Anatomically shaped tooth and periodontal regeneration by cell homing

Anatomically shaped tooth and periodontal regeneration by cell homing

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  JDR OnlineFirst, publishedon May 6, 2010 as doi:10.1177/0022034510370803 RAPID COMMUNICATION Biomaterials & Bioengineering K. Kim+, C.H. Lee+, B.K. Kim, and J.J. Mao* Anatomically shaped Tooth Columbia University College of Dental Medicine, 630 W. and Periodontal Regeneration 168th St., PH7E – CDM, New York, NY 10032, USA; + authors contributing equally to the technical aspects of this by Cell Homing project; *corresponding author, [email protected] J Dent Res X(X):xx-xx, XXXX ABsTRACT INTRODUCTION Tooth regeneration by cell delivery encounters translational hurdles. We hypothesized that ana- tomically correct teeth can regenerate in scaffolds A tooth is a major organ consisting of biological viable pulp encased in mineralized dentin that may be covered with cementum and enamel ontogenetically in various species (Poole, 1967). Life ends in wildlife spe- without cell transplantation. Novel, anatomically cies after complete tooth loss. In humans, tooth loss can lead to physical and shaped human molar scaffolds and rat incisor scaf- mental suffering that compromises self-esteem and quality of life (Pihlstrom folds were fabricated by 3D bioprinting from a et al., 2005; USDHHS, 2005). Contemporary dentistry restores missing teeth hybrid of poly-ε-caprolactone and hydroxyapatite with dental implants or dentures. Dental implants, despite being the preferred with 200-µm-diameter interconnecting microchan- treatment modality, can fail and have no ability to remodel with surrounding nels. In each of 22 rats, an incisor scaffold was bone, which undergoes physiologically necessary remodeling throughout life implanted orthotopically following mandibular (Ferreira et al., 2007). Accordingly, there has been intensifying interest in the incisor extraction, whereas a human molar scaf- regeneration of orofacial tissues, including teeth (Modino and Sharpe, 2005; fold was implanted ectopically into the dorsum. Young et al., 2005; Mao et al., 2006). Stromal-derived factor-1 (SDF1) and bone mor- Cell delivery has been the predominant approach in tooth regeneration. phogenetic protein-7 (BMP7) were delivered in Disassociated cells of porcine or rat tooth buds in biomaterials yielded puta- scaffold microchannels. After 9 weeks, a putative tive dentin and enamel organ (Young et al., 2002; Duailibi et al., 2004). Tooth periodontal ligament and new bone regenerated at bud cells and bone marrow osteoprogenitor cells in collagen, PLGA, or silk- the interface of rat incisor scaffold with native protein scaffolds induced putative tooth-like tissues, alveolar bone, and alveolar bone. SDF1 and BMP7 delivery not only periodontal ligament (Young et al., 2005; Duailibi et al., 2008; Kuo et al., recruited significantly more endogenous cells, but 2008). Embryonic oral epithelium and adult mesenchyme together up-regu- also elaborated greater angiogenesis than growth- late odontogenesis genes upon mutual induction, and yielded dental structures factor-free control scaffolds. Regeneration of upon transplantation into adult renal capsules or jaw bone (Ohazama et al., tooth-like structures and periodontal integration by 2004). Similarly, implantation of E14.5 rat molar rudiments into adult mouse cell homing provide an alternative to cell delivery, maxilla produced tooth-like structures with surrounding bone (Modino and and may accelerate clinical applications. Sharpe, 2005; Mantesso and Sharpe, 2009). Multipotent cells of the tooth api- cal papilla in tricalcium phosphate in swine incisor extraction sockets gener- KEY WORDs: tooth regeneration, cell homing, ated soft and mineralized tissues resembling the periodontal ligament stem cells, bioprinting, periodontal. (Sonoyama et al., 2006). Mouse E14.5 oral epithelium and dental mesen- chyme were reconstituted in collagen gel and cultured ex vivo (Nakao et al., 2007), and, when they were implanted into the maxillary molar extraction sockets in 5-week-old mice, tooth morphogenesis took place and was fol- lowed by eruption into occlusion (Ikeda et al., 2009). Several studies have begun to tackle an obligatory task of scale-up toward human tooth size (Xu et al., 2008; Abukawa et al., 2009). Tooth regeneration by cell transplantation is a meritorious approach. However, there are hurdles in the translation of cell-delivery-based tooth regeneration into therapeutics. Autologous embryonic tooth germ cells are inaccessible for human applications (Modino and Sharpe, 2005; Nakao et al., 2007; Ikeda et al., 2009). Xenogenic embryonic tooth germ cells (from non- human species) may elicit immunorejection and tooth dysmorphogenesis. DOI: 10.1177/0022034510370803 Autologous post-natal tooth germ cells (e.g., third molars) or autologous den- tal pulp stem cells are of limited availability. Regardless of the cell source, Received November 3, 2009; Last revision March 23, 2010; cell delivery for tooth regeneration, similar to cell-based therapies for Accepted March 26, 2010 other tissues, encounters translational barriers (Ahsan et al., 2007; Evaluation 1
