Qualitative Journal 2

ISSN 1798-4769
Journal of Language Teaching and Research, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 550-559, May 2012
© 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland.
doi:10.4304/jltr.3.3.550-559
© 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER
On the Role of Strategy Use and Strategy
Instruction in Listening Comprehension
Amir Hossein Rahimi
Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran
Email: amh_faith@yahoo.com
Abstract—This paper provides a review of ideas and research regarding the role of strategy use and strategy
instruction in listening comprehension. Firstly, it provides a brief explanation of different models of listening
comprehension. Secondly, it sketches out different categories of learning and listening strategies. Thirdly
models of strategy instruction and different attitudes towards it are reviewed. Finally, empirical studies
carried out to examine the role of strategy use and strategy instruction on listening comprehension is
presented.
Index Terms—listening comprehension, learning strategies, listening strategies, strategy instruction
I. INTRODUCTION
Long ago, listening comprehension used to be considered as a passive activity and did not merit researchers’
attention (Jung, 2003; Thompson & Rubin, 1996; Vandergrift, 2004). It had been assumed that a learner’s ability to
comprehend spoken language would develop entirely on its own through repetition and imitation. The focus of earlier
listening comprehension materials was primarily on testing students’ ability to listen to oral discourse and then answer
comprehension questions based upon the incoming information (Carrier, 2003; Field, 1998). However, in the past few
years the interest in teaching the listening skill has grown. Nowadays it is not regarded as a neglected skill anymore.
Many people, including learners, need the listening skill in diverse settings such as school, travel, and work. Developing
the listening skill is considered to be a significant goal in many language teaching courses. According to Brown (2001),
listening is an important skill through which language learners internalize linguistic information without which they
cannot produce language. Rubin (1994) reviewed over 130 studies and concluded there are five major factors that
researchers believe affect L2 listening comprehension: (1) text characteristics, (2) interlocutor characteristics (3) task
characteristics (4) listener characteristics, and (5) process characteristics. Listener characteristics include language
proficiency level (knowledge of the world for cognitive processing), memory, attention, affect and background
knowledge. Process characteristics include (a) Bottom up, top down and parallel processing, the use of which relates to
learner proficiency level. (b) Listening strategies which are related to different strategy patterns and proficiency level. (c)
Strategy training which emphasizes teaching cognitive and metacognitive strategies. These factors are closely related to
learners’ basic L2 proficiency level, L2 knowledge and listening comprehension strategies.
A. Models of Listening Comprehension
Three main approaches to listening comprehension include Top-down, Bottom-up and Interactive Processing which
will be briefly discussed here.
The term top-down processing came originally from computer science and carried the meaning of “knowledge driven”
(Field, 1999). This term is used in description of the cognitive processes of foreign language listening and foreign
language reading. In Top-down processing, the learner draws upon background knowledge and expectations of what
will follow next in the discourse and then infers what the intentions of the speaker may have been. Inferencing is an
important part of the process, and it is important to note that the reader or listener, through the process of inferring
meaning, may or may not correctly interpret the meaning of the written or spoken text (Rost, 2005). If the learner has a
schema he depends upon this prior knowledge to make reasonable guesses about the meaning of the new term or
structure. “Through top-down processing, readers and listeners utilize real-world knowledge and refer to various types
of schemata that help them predict what will follow in the discourse” (Jung, 2003, p. 563). Schemata are constantly
being created and updated, providing the reader or listener with new outlooks and new bases for interpreting texts (Rost,
2005). The listener can use this knowledge to make sense of the incoming message and to draw reasonable inferences
on the meaning. There are two types of schemata, content schemata or formal schemata (Rost, 2005). Content schemata
concern the actual content of the discourse, the intended message. Formal schemata concern the way discourse is
organized. Both are important to the overall comprehension of the discourse.
In bottom-up processing, known from computer science as a “data-driven” process (Field, 1999), the learner analyzes
the various morphosyntactic elements of the discourse, from the phonemes of the language to the syllables, words,
phrases and sentences that make up the discourse. These activities require processing of all of the linguistic structures of
the target language. In bottom-up processing the learner tries to match the initial sounds of a new word to his familiar

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lexicon to guess what a word might be. As more sounds occur, the listener can eliminate more and more possibilities
until he arrives at the single, most accurate match to the input sounds. This matching may occur before all of the sounds
have been heard because of the elimination process. Field (1999) stated that this entire process may take no more than
0.25 second, or about as long as a typical English syllable, and that the processes of analyzing and processing first
phonemes, then syllables, words, phrases and finally, sentences may all occur simultaneously, or in parallel, rather than
in a step-by-step process. If learners encounter input for which they have no prior knowledge, they may have to rely on
bottom-up processing to supplement or to compensate for the lack of experience or knowledge of the language (Wilson,
2003, p. 336). When learners have to rely more on bottom-up rather than top-down processing, more guesswork is
involved. It is much more efficient, ultimately, if learners can rely more on processing the input by “hearing what was
actually said” (p. 336).
