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Figure 12.1 Data link layer divided into two functionality-oriented sublayers

Figure 12.2 Taxonomy of multiple-access protocols discussed in this chapter

12-1 RANDOM ACCESS In random access or contention methods, no station is superior to another station and none is assigned the control over another. No station permits, or does not permit, another station to send. At each instance, a station that has data to send uses a procedure defined by the protocol to make a decision on whether or not to send. ALOHA Carrier Sense Multiple Access Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance Topics discussed in this section:

Figure 12.3 Frames in a pure ALOHA network

Figure 12.4 Procedure for pure ALOHA protocol

The stations on a wireless ALOHA network are a maximum of 600 km apart. If we assume that signals propagate at 3 × 10 8 m/s, we find T p = (600 × 10 3 ) / (3 × 10 8 ) = 2 ms. Now we can find the value of T B for different values of K . a . For K = 1, the range is {0, 1}. The station needs to| generate a random number with a value of 0 or 1. This means that T B is either 0 ms (0 × 2) or 2 ms (1 × 2), based on the outcome of the random variable. Example 12.1

b. For K = 2, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3}. This means that T B can be 0, 2, 4, or 6 ms, based on the outcome of the random variable. c. For K = 3, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. This means that T B can be 0, 2, 4, . . . , 14 ms, based on the outcome of the random variable. d. We need to mention that if K > 10, it is normally set to 10. Example 12.1 (continued)

Figure 12.5 Vulnerable time for pure ALOHA protocol

A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the requirement to make this frame collision-free? Example 12.2 Solution Average frame transmission time T fr is 200 bits/200 kbps or 1 ms. The vulnerable time is 2 × 1 ms = 2 ms. This means no station should send later than 1 ms before this station starts transmission and no station should start sending during the one 1-ms period that this station is sending.

The throughput for pure ALOHA is S = G × e −2G . The maximum throughput S max = 0.184 when G= (1/2). Note

A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the throughput if the system (all stations together) produces a. 1000 frames per second b. 500 frames per second c. 250 frames per second. Example 12.3 Solution The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1 ms. a. If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1 frame per millisecond. The load is 1. In this case S = G× e −2 G or S = 0.135 (13.5 percent). This means that the throughput is 1000 × 0.135 = 135 frames. Only 135 frames out of 1000 will probably survive.

Example 12.3 (continued) b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is (1/2) frame per millisecond. The load is (1/2). In this case S = G × e −2G or S = 0.184 (18.4 percent). This means that the throughput is 500 × 0.184 = 92 and that only 92 frames out of 500 will probably survive. Note that this is the maximum throughput case, percentagewise. c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4) frame per millisecond. The load is (1/4). In this case S = G × e − 2G or S = 0.152 (15.2 percent). This means that the throughput is 250 × 0.152 = 38. Only 38 frames out of 250 will probably survive.

Figure 12.6 Frames in a slotted ALOHA network

The throughput for slotted ALOHA is S = G × e −G . The maximum throughput S max = 0.368 when G = 1. Note

Figure 12.7 Vulnerable time for slotted ALOHA protocol

A slotted ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the throughput if the system (all stations together) produces a. 1000 frames per second b. 500 frames per second c. 250 frames per second. Example 12.4 Solution The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1 ms. a. If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1 frame per millisecond. The load is 1. In this case S = G× e −G or S = 0.368 (36.8 percent). This means that the throughput is 1000 × 0.0368 = 368 frames. Only 386 frames out of 1000 will probably survive.

Example 12.4 (continued) b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is (1/2) frame per millisecond. The load is (1/2). In this case S = G × e −G or S = 0.303 (30.3 percent). This means that the throughput is 500 × 0.0303 = 151. Only 151 frames out of 500 will probably survive. c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4) frame per millisecond. The load is (1/4). In this case S = G × e −G or S = 0.195 (19.5 percent). This means that the throughput is 250 × 0.195 = 49. Only 49 frames out of 250 will probably survive.