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  2 Kim et al. J Dent Res X(X) XXXX cell-homing approach for tooth regeneration. A novel anatomically shaped scaffold was fabricated with interconnecting microchan- nels (diam., 200 µm) as conduits for the homing of host endog- enous cells and angiogenesis. Remarkably, a putative periodontal ligament and de novo alveolar bone regenerated at the scaffold’s interface with native alveolar bone upon 9-week in vivo implan- tation. Cell homing by stromal-derived factor-1 (SDF1) and bone morphogenetic protein-7 (BMP7) not only recruited endogenous cells, but also induced angiogenesis. These findings represent the first demonstration of de novo formation of ana- tomically shaped tooth-like structures and periodontal integra- tion in vivo, and may provide a clinically translatable approach. MATERIAls & METHODs Design and 3D Bioprinting of Anatomically shaped Tooth scaffolds Anatomic shape and dimensions of the rat mandibular central incisor were derived from multiple slices of 2D laser scanning of extracted rat incisor per our prior methods (Lee et al., 2009; Stosich et al., 2009). The dimensions of the permanent man- dibular first molar were derived from textbook averages and therefore were exempt from institutional review board approval. Scaffolds with the shape of the rat mandibular central incisor (Fig. 1A) and human mandibular first molar (Fig. 1B) were fabricated via 3D layer-by-layer apposition (Lee et al., 2009; Stosich et al., 2009). The composite consisted of 80 wt% poly- caprolactone (PCL) and 20 wt% of hydroxyapatite (HA) (Sigma, St. Louis, MO, USA). PCL-HA was co-molten at 120°C and dispensed through a 27-gauge metal nozzle to create repeating 3D microstrands (200-µm wall thickness) and interconnecting microchannels (diam., 200 µm) (Figs. 1C, 1D). Delivery of Bioactive Cues in Microchannels All scaffolds were sterilized in ethylene oxide for 24 hrs. A blended cocktail of SDF1 (100 ng/mL) and BMP7 (100 ng/mL) was adsorbed in 2 mg/mL neutralized type I collagen solution (all from R&D, Minneapolis, MN, USA). SDF1 was selected for its effects to bind to CXCR4 receptors of multiple cell lineages, including mesenchymal stem/progenitor cells (Belema-Bedada Figure 1. Design and fabrication of anatomically shaped human and et al., 2008; Kitaori et al., 2009). BMP7 was selected for its rat tooth scaffolds by 3D bioprinting. Anatomic shape of the rat effects on dental pulp cells, fibroblasts, and osteoblasts in elabo- mandibular central incisor (A) and human mandibular first molar (B) rating mineralization (Goldberg et al., 2001; Rutherford, 2001). were used for 3D reconstruction and bioprinting of a hybrid scaffold SDF1 and BMP7 doses were chosen from in vivo work (Vaccaro of poly-ε-caprolactone and hydroxyapatite, with 200-µm microstrands et al., 2008; Kitaori et al., 2009). SDF1- and BMP7-loaded col- and interconnecting microchannels (diam., 200 µm), which serve as conduits for cell homing and angiogenesis (C,D). A blended cocktail of lagen solution was infused in scaffold microchannels by micro- stromal-derived factor-1 (100 ng/mL) and bone morphogenetic pipettes (N = 11 for rat incisor scaffolds; N = 11 for human protein-7 (100 ng/mL) was delivered in 2 mg/mL neutralized type I molar scaffolds) (Figs. 1E, 1F), and crosslinked at 37°C for 1 hr. collagen solution and infused in scaffold microchannels for rat incisor Control scaffolds were infused with the same collagen gel, but scaffold (E) and human molar scaffold (F), followed by gelation. without growth-factor delivery (N = 11 for rat incisor scaffolds; N = 11 for human molar scaffolds). criteria for musculoskeletal and craniofacial tissue engineering constructs, 2008). To date, excessive cost of commercialization In vivo Tooth Regeneration Models and difficulties in regulatory approval have precluded any sig- nificant clinical translation of tooth regeneration. As a first step Following IACUC approval, 22 male (12-week-old) Sprague- to addressing the limitations of cell delivery, we devised a Dawley rats were randomly divided equally into treatment and