The Interactive Process model (Park, 2004) shows how it takes both top-down processing coupled with bottom-up
processing for comprehension to take place. Bottom up requires linguistic knowledge and top-down occurs when
background knowledge is activated. If one or the other is missing, there can be compensation, though comprehension
best takes place through the interaction of both. Top-down processing is particularly useful for lower-level learners to
fill in the gaps in their bottom-up understanding of an oral text, for example when they lack proficiency in vocabulary
or syntax of the L2 (Field, 1999). Top-down and bottom-up processing act in a reciprocal way. The more basic the
learner, the more likely it is that s/he will rely most heavily upon bottom-up processing. In the early stages of language
learning, it takes great concentration to decode the sounds of the language. The learner will need to expend great
conscious effort, giving concentrated attention to the incoming stream of language, so much effort, in fact, that the
learner may not have capability to focus on top-down processing. As the learner practices and rehearses this skill and
becomes more proficient with the new language, comprehension of isolated sounds will become more automatic, giving
the student more opportunity to activate top-down processing. At higher levels of proficiency, the two processes interact
in a compensatory fashion so that what the learner misses from the bottom can be compensated for from the top as
schemata become activated, and predictions are put forth and confirmed. Even in one’s native language, a person
doesn’t actually hear every part of a message; both bottom-up and top-down processing work simultaneously to fill in
the gaps as the incoming message progresses. The listener’s purpose will also help to dictate which process dominates
(Vandergrift, 2004). Awareness of the two processes and how the listener uses them can help the student learn how to
“use both processes to [his/her] advantage, depending on [the] purpose for listening” (p. 4).
An awareness of each of these processes and their relative contribution to comprehension in different contexts and at
different levels of language proficiency is fundamental to a theoretically grounded pedagogy of L2 listening
comprehension. Presently, there appears to be a general consensus in the literature that listening instruction has favored
the development of top-down processes at the expense of developing bottom-up processes (Vandergrift, 2004, p. 5).
B. Learning Strategies
About 1900s, language teaching stressed the importance of learning strategies. Many studies revealed that students
will perform better if they use learning strategies appropriately. Learning strategies help training students to be
independent and competent learners. Oxford (1990) argues that strategies are important for language learning because
they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence.
Learner’s choice and use of language learning strategies may in a way enhance their L2 learning with effective
strategies to process the input into learners’ intake (Park, 1997). Learner's use of appropriate strategies enables them to
be responsible for their own learning through improving their independence, self direction, and learner autonomy.
C. Definition of Learning Strategies
There are a lot of definitions proposed for learning strategies, with much disagreement of precisely what learning
strategies are or, indeed, if they really exist. In the Concise Encyclopedia of Educational Linguistics (1999), Oxford
offers this definition: Learning strategies for second or foreign language learners are “specific actions, behaviors, steps,
or techniques that students use to improve their own progress in developing skills in a second or foreign language.
These strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language.” (p. 518)
Many researchers have attempted more simplified definitions such as the following “Strategies are the conscious
actions that learners take to improve their language learning” (Anderson, 2005, p. 757). One of the main difficulties
with these and other definitions is that they seem not to account for the difference between typical learning and strategic
learning (Dörnyei, 2005). Dörnyei explained his belief that by adding "goal-oriented, intentionally evoked, and effortful
behavior" (p.164) to definitions such as the above, we can begin to distinguish between the two concepts.
While some strategies can be readily observed, most represent mental processes. L2 learners make choices in what
strategies they think best to use in particular situations. Anderson (2005) likened a learner’s repertoire of strategies to
that of an orchestra, with various instruments all working together to make beautiful music. Better, or more successful
learners tend to use a larger repertoire of strategies than do learners with lower proficiency levels.
Dörnyei (2005) argued that, in addition, strategies encompass the concept of "appropriateness” for an individual
learner or to a particular task. Even so, he acknowledged the difficulty in determining how one might determine
whether and when an activity would be considered appropriate. In addition, “learning strategies… can only be defined

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relative to a particular agent, because a specific learning technique may be strategic for one and non-strategic for
another…” (p. 165).
Yet another researcher has stated that “…strategies do not make learning more efficient; they are the raw material
without which L2 learning cannot take place” (Macaro, 2006). Debate continues as to a precise definition, and it is
hoped that ongoing research will help to elucidate the many facets of the concept of learning strategies.
D. Categories of Learning Strategies
Several strategies inventories have been proposed in response to various research projects. Macaro (2006) pointed
out that one of the biggest areas of difficulty in the study of learning strategies centers on a lack of clarity in both
definition and classification of learning strategies. The following section will present and introduce some of the most
well-known taxonomies which have been proposed by scholars in the field of language learning.