Figure 12.8 Space/time model of the collision in CSMA B C

Figure 12.9 Vulnerable time in CSMA

Figure 12.10 Behavior of three persistence methods

Figure 12.11 Flow diagram for three persistence methods

Figure 12.12 Collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD

Figure 12.13 Collision and abortion in CSMA/CD

A network using CSMA/CD has a bandwidth of 10 Mbps. If the maximum propagation time (including the delays in the devices and ignoring the time needed to send a jamming signal, as we see later) is 25.6 μs, what is the minimum size of the frame? Example 12.5 Solution The frame transmission time is T fr = 2 × T p = 51.2 μs. This means, in the worst case, a station needs to transmit for a period of 51.2 μs to detect the collision. The minimum size of the frame is 10 Mbps × 51.2 μs = 512 bits or 64 bytes. This is actually the minimum size of the frame for Standard Ethernet.

Figure 12.14 Flow diagram for the CSMA/CD

Figure 12.15 Energy level during transmission, idleness, or collision

Figure 12.16 Timing in CSMA/CA

In CSMA/CA, the IFS can also be used to define the priority of a station or a frame. Note

In CSMA/CA, if the station finds the channel busy, it does not restart the timer of the contention window; it stops the timer and restarts it when the channel becomes idle. Note

Figure 12.17 Flow diagram for CSMA/CA

12-2 CONTROLLED ACCESS In controlled access , the stations consult one another to find which station has the right to send. A station cannot send unless it has been authorized by other stations. We discuss three popular controlled-access methods. Reservation Polling Token Passing Topics discussed in this section:

Figure 12.18 Reservation access method

Figure 12.19 Select and poll functions in polling access method

Figure 12.20 Logical ring and physical topology in token-passing access method

12-3 CHANNELIZATION Channelization is a multiple-access method in which the available bandwidth of a link is shared in time, frequency, or through code, between different stations. In this section, we discuss three channelization protocols. Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Topics discussed in this section:

We see the application of all these methods in Chapter 16 when we discuss cellular phone systems. Note

Figure 12.21 Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)

In FDMA, the available bandwidth of the common channel is divided into bands that are separated by guard bands. Note

Figure 12.22 Time-division multiple access (TDMA)

In TDMA, the bandwidth is just one channel that is timeshared between different stations. Note

In CDMA, one channel carries all transmissions simultaneously. Note

Figure 12.23 Simple idea of communication with code

Figure 12.25 Data representation in CDMA

Figure 12.26 Sharing channel in CDMA

Figure 12.27 Digital signal created by four stations in CDMA

Figure 12.28 Decoding of the composite signal for one in CDMA

Figure 12.29 General rule and examples of creating Walsh tables

The number of sequences in a Walsh table needs to be N = 2 m . Note

Find the chips for a network with a. Two stations b. Four stations Example 12.6 Solution We can use the rows of W 2 and W 4 in Figure 12.29: a. For a two-station network, we have [+1 +1] and [+1 −1]. b . For a four-station network we have [+1 +1 +1 +1], [+1 −1 +1 −1], [+1 +1 −1 −1], and [+1 −1 −1 +1].

What is the number of sequences if we have 90 stations in our network? Example 12.7 Solution The number of sequences needs to be 2 m . We need to choose m = 7 and N = 2 7 or 128. We can then use 90 of the sequences as the chips.

Prove that a receiving station can get the data sent by a specific sender if it multiplies the entire data on the channel by the sender’s chip code and then divides it by the number of stations. Example 12.8 Solution Let us prove this for the first station, using our previous four-station example. We can say that the data on the channel D = (d 1 ⋅ c 1 + d 2 ⋅ c 2 + d 3 ⋅ c 3 + d 4 ⋅ c 4 ). The receiver which wants to get the data sent by station 1 multiplies these data by c 1 .

Example 12.8 (continued) When we divide the result by N, we get d 1 .

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