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  J Dent ResX(X) XXXX Tooth and Periodontal Regeneration by Cell Homing 3 control groups (Charles River, NY, USA). All rats were anesthetized by i.p. administration of ketamine (80 mg/kg) and xylazine (5 mg/kg). A 2-cm incision was made in the dor- sum. Human mandibular molar scaffolds were implanted into surgi- cally created subcutaneous pouches (Fig. 2A), followed by wound clo- sure. The rat right mandibular cen- tral incisor was then extracted with periotome (Figs. 2C, 2D), followed by implantation of the anatomically shaped mandibular incisor scaffold (Fig. 2E) into the extraction socket. The tooth was carefully luxated with the smallest possible perio- tome and Allen’s microsurgical instruments, to minimize root frac- tures. Practice was needed to mini- mize root fracture when extracting rat lower incisors. Upon the com- pletion of pilot experiments, we were able to perform atraumatic Figure 2. In vivo orthotopic and ectopic implantation of anatomically shaped tooth scaffolds. (A) extractions without fracturing the In vivo implantation of human mandibular molar scaffold into rat’s dorsum constitutes an ectopic model for tooth regeneration. (B) Harvest of human molar scaffold showing integration and tissue root (Fig. 2D). In rare cases of root ingrowth. (C) Extraction of the right rat mandibular central incisor. (D) The extracted rat mandibular fracture, the animals were excluded. central incisor. (E) The fabricated rat mandibular central incisor scaffold. (F) Harvest of in vivo- The mandibular incisor scaffold implanted rat mandibular central incisor scaffold orthotopically in the extraction socket showing protruded 3 mm from the alveolar integration of the implanted scaffold. Scale: 5 mm. edge. The flap was advanced for primary closure around the scaffold. Buprenorphine (0.05 mg/kg) the rat mandibular incisor integrated with surrounding tissue, was administered i.p. post-operatively for analgesia. showing tissue ingrowth into scaffold microchannels (Fig. 3A). It was not possible to separate the implanted scaffolds without sample Harvesting, Tissue Analysis, and statistics physical damage to surrounding tissue. Microscopically, the scaffolds within the extraction sockets clearly showed multiple Nine weeks post-surgery, all rats were killed by pentobarbital tissue phenotypes, including the native alveolar bone (b), newly overdose. The dorsum scaffolds were retrieved with surrounding formed bone (nb), and a fibrous tissue interface reminiscent of fascia (Fig. 2B). The rat incisor scaffolds were harvested with sur- the periodontal ligament (pdl) (Fig. 3A). The newly formed rounding bone and native tooth structures (Fig. 2F). All samples bone (nb) showed ingrowth into microchannel openings and were fixed in 10% formalin, embedded in poly(methyl methacry- inter-staggered with scaffold microstrands (s) (Fig. 3A). Higher late) (PMMA), and sectioned at 5-µm thickness for hematoxylin magnification showed newly formed bone (nb) with bone tra- and eosin (H&E) and von Kossa (VK) staining (HSRL, Mount beculae-like structures (arrows in Fig. 3B) and embedded cells Jackson, VA, USA). PMMA was used because PCL-HA scaffolds resembling osteocytes. Immediately adjacent is a structure cannot be de-mineralized for paraffin embedding. The average reminiscent of the periodontal ligament consisting of fibroblast- areal cell density and blood vessel numbers were quantified from like cells and collagen-like structures (pdl in Fig. 3B). Von the coronal, middle, and apical thirds of the rat incisor scaffolds Kossa preparation showed that the newly formed bone (nb) was (Fig. 3J) and similarly of the human molar scaffolds (Fig. 4G) by well-mineralized, in contrast to adjacent unmineralized, putative a blinded and calibrated examiner. Upon confirmation of normal periodontal ligament (pdl) (Fig. 3C). Although host cells popu- data distribution, Students’ t tests were used to compare the treated lated the microchannels of growth-factor-free control scaffolds and control groups, with alpha at 0.05. (Fig. 3D), combined SDF1 and BMP7 delivery (Fig. 3E) homed significantly more cells into the microchannels of the rat incisor REsUlTs scaffolds (p < 0.01) (Fig. 3F). Angiogenesis took place in scaf- folds’ microchannels with or without growth-factor delivery Orthotopic Tooth Regeneration without (Figs. 3G, 3H). Quantitatively, combined SDF1 and BMP7 Cell Transplantation delivery elaborated significantly more blood vessels than the The mandibular incisor extraction socket represents an ortho- growth-factor-free group (p < 0.05) (Fig. 3I). The numbers topic location for tooth regeneration. Scaffolds in the shape of of recruited cells and blood vessels were quantified from 3