One of the most comprehensive pieces of research on learning strategies was carried out by O'Malley and Chamot
and colleagues in the 1980s. The final taxonomy which they came up with after several longitudinal studies consists of:
1. Metacognitive strategies: they have executive functions and include thinking about the learning process, planning
for the learning, monitoring and evaluating the learning process
2. Cognitive strategies: they are utilized to directly manipulate the learning tasks at hand and are applied to specific
tasks.
3. Socio-affective strategies: they have to do with interacting with others and
4. affective control to help learn the materials. (Brown, 2007, P.134)
Another very popular and frequently used strategy inventory was developed by Oxford and proposed six different
categories of learning strategies. Oxford used factor analysis to group strategies into the following: Cognitive,
metacognitive, memory related, compensatory, affective, and social strategies. Originally, the SILL was developed for
the Defense Language Institute in California as a way to measure the language learning strategies those students used
(Oxford & Burry-Stock, 1995). The current SILL provides an 80-item version for native speakers of English who are
learning a foreign language and a 50-item version for ESL/EFL students. Students respond to a series of statements
about possible strategy use by choosing one of the Likert-scale numbers, 1 – 5, with 1 representing “never or almost
never true of me” and 5 representing “always or almost always true of me” (p. 4). The SILL has been translated into
many different languages. Following are the six strategy groups with their corresponding subscales for the ESL/EFL
1990 version of the SILL:
1. Memory strategies, such as grouping, imagery, rhyming, and structured reviewing (nine items)
2. Cognitive strategies, such as reasoning, analyzing, summarizing (all reflective of deep processing), as well as
general practicing (14 items).
3. Compensation strategies (to compensate for limited knowledge), such as guessing meanings from the context in
reading and listening and using synonyms and gestures to convey meaning when the precise expression is not known
(six items).
4. Metacognitive strategies, such as paying attention, consciously searching for practice opportunities, planning for
language tasks, self-evaluating one’s progress, and monitoring error (nine items).
5. Affective (emotional, motivation-related) strategies, such as anxiety reduction, self-encouragement, and self-
reward (six items).
6. Social strategies, such as asking questions, cooperating with active speakers of the language, and becoming
culturally aware (six items). (Oxford & Burry-Stock, 1995, p.5)
Macaro (2001) classified strategies on a continuum with, at one end, cognitive strategies and at the other,
metacognitive/social/affective. Following the same pattern, he placed along with cognitive, subconscious, direct,
automatized, difficult to articulate, non-evaluative, primary, and natural. Along with metacognitive / social / affective,
he included conscious, indirect, controlled, easier to articulate, evaluative, support, and taught (p. 24). Those falling at
the cognitive side are closely related to the task at hand while those falling more at the metacognitive / social / affective
side are more related to the learner’s self-preparation to complete the task. Learners may be able to better articulate
what happens in these latter strategy types than they can in the more cognitive ones. We are reminded that this
classification falls on a continuum, so many strategies fall somewhere in-between the two extremes in each grouping.
Examples (direct, subconscious) might include the following:
1. Linking words or ideas to visual images as you see them or hear them” (more cognitive
2. Memorizing a list of vocabulary items by using some sort of system” (mid- range of continuum)
3. Asking the teacher for clarification or to repeat something they didn’t “quite catch (more
metacognitive/social/affective)” (p. 25).
In his more recent work, Macaro (2006) preferred to classify learning strategies as either cognitive or metacognitive,
claiming that metacognitive subsumes the socio-affective domains. Macaro presented his belief that strategies always
include a goal. That goal may have origin with the learner, as in the learner’s self-imposed desire to master a certain
concept, for example, or it may have a teacher-imposed goal, as in the necessity to pass a test. In his explanation of how
learning takes place in relation to strategy use, Macaro chose to identify and investigate strategy clusters, which can
include activation of several interrelated or sequential strategies. This concept of strategy clusters was followed in
interventions presented in this study.

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In an attempt to bring different categorizations of strategies together, Dornyei (2005) proposed a typology with four
types of strategies:
1. Cognitive strategies, involving the manipulation or transformation of the learning materials/input (e.g., repetition,
summarizing, using images).
2. Metacognitive strategies, involving higher-order strategies aimed at analyzing, monitoring, evaluating, planning,
and organizing ones’ own learning process.
3. Social strategies, involving interpersonal behaviors aimed at increasing the amount of L2 communication and
practice the learner undertakes (e.g., initiating interaction with native speakers, cooperating with peers).
4. Affective strategies, involving taking control of the emotional (affective) conditions and experiences that shape
one’s subjective involvement in learning. (p. 169).
