 37.00 60.34
  • 53.
    Achieving Zero Hunger:The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 42 TABLE D3 (Continued) Average 2016-2030 annual values Gross PGT (@ 20% admin costs) (US$mn, 2013) Gross PGT (@ 20% admin costs) (US$mn, 2013) Aditional investment (US$mn, 2013) Aditional investment (US$mn, 2013) Gross PGT(@ 20% admin costs) (% GDP) Aditional investment (% GDP) Total Rural Total Rural Total Total Low & middle income countries sub-SaharanAfrica Lesotho 140 115 220.96 182.23 5.63 8.91 Madagascar 1683 1293 2993.32 2298.62 13.42 23.86 Mali 815 645 1051.77 832.80 4.80 6.20 Mozambique 1945 1400 2597.76 1869.92 6.66 8.90 Mauritania 67 41 102.08 62.98 1.24 1.89 Mauritius 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Malawi 1456 1347 2126.57 1967.12 15.01 21.91 Namibia 106 85 179.54 144.09 0.75 1.28 Niger 513 457 767.80 684.25 5.24 7.83 Nigeria 8431 5781 21553.36 14778.21 2.68 6.86 Rwanda 768 647 1097.26 924.91 6.78 9.69 Sudan 541 449 402.78 334.33 0.57 0.43 Senegal 598 423 789.28 558.21 2.59 3.42 Sierra Leone 311 237 568.11 432.37 10.14 18.52 Somalia 324 256 501.81 395.77 6.38 9.86 Swaziland 70 63 99.41 89.70 1.38 1.98 Chad 754 644 1089.08 931.38 4.46 6.45 Togo 374 291 800.66 623.88 8.90 19.07 United Republic of Tanzania 3981 0 7114.33 0.00 8.54 15.27 Uganda 1315 1260 1537.47 1473.27 3.83 4.48 Zambia 1140 900 1760.81 1389.25 3.98 6.15 Zimbabwe 1556 1215 2568.02 2005.70 16.01 26.44 Total 46632 31779 80166 53.50 3.73 6.41
  • 54.
    Appendix 4. Statisticaltables 43 TABLE D3 (Continued) Average 2016-2030 annual values Gross PGT (@ 20% admin costs) (US$mn, 2013) Gross PGT (@ 20% admin costs) (US$mn, 2013) Aditional investment (US$mn, 2013) Aditional investment (US$mn, 2013) Gross PGT(@ 20% admin costs) (% GDP) Aditional investment (% GDP) Total Rural Total Rural Total Total Low & middle income countries NearEast/NorthAfrica Afghanistan 1243 995 2243.91 1797.29 7.10 12.81 Algeria 161 78 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 Egypt 159 120 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 98 0 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 Iraq 147 80 94.30 51.11 0.16 0.10 Jordan 2 0 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 Lebanon 22 10 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 Libya 46 22 0.77 0.37 0.04 0.00 Morocco 198 146 9.05 6.65 0.17 0.01 Saudi Arabia 10 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Syrian Arab Republic 108 52 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.00 Tunisia 7 0 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 Turkey 61 37 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Yemen 221 181 212.15 173.73 0.53 0.51 Total 2481 1723 2560 2.03 0.07 0.07 LatinAmerica/Caribbean Argentina 119 0 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 Bolivia (Plurinational State of) 57 26 36.66 16.57 0.27 0.17 Brazil 1326 0 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 Chile 10 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Colombia 441 147 186.05 62.02 0.15 0.06 Costa Rica 9 3 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 Cuba 74 48 10.74 6.94 0.08 0.01 Dominican Republic 28 11 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 Ecuador 70 42 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.00 Guatemala 257 179 330.58 230.14 0.44 0.57 Guyana 35 0 44.51 0.00 1.33 1.71 Honduras 133 74 107.34 59.96 0.62 0.50 Haiti 677 0 1197.12 0.00 8.58 15.18 Jamaica 24 16 18.41 11.90 0.15 0.12 Mexico 431 127 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 Nicaragua 32 20 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.00
  • 55.