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  4 Kim et al. J Dent Res X(X) XXXX Ectopic Tooth Regeneration without Cell Transplantation Human mandibular molar scaffolds implanted into the dorsum repre- sent an ectopic location for tooth regeneration. Microscopically, host cells populated scaffold microchan- nels without growth-factor delivery (Fig. 4A). Quantitatively, combined SDF1 and BMP7 delivery (Fig. 4B) homed significantly more cells into the microchannels of the human molar scaffolds than without growth-factor delivery (p < 0.01) (Fig. 4C). Angiogenesis took place in microchannels with or without growth-factor delivery (Figs. 4A, 4B). However, combined SDF1 and BMP7 delivery elaborated signifi- cantly more blood vessels than without growth-factor delivery (p < 0.05) (Fig. 4D). Mineral tissue was present in isolated areas in micro- channels adjacent to blood vessels and abundant cells (Fig. 4E). Von Kossa staining confirmed ectopic mineralization (Fig. 4F), likely owing to BMP7 delivery. Tissue sections from coronal, middle, and two root portions of human molar scaffolds were quantified for cell density and angiogenesis (Fig. 4G). Figure 3. Orthotopic tooth regeneration. (A) The rat mandibular incisor scaffold integrated with DIsCUssION surrounding tissue, showing tissue ingrowth into scaffold microchannels and multiple tissue phenotypes, These findings represent the first including the native alveolar bone (b), newly formed bone (nb), and a fibrous tissue interface report of regeneration of anatomi- reminiscent of the periodontal ligament (pdl). The newly formed bone (nb) showed ingrowth into microchannel openings and inter-staggered with scaffold microstrands (s). (B) Newly formed bone (nb) cally shaped tooth-like structures has bone trabeculae-like structures (arrows) and embedded osteocyte-like cells, immediately adjacent in vivo, and by cell homing without to a putative periodontal ligament (pdl) consisting of fibroblast-like cells and collagen buddle-like cell delivery. The potency of cell structures. (C) Newly formed bone (nb) is well-mineralized (von Kossa preparation), in contrast to the homing is substantiated not only adjacent unmineralized, putative periodontal ligament (pdl). (D) Cells populated the scaffold’s by cell recruitment into scaffold microchannels even without growth-factor delivery. Remarkably, SDF1 and BMP7 delivery yielded microchannels, but also by regen- substantial cell homing in microchannels (E). (F) Combined SDF1 and BMP7 delivery homed eration of a putative periodontal significantly more cells into microchannels than without growth-factor delivery (p < 0.01; N = 11). Angiogenesis took place in scaffolds’ microchannels without growth-factor delivery (G), but was more ligament and newly formed alveo- substantial with growth-factor delivery (H). (I) Combined SDF1 and BMP7 delivery elaborated lar bone. Tooth regeneration significantly more blood vessels than without growth-factor delivery (p < 0.05; N = 11). (J) The requires condensation of sufficient numbers of recruited cells and blood vessels were quantified from 3 different locations along the entire cells of multiple lineages (Modino root length of the rat mandibular incisor scaffold: the superior region of alveolar ridge and the inferior and Sharpe, 2005; Yelick and region of root apex, with a midpoint in between. s, scaffold; GF, growth factor(s). Scale: 100 µm. Vacanti, 2006). The observed puta- tive periodontal ligament and newly formed alveolar bone sug- different locations along the entire root length of the rat man- gest the ability of SDF1 and/or BMP7 to recruit multiple cell dibular incisor scaffold: the superior region of the alveolar lineages. SDF1 is chemotactic for bone marrow stem/progenitor ridge, and the midpoint and the inferior region of the root apex cells and endothelial cells, both of which are critical for angio- (Fig. 3J). genesis (Herodin et al., 2003; Belema-Bedada et al., 2008; Nait