E. Listening Strategies
Listeners make use of a variety of strategies to make sense of the incoming messages and compensate for their lack
of knowledge especially in EFL contexts. Listening Strategies which are employed by language learners are relatively
the same as general learning strategies discussed in the previous section.
Vandergrift (1997b) taxonomy is based on O’Malley and Chamot (1990, 137-139); Oxford (1990, 21); Vandergrift
(1996). He proposed three types of strategies, metacognitive, cognitive, and socio-affective.
Field's (2008) taxonomy draws upon Dornyei and Scott and adapts their list of strategies to make them refer to
listening strategies. Some new strategies have been added by him too. His taxonomy of listening strategies involves:
1. Avoidance strategies: learner gets by without the missing or uncertain piece of input.
2. Achievement strategies: learner attempts to make maximum sense of what has been decoded.
3. Repair strategies: learner appeals for help.
4. Pro-active strategies: learner plans her behavior in away that might enable problems of understanding to be
avoided. (Field, 2008, p.298)
F. Teaching Listening Strategies
Until recently, most research focused on discovering and categorizing the types of learning strategies used in
language learning or the differences between strategy uses in successful language learners as compared to those of less
successful learners (Chamot, 2005). The focus has shifted to research into ways to teach effective strategy use.
Information that has been gathered from descriptive studies is now being used to “measure relationships between
strategy use and language proficiency, metacognition, motivation, and self-efficacy” (Chamot, 2005, p. 115).
Researchers disagree on whether or not learning and listening strategies should be actively taught to L2 learners.
Several researchers believe that the research is, in fact, indefinite as to whether instruction in strategies really produces
any positive effect for learners (Chamot, 1995; Rubin, 1994) though it should be noted that this type of research is very
difficult to conduct and results may not be clear. For example, in a study of student success in developing and using
learning strategies (Thompson & Rubin, 1996), it was found that L2 students did show some improvement in their use
of strategies incomprehension of videotaped materials. However, the study did not show a positive correlation between
strategy instruction and learner performance. In addition, no distinction was made between those strategies intended to
assist in extracting meaning and those intended for learning a new language. A study of how raising awareness of the
strategies L2 speakers can use showed that those learners who were given instruction in strategies for oral
communication realized greater improvement in their speaking abilities than did the control group, which did not
receive strategies instruction (Nakatani, 2005). Other studies have also shown that intervention, the teaching of
strategies, has been beneficial for L2 learners (McGruddy, 1998; O’Malley & Chamot, 1990; Ross & Rost, 1991;
Thompson & Rubin, 1996).
Even among those researchers who believe strategies should be taught, there is disagreement about in what context
that should occur. Is it better to teach strategies as part of the ESL or foreign language curriculum, or might it be better
to provide a course of strategy instruction in isolation? There is concern about whether or not students will transfer what
they have learned into real-world learning. Chamot (2004) proposed that “teachers should opt for explicit instruction
and should probably integrate the instruction into their regular course work, rather than providing a separate learning
strategies course” (p.19). Further, she advised teachers in all content courses to learn about and actively teach students
the strategies they would need to succeed in those courses. Despite results from early studies showing that strategies did
not seem to transfer to new learning situations, more recent studies have shown that when metacognitive strategies are
prioritized, transfer does occur.
Rubin (1996) focused on three approaches in teaching strategy use: raising teacher awareness so that instructors can
be more effective in teaching strategies, providing learners text-based instructional materials, and using media-based
instruction. Rubin’s 1989 Language Learning Strategies Program relied on computer and video disk input to help
learners identify successful learning strategies.
An important component of strategy instruction is the increase in students' awareness of the background knowledge
they bring to the task. Many learners fail to realize that they already know a great deal about grammar, vocabulary, and
communication. They often do not know how to transfer that knowledge to learning another language. Students may not
realize they can use what they know about the world and about human interaction to direct their critical thinking and

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problem solving. Learners need to be reminded how they filter information through that which they already know, as
well as how this filter can help or hinder as they learn a new communicative system. (Rubin, 1996, p. 152)
A number of studies have shown increases in various categories of learning strategy use as a result of instruction
(Chamot & O’Malley, 1996; Goh, 1998; Goh, 2002a; McGruddy, 1998; Rubin, 1996; Yang, 1996).
Even when students have been instructed in listening strategies, problems can be created. A definition for the term
“listening strategy” (Chen, 2005) states: “L2/FL learning and strategy learning are considered to be the learning of
complex cognitive skills.” even though a second language listener might actually know a vocabulary item or phrase,
s/he might not recognize that item when it is presented in a stream of speech. As an alternative to the teaching of
strategies like predicting or listening for key terms, giving listeners opportunities to listen over and over, each time
adding to what they have been able to identify and then giving them access to a written script so that they can compare
their hypotheses to the actual, may help L2 listeners to feel more comfortable with their listening tasks. The goal is to
show students how much they are able to understand rather than allowing them to focus on their failure to understand.