    Achieving Zero Hunger:The Critical Role of Investments in Social Protection and Agriculture 44 TABLE D3 (Continued) Average 2016-2030 annual values Gross PGT (@ 20% admin costs) (US$mn, 2013) Gross PGT (@ 20% admin costs) (US$mn, 2013) Aditional investment (US$mn, 2013) Aditional investment (US$mn, 2013) Gross PGT(@ 20% admin costs) (% GDP) Aditional investment (% GDP) Total Rural Total Rural Total Total Low & middle income countries LatinAmerica/Caribbean Panama 27 17 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 Peru 111 45 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 Paraguay 25 13 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.00 El Salvador 47 21 7.43 3.32 0.17 0.03 Suriname 32 25 48.04 37.89 0.83 1.25 Trinidad and Tobago 135 107 176.26 139.01 0.37 0.49 Uruguay 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) 511 0 628.12 0.00 0.19 0.23 Total 4611 922 2791 568 0.08 0.05 SouthAsia Bangladesh 5429 4282 8265.78 6519.10 4.08 6.20 India 33442 26395 40675.92 32104.82 1.14 1.39 Sri Lanka 104 90 8.13 7.03 0.16 0.01 Nepal 533 482 390.00 352.71 2.00 1.46 Pakistan 3305 2543 4220.92 3247.44 1.25 1.59 Total 42812 33791 53561 42231 1.25 1.57 EastAsia China 6981 0 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 Hong Kong, China Special Administrative Region 3 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Indonesia 3405 2191 3042.13 1957.66 0.37 0.33 Cambodia 154 141 95.89 87.41 0.89 0.55 Korea, Republic of 11 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Lao People's Democratic Republic 143 119 197.55 163.98 1.57 2.16 Myanmar 1840 1451 2311.97 1823.42 2.94 3.70 Mongolia 101 41 131.18 53.51 1.24 1.60 Malaysia 11 8 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Philippines 1506 0 1422.62 0.00 0.52 0.49 Korea, Democratic People's Republic of 906 715 1089.90 859.59 1.82 2.19 Thailand 30 23 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 Taiwan 6 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Viet Nam 865 783 526.89 476.61 0.55 0.33 Total 15963 5472 8818 5422 0.10 0.05 Other 1066 706 1364 903 0.14 0.17 World (Grand Total) 115752 75079 150507 49882 0.13 0.18
  • 56.
    I4777E/1/07.15 ISBN 978-92-5-108818-0 9 78 9 2 5 1 0 8 8 1 8 0 This paper provides estimates of investment costs, both public and private, required to eliminate chronic dietary energy deficits, or to achieve zero hunger by 2030. This target is consistent with achieving both the Sustainable Development Goal 2, to eliminate hunger by 2030, and the Sustainable Development Goal 1, to eradicate poverty. The study adopts a reference “baseline” scenario, reflecting a “business as usual” situation, to estimate the additional investment requirements. In this scenario, around 650 million people will still suffer from hunger in 2030. We then estimate the investment requirements to eliminate hunger by 2030. Hunger is eliminated through a combination of social protection and targeted “pro-poor” rural investments. The first component aims to bring the poor immediately to the US$1.25/day poverty line income in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms through social protection for a “Transfer to cover the Poverty Gap” (PGT). The second component requires additional investment to accelerate pro-poor rural growth of incomes and employment particularly in rural areas, where most of the poor live, than in the business as usual scenario. Targeted pro-poor rural, including rural and agricultural, investments are required to raise the earned incomes of the poor. This would, in turn, reduce the need for social protection to cover the PGT. The analysis is complemented by looking at alternative ways to achieve such pro-poor rural growth. Achieving Zero Hunger The critical role of investments in social protection and agriculture