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  J Dent ResX(X) XXXX Tooth and Periodontal Regeneration by Cell Homing 5 Lechguer et al., 2008). SDF1 binds to CXCR4, a chemokine receptor for endothelial cells and bone mar- row stem/progenitor cells (Belema- Bedada et al., 2008; Kitaori et al., 2009). Here, SDF1 likely has homed mesenchymal and endothelial stem/ progenitor cells in native alveolar bone into porous tooth scaffolds that were implanted in rat jaw bone, and connective tissue progenitor cells in dorsal subcutaneous tissue into human molar scaffold (Alhadlaq and Mao, 2004; Steinhardt et al., 2008; Crisan et al., 2009). BMP7 plays important roles in osteoblast differentiation and phosphorylation via SMAD pathways, which induces transcription of multiple osteogenic/ odontogenic genes (Hahn et al., 1992; Itoh et al., 2001). Here, BMP7 likely is responsible for newly Figure 4. Ectopic tooth regeneration. (A) In human mandibular molar scaffolds, cells populated formed, mineralized alveolar bone scaffold microchannels without growth-factor delivery. (B) Combined SDF1 and BMP7 delivery in rat extraction socket and ectopic induced substantial cell homing into microchannels. (C) Combined SDF1 and BMP7 delivery homed mineralization in human tooth scaf- significantly more cells into the microchannels than without growth-factor delivery (p < 0.01; N = fold implanted into the dorsum. Our 11). (D) Combined SDF1 and BMP7 delivery elaborated significantly more blood vessels than ongoing work has identified addi- without growth-factor delivery (p < 0.05; N = 11). (E,F) Mineral tissue in isolated areas in tional growth factors that may con- microchannels adjacent to blood vessels and abundant cells, and confirmed by von Kossa staining. (G) Tissue sections from coronal, middle, and two root portions of human molar scaffolds were stitute an optimal conglomerate for quantified for cell density and angiogenesis. s, scaffold; GF, growth factor(s). Scale: 100 µm. tooth regeneration. Cell homing is an under-recognized approach in tis- sue regeneration (Mao et al., 2010), and offers an alternative to et al., 2009). The regenerated mandibular incisor-like structure was cell-delivery-based tooth regeneration. Omission of cell isola- primarily the root with a portion of sub-occlusal crown. Further, no tion and ex vivo cell manipulation may accelerate regulatory, attempt was made to regenerate enamel or dentin. Nonetheless, we commercial, and clinical processes. The cost of tooth regenera- suggest that a regenerated tooth is biological primarily because of tion by cell homing is not anticipated to be nearly as excessive its root, rather than the crown, which can be readily restored with a as for cell delivery. clinical crown anchorable to a biologically regenerated root. The present scaffold design represents a variation from pre- Regeneration of a putative periodontal ligament and new bone that vious approaches in tooth regeneration by relying primarily on integrated with native alveolar bone appears to provide the ground soft materials, including collagen gel, silk, or PLGA (e.g., for a clinically translatable approach. The present work does not Young et al., 2002; Modino and Sharpe, 2005; Ikeda et al., preclude parallel studies of tooth regeneration by cell transplanta- 2009). Mechanical stiffness of PCL-HA hybrid is suitable for tion. Our recent work continues to explore regeneration of multiple load-bearing (Woodfield et al., 2005). Among rapid prototyping tissues by cell delivery (Lee et al., 2009; Yang et al., 2010). One of methods, 3D bioprinting offers the advantage of precise control the pivotal issues in tooth regeneration is to devise economically of pore size, porosity, stiffness, and interconnectivity as well as viable approaches that are not cost-prohibitive and can translate anatomic dimensions (Woodfield et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2009). into therapies for patients who cannot afford or are contra-indicated Clinically, the patient’s healthy, contralateral tooth form can be for dental implants. Cell-homing-based tooth regeneration may imaged by CT or MR, and then fed into a computer-aided design provide a tangible pathway toward clinical translation. and a bioprinter to generate 3D scaffolds. Anatomically shaped scaffolds can either be patient-specific or of generic sizes, and made available as off-the-shelf implants in dental offices. ACKNOWlEDGMENTs The present study, being the first of its kind for de novo forma- tion of tooth-like tissues by cell homing, is not without limitations. We thank F. Guo and K. Hua for technical and administrative All in vivo-harvested samples were embedded in PMMA, because assistance. This research was supported by NIH Grant 5RC2 PCL-HA cannot be decalcified for paraffin embedding. PMMA DE020767 from the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial embedding disallows immunoblotting by certain antibodies (Lee Research (NIDCR).
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