This process is very like the actual process of listening and comprehending aural discourse.
Proponents of active teaching of both learning and listening strategies (Arnold, 2000; Field, 1998; Flowerdew &
Miller, 2005; Goh, 1998; Harley, 2000; Morley, 2001; Park, 2000; Thompson and Rubin, 1996; Vandergrift, 1999,
2002) base their beliefs on various pieces of research. L2 learners, research shows, do benefit from being actively taught
do use various strategies as they approach listening tasks. Proponents believe instructors must be well-trained in as well
as committed to instructing use of strategies. Mendelsohn (1995) offered the premise that it is a listening instructor’s
responsibility to teach students to use strategies rather than simply provide opportunities for students to listen to oral
passages
G. Models of Listening Strategy Instruction
There are various issues related to strategy instruction in the literature. O'Malley and Chamot (1990) discussed about
these issues in their seminal book ' learning strategies in second language acquisition'. A controversy which exists in
instruction in learning strategies is whether instruction should focus on learning strategy instruction or should be
integrated with classroom instruction. Some scholars believe that students can generalize the strategies to other contexts
and they learn better when they put all their effort on developing strategic skills rather than trying to learn the content at
the same time, so the best way to teach learning strategies is to design a separate program or course to implement
strategy instruction. Another group of researchers are in favor of integrated strategy instruction. They argue that when
students practice strategies by performing academic and language tasks, transference of those skills and strategies to
similar tasks and similar contexts will be more easily and successfully done. There is a third group which is in favor of
integrating both approaches which were discussed above (Dansereau, 1985; cited in O'Malley & Chamot ,1990, p.153;
Derry, 1984 cited in O'Malley & Chamot ,1990, p.153).
Another dichotomy which is discussed by O'Malley and Chamot (1990) is direct versus embedded instruction. They
state that “in direct instruction, students are informed of the value and purpose of strategy training, whereas in
embedded instruction, students are presented with activities and materials structured to elicit the use of the strategies
being taught but are not informed of the reasons why this approach to learning is being practice” (p.153). An advantage
mentioned for embedded strategy training is that little teacher training is required. The results of studies has shown that
students which are trained using embedded approach can not transfer the skills and strategies to new tasks ( Brown,
Armbruster, & Baker, 1986 cited in O'Malley & Chamot, 1990, p.153 ).When the purpose and importance of the
strategies are explained to the students , a metacognitive component , students are able to maintain and use strategies for
longer period of time and transfer it to the new tasks (Brown et al. 1986; Palincsar and Brown, 1986 cited in O'Malley
& Chamot,1990, p.153 ). Many researchers recommend direct strategy training over embedded one.
An instructional model for strategy training which is discussed by O'Malley and Chamot (1990) is 'the strategy
teaching model' developed by Jones et al. (1987). This model is based on six assumptions:
1. Learning is goal oriented. Expert learners have two major goals during the learning process: to understand the
meaning of the task and to regulate their own learning. In other words, learners have both declarative knowledge, or
content goals, and procedural knowledge, or strategic goals for a learning task.
2. In learning, new information is linked to prior knowledge. Prior knowledge is stored in memory in the form of
knowledge frameworks or schemata, and new information is understood and stored by calling up the appropriate
schema and integrating the new information with it. Knowing how and when to access prior knowledge is a
characteristic of effective learners.
3. Learning requires knowledge organization. Knowledge is organized in recognizable frameworks such as story
grammars, problem/solution structures, comparison/contrast patterns, and description sequences, among others. Skilled
learners recognize these organizational structures and use them to assist learning and recall.
4. Learning is strategic. Good learners are aware of the learning process and of themselves as learners, and seek to
control their own learning the use of appropriate learning strategies. Strategies can be taught, but many do not transfer
to new tasks. Although each content area may require a particular set of strategies and skills, a number of core skills
underlie all subject areas. Examples of these core skills are using prior knowledge, making a representation of the
information, self monitoring, and summarizing.

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5. Learning occurs in recursive phases. All types of learning are initiated with a planning phase, followed by online
processing, and ending with consolidation and extension of the new information. In the planning phase, the problem is
identified, goals are set, and prior knowledge is activated. During on-line processing new information is integrated,
assimilated, and used to clarify or modify existing ideas. During consolidation and extension the learner summarizes
and organizes the new information, assesses achievement of the goal established in the first phase, and extends learning
by applying it to new situations. During each phase the learner may return to a previous phase to rework one or more of
its aspects.
6. Learning is influenced by development. Differences between older and younger students and between more and
less proficient learners are due in large part to differences in prior knowledge and learning strategy use. These
differences may be present when children begin school or may develop over time, but in either case they tend to persist
unless intervention is undertaken. (Jones, Palincsar, Ogle & Carr,1987 cited in O'Malley & Chamot,1990, p.187-188)
In this model the specific sequence which is suggested for instruction is: assessing students' current strategy use,
explaining the new strategy, modeling the strategy and providing scaffolding when students practice using strategies for
the first time. O'Malley and Chamot (1990) elaborate on three phases that teachers go through for instruction. In the
preparation phase the teacher activates students' prior knowledge of the lesson topic through questioning, evaluating the
relevance of the prior knowledge, and refining that knowledge. During this phase students can also preview the new
information to be learned, develop new vocabulary, and identify concepts or beliefs that may be changed or replaced
after instruction. In the presentation phase of the lesson, students interact with the new information presented by the
teacher or text through selecting, comparing, organizing, and integrating activities. Reciprocal teaching, in which
students and teacher cooperate to understand a text by taking turns to apply a sequence of comprehension strategies.
The application and integration phase of the strategic lesson serves the dual purposes of evaluating and consolidating
the learning task. To evaluate their learning, students refer back to their original goals that were established during the
preparation phase. In doing so they consolidate the new information by using it to restructure their prior knowledge,
identified in the preparation phase. (p.189)
Another well-known model which is proposed for strategy training is 'cognitive academic language learning
approach'. Chamot and O'Malley (1987) state that this model is designed to meet the needs of three types of students:
1. Students who have developed social communicative skills through beginning level ESL classes or through
exposure to an English-speaking environment, but have not yet developed academic language skills appropriate to their
grade level;
2. Students who have acquired academic language skills in their native language and initial proficiency in English ,
but who need assistance in transferring concepts and skills learned in the first language to English and
3. Bilingual English-dominant students who have not yet developed academic language skills in either language. (p.
229)
This model is based on the cognitive theory in which language is viewed as a complex skill. Learners should pass
through certain stages to move from declarative to procedural knowledge. Learning in this view is seen as movement
from controlled to automatic processing via practice. Anderson's (1983, 1985) ACT model is a processing model from
cognitive psychology which suggests that acquiring a language (movement from declarative to procedural knowledge)
takes place in three stages: the cognitive, the associative, and the autonomous stages. (Cited in O'malley and
Chamot ,1990,p.162). O'Malley and Chamot (1990) argue that this approach “provides useful insights into the academic
language needs of LEP students, which CALLA is intended to meet” (p.192). The CALLA includes three components:
topics from the major content subjects, development of academic language skills, and direct instruction in learning
strategies for both content and language. Our focus is on the third component, strategy instruction. Chamot and
O'Malley (1987) express that strategy instruction in CALLA is based on four arguments:
1. Mentally active learners are better learners. Students who organize new information and consciously relate it to
existing knowledge should have more cognitive linkages to assist comprehension and recall than do students who
approach each new task as something to be memorized by rote learning.
2. Strategies can be taught. Students who are taught to us strategies and provided with sufficient practice in using
them will learn more effectively than students who have had no experience with learning strategies.
3. Learning strategies transfer to new tasks. Once students have become accustomed to using learning strategies, they
will use them on new tasks that are similar to the learning activities on which they were initially trained.
4. Academic language learning is more effective with learning strategies. Academic language learning among
students of English as a second language is governed by some of the same principles that govern reading and problem
solving among native English speakers. (p.240)
General guidelines for learning strategy instruction in CALLA model are as follows: at first, teachers find out what
strategies the students are already using. It can be done through interviews or think-aloud procedure. Next, the teacher
can select some new strategies which are not utilized by the students. In the presentation phase, teachers explain the
purpose of the learning strategies, name the strategies to be taught, and explain about the advantages of using them. The
explanation of the strategies should be tailored to the proficiency level of students. Then teachers model the strategy use
by performing a task. Teachers should provide the students with a variety of activities and tasks to practice the strategy
use. The next stage is to enable students to learn how to evaluate their own strategy use. This can be done through

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writing the strategies after completing a task, discussing about the strategies used for tasks, keeping dialogue journals
and etc. Finally, teachers help students to transfer the strategies to new contexts.
Another model of strategy instruction is proposed by Vandergrift (2004) and Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari (2010).
Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari (2010) explain about stages of strategy instruction in this model:
Prelistening: Planning/predicting stage
1. After students have been informed of the topic and text type, they predict the types of information and possible
words they may hear.
First listen: First verification stage
2. Students verify their initial hypotheses, correct as required, and note additional information understood.
3. Students compare what they have understood/written with peers, modify as required, establish what still needs
resolution, and decide on the important details that still require special attention.
Second listen: Second verification stage
4. Students verify points of earlier disagreement, make corrections, and write down additional details understood.
5. Class discussion in which all class members contribute to the reconstruction of the text s main points and most
pertinent details, interspersed with reflections on how students arrived at the meaning of certain words or parts of the
text.
Third listen: Final verification stage
6. Students listen specifically for the information revealed in the class discussion which they were not able to
decipher earlier.
Reflection stage
7. Based on the earlier discussion of strategies used to compensate for what was not understood, students write goals
for the next listening activity
H. Empirical Studies on Listening Strategies
Murphy (1985) used a think aloud procedure to study the listening strategies of effective and less effective ESL
learners. He found that effective learners used more strategies and a greater variety of strategies. But less effective
learners concentrate too much on the text or their own knowledge. At that time the categorization of learning strategies
had not been done yet, so Murphy did not distinguish between metacognitive and cognitive and other kinds of strategies.
Rubin (1988 cited in vandergrift, 1999) investigated the effect of strategy instruction on the comprehension of video
by Spanish high school students. The performance of three experimental groups was compared with the two control
groups. Rubin found that the use of some strategies (e.g. storyline) can help students in successful comprehension of
difficult materials. He concluded that “the combination of well selected video and the acquisition of effective learning
strategies can improve student affect and motivation” (p. 32).
Chamot and Kupper (1989) used a think aloud procedure and examined the listening strategies of high school
learners. They found that effective learners used more strategies than less effective learners. They used the strategies,
like note taking, selective attention, and self-evaluation with greater persistence. Chamot and Kupper examined the
strategy use of Russian students too. They found that effective listeners used four categories of strategies more than
others, they include: comprehension monitoring, problem identification, inferencing, elaboration
O'Malley, Chamot and Kupper (1989) investigated the pattern of strategy use of high school intermediate learners.
They concluded that effective listeners can keep their concentration, back on the track when distracted and they decide
what to attend beforehand. They try to make a connection between what they already know and what they listened.
They use the cues in the context and their personal experience. On the other hand less successful listeners did not make
fewer use of their background knowledge. They lose their concentration easily when encountering a problem. Effective
learners used inferencing, self monitoring and elaboration more.
Using a think aloud procedure, Bacon (1992a, 1992b) examined the strategy use of male and female university
students learning Spanish. She observed that the factors which play role in successful listening are: motivation, use of
background knowledge, self control, maintaining attention and using a variety of strategies flexibly. She also found that
the learners used more cognitive strategies. Female students made use of metacognitive strategies more than males. She
noticed that effective and less effective learners used monitoring equally but effective learners were more realistic.
Using a structured interview, Vandergrift (1996) examined the types and numbers of strategy used by core French
students. Students were at different course levels. He concluded that three categories of strategies could be
distinguished; cognitive, metacognitive, socio affective. Students reported more cognitive strategies than the other
categories. As the course level increased the total number of strategies reported increased too. The same pattern was
observed for metacognitive category. Females reported using more metacognitive strategies compared to males.
Reported use of socio-affective strategies increased by course level too.
In a longitudinal study, using video segments from simulated authentic materials, Thompson and Rubin (1996)
investigated the effect of strategy instruction on the listening comprehension performance of university students
learning Russian. The performance of an experimental group was compared to a control group which received no
strategy instruction. The result of the pre and post test showed that students who received strategy instruction improved
significantly over those who did not receive such instruction. It was demonstrated that metacognitive strategies helped
students to manage their approach to listening.

557
Goh (1997) investigated Chinese students' metacognitive knowledge in L2 listening comprehension. The students
were asked to keep a diary about their listening. Some questions were designed to help students in reflecting on specific
occasions where they listened to English and report what they did to understand better. They were also asked to include
their thoughts about learning to listen, and to say how they practiced their listening after class. The students' beliefs and
observations were classified under person knowledge, task knowledge, and strategic knowledge. Analysis of the diaries
demonstrated that the students reported extensively on all three types of metacognitive knowledge. Goh (1997) stated
that “The listening diaries demonstrated that the students had a high degree of metacognitive awareness. They were
conscious of their learning process and the demands of listening to English, and had specific beliefs about the factors
that could enhance or impair their listening comprehension” (p.367)
In another study, Vandergrift (1997) investigated the strategy use of novice and intermediate level of French students.
He concluded that novice learners relied heavily on elaboration, transfer, and inferencing. Novice level students
overcome the limited knowledge by using extra linguistic cues and cognates. On the other hand intermediate level
learners used over twice as many metacognitive strategies as the novice-level learners.
Using retrospective verbal data, Goh (2002a) investigated the listening strategies and tactics used by a group of ESL
learners. Participants were male and female students, aged between 18 and 19, from the People's Republic of china.
Two students, one more proficient listener and one less proficient were selected for further analysis and comparison of
tactic used and interaction. Goh (2002) identified a total of 44 different tactics used by the learners: 22 cognitive tactics
grouped under eight cognitive strategies and 22 metacognitive tactics grouped under six metacognitive strategies. She
found that both learners used a combination of listening tactics when processing individual segments of the text. Both
used metacognitive and cognitive tactics and both engaged in top-down and bottom-up processing. However, there were
some differences between the two learners. The more-proficient listener used a wider range of tactics while the less-
proficient listener used more low level tactics. Goh concluded that “although individual tactics were useful, successful
comprehension also depended on whether the listener was able to combine various mental tactics in a way that could
truly enhance comprehension” (2002, p. 203).
Carrier (2003) taught listening comprehension strategies, focusing on academic listening tasks. The participants were
a small group of high school ESL students. This study took six weeks and included both bottom-up and top-down
approaches to listening. The strategies which were taught involved selective attention and note taking. First the teacher
defined and modeled the strategies then provided the students with opportunity to practice. The result of pre-test and
post-test revealed that students significantly improved both bottom-up and top-down approaches.
Vandergrift (2003a) made use of tasks designed to develop effective listening strategies to raise awareness of FSL
university students about listening process. The instruction was as follows: after being informed of the topic of the
lesson, students wrote their prediction and related vocabulary about the information they might hear. Then they listened
to the aural text for the first time and saw whether their predictions were right. Next they discussed about what they had
understood. The students listened to the text for the second time and wrote additional information. This was followed by
class discussion in which students shared the strategies they had used to comprehend the text. After a third listening,
students wrote a personal reflection on what they had learned about their own listening processes and what strategies
they might use in future to improve listening comprehension. Students’ written reflections revealed positive reactions to
the strategies, increased motivation, and understanding of their own thinking processes during listening tasks.
Vandergrift (2003b) compared the listening comprehension strategies of more- and less-skilled Canadian seventh-
grade students of French. Students listened to several French texts and were asked to think aloud during the process.
The more skilled listeners used more metacognitive strategies, especially comprehension monitoring, than did their less
skilled peers. In addition, more skilled listeners engaged in questioning for clarification, whereas the less skilled used
more translation.
Goh and Taib (2006) utilized eight specially designed listening lessons that included traditional listening exercises,
individual post-listening reflections on their listening experience, and teacher-facilitated discussions that focused on
specific aspects of metacognitive knowledge about listening to teach metacognitive strategies to ten primary school
pupils. After the eight lessons, the students reported a deeper understanding of the nature and the demands of listening,
increased confidence in completing listening tasks, and better strategic knowledge for dealing with comprehension
difficulties. The weaker learners have benefited the most from this process-based approach to listening instruction.
Graham et al (2008) examined the development of strategy use over 6 months in two lower-intermediate learners of
L2 French in secondary schools in England. Strategic behavior of these two learners was investigated through verbal
reports made by them while completing a multiple-choice listening task. The results revealed a high degree of stability
of strategy use over the time period, with pre-existing differences between the high and low scorer persisted.
Graham and Macaro (2008) investigated the effects of strategy instruction on the listening performance and self-
efficacy of 68 lower-intermediate learners of French in England. The effects of high- and low-scaffolded interventions
were also compared. Result represented that the program improved listening proficiency and learners’ confidence about
listening.
Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari (2010) investigated the effects of a metacognitive, process-based approach to teaching
second language (L2) listening. The participants were 106 students of French as an l2. 59 students were assigned to
experimental group. They listened to a variety of texts and were taught metacognitive processes including prediction,

558
planning, monitoring, evaluating and problem solving. The control group included 47 students who listened to the same
texts without metacognitive instruction. The experimental group outperformed the control group in the listening
comprehension measure. Less skilled listeners in the experimental group made greater gains than their more skilled
ones.
II. CONCLUSION
Teachers may need to introduce the concept of language learning strategies to students and make students familiar
with the learning strategies. They may need to provide instruction and practice in using strategies, which have positive
influence on their performance. Foreign language teachers should be engaged in an ongoing process of determining the
kinds of strategies which have potential for improving students’ listening ability. As Oxford et al. (1989) has suggested,
it is important to teach learners clearly why and how to use strategies in appropriate situations. It is necessary for
teachers to provide learners with opportunities to practice the new strategies so as to integrate them into the process of
language learning. Learners themselves can apply the strategies while working on different listening tasks and activities.
Using listening strategies increases their awareness about the listening process, which leads to better performance. By
practicing listening strategies, learners become self-regulated listeners and can succeed in accomplishing different tasks
with different levels outside the classroom contexts. More research evidence has confirmed the positive influence of
strategy instruction on developing listening; therefore, incorporating strategy-based tasks and activities in listening
textbooks becomes an urgent need. Materials developers should allocate specific sections of listening materials to
introduce the concept of strategies.
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Amir Hossein Rahimi holds an MA degree in TEFL from Allameh Tabataba’i University in Tehran, Iran. He has taught general
English courses at payamnour and shahid beheshti university. His research interests lie in cooperative learning and investigation of
language learning strategies.

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