Download to read offline
![[5] "The large river Tumbiri, mentioned by Dr. Krapf as flowing towards Egypt from
the northern counterslope of Mount Kenia, rests upon the sole authority of a single
wandering native. As, moreover, the word T'humbiri or Thumbili means a monkey,
and the people are peculiarly fond of satire in a small way, it is not improbable
that the very name had no foundation of fact. This is mentioned, as some
geographers—for instance, Mr. Macqueen ('Observations on the Geography of
Central Africa,' Proceedings of the R.G.S. of London, May 9, 1859)—have been
struck by the circumstance that the Austrian missionaries and Mr. Werne
('Expedition to discover the Source of the White Nile, in 1840-41') gave Tubirih as
the Bari name of the White Nile at the southern limit of their exploration."
[6] Richard long mourned the loss of his friend, whom Captain Speke, on his
second journey with Colonel Grant—whether unable to assist I know not—left to
be killed by the negroes of Mirámbo, his African enemy, in the bush.—I. B.
[7] Richard was a strong-willed, outspoken, and grievously injured man, under the
greatest provocation ever put forth. He behaved with dignity, calmness, and
generosity, above all praise.—I. B.
CHAPTER XV.
RICHARD AND I MEET AGAIN.
"For life, with all its yields of joy and woe
And hope and fear,
Is just our chance o' the prize of learning love—
How love might be, hath been indeed, and is."
——Robert Browning.
"Dying is easy; keep thou steadfast.
The greater part, to live and to endure."
——Mrs. Hamilton King, The Disciples.
"When Calumny's foul dart thy soul oppresses,
Think'st thou the venomed shaft could poison me?
No! the world's scorn, still more than its caresses,
Shall bind me closer, O my love, to thee.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/24714223-250522224055-28fb354b/75/Archean-Evolution-Of-The-Pilbara-Craton-And-Fortescue-Basin-Arthur-H-Hickman-56-2048.jpg)
!["Should the days darken, and severe affliction
Close whelming o'er us like a stormy sea,
Love shall transform them into benedictions
Binding me closer, O my love, to thee."
* * * * *
"When truth or virtue an affront endures,
The affront is mine, my friend, and should be
yours;
Mine as a friend to every worthy mind,
And mine as man who feels for all mankind."
——Pope.
Just as I was getting into despair, and thinking whether I should go
and be a Sister of Charity (May, 1859), as the appearance of Speke
alone in London was giving me the keenest anxiety, and as I heard
that Richard was staying on in Zanzibar, in the hopes of being
allowed to return into Africa, I was very sore.[1]
On May 22nd, 1859, I chanced to call upon a friend. I was told she
was gone out, but would be in to tea, and was asked if I would wait.
I said, "Yes;" and in about five minutes another ring came to the
door, and another visitor was also asked to wait. The door was
opened, and I turned round, expecting to see my friend. Judge of
my feelings when I beheld Richard. For an instant we both stood
dazed, and I cannot attempt to describe the joy that followed. He
had landed the day before, and came to London, and now he had
come to call on this friend to know where I was living, where to find
me. No one will wonder if I say that we forgot all about her and tea,
and that we went downstairs and got into a cab, and took a long
drive.
I felt like one stunned; I only knew that he put me in and told the
cabman to drive. I felt like a person coming to after a fainting fit or](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/24714223-250522224055-28fb354b/75/Archean-Evolution-Of-The-Pilbara-Craton-And-Fortescue-Basin-Arthur-H-Hickman-57-2048.jpg)
![letter to my mother, who was still violently opposing me, and who
was absent on some visits:—
"October, 1859.
"My dearest Mother,[2]
"I feel quite grateful to you for inviting my confidence. It is the
first time you have ever done so, and the occasion shall not be
neglected. It will be a great comfort to me to tell you all; but
you must forgive me if I say that I have one tender place too
sore to be touched, and that an unkind or slighting word might
embitter all our future lives. I know it is impossible for you, with
your views for me, both spiritual and temporal, to understand,
far less sympathize with me on the present occasion.
"I feel nothing in common with the world I live in. I dreamt of a
Companion and a Life that would suit me exactly, and I them.
Like many other people, I suppose, I found my heart yearning,
and my tastes developing towards quite opposite things to those
which fall naturally in my way. I am rather ashamed to tell you
that I fell in love with Captain Burton at Boulogne, and would
have married him at any time between this and then, if he had
asked me. The moment I saw his brigand-daredevil look, I set
him up as an idol, and determined that he was the only man I
would ever marry; but he never knew it until three years ago,
before he went to Africa. From Boulogne he went to Mecca and
Medina, and then to Harar, and then to the Crimea, and on his
return home, in 1856, you may remember he came to see us,
and I saw him again, and then he fell in love with me and asked
me to be his wife, and was perfectly amazed to find that I had
cared for him all that time. He was then just going to start for
Central Africa; he could not marry me, he could not take me,
but we promised to be true to each other, and, as you well
know, we met every day. When I came home one day in an
ecstasy and told you that I had found the Man and the Life I
longed for, that I clung to them with all my soul, and that](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/24714223-250522224055-28fb354b/75/Archean-Evolution-Of-The-Pilbara-Craton-And-Fortescue-Basin-Arthur-H-Hickman-61-2048.jpg)
Archean Evolution Of The Pilbara Craton And Fortescue Basin Arthur H Hickman
- 1. Archean Evolution OfThe Pilbara Craton And Fortescue Basin Arthur H Hickman download https://ebookbell.com/product/archean-evolution-of-the-pilbara- craton-and-fortescue-basin-arthur-h-hickman-49428446 Explore and download more ebooks at ebookbell.com
- 2. Here are somerecommended products that we believe you will be interested in. You can click the link to download. Evolution Of Archean Crust And Early Life 1st Edition Harald Furnes https://ebookbell.com/product/evolution-of-archean-crust-and-early- life-1st-edition-harald-furnes-4625842 Archeanmesoproterozoic Crustal Evolution And Crustmantle Geodynamics Of Western Liaoningnortheastern Hebei Provinces North China Craton 1st Edition Wei Wang Auth https://ebookbell.com/product/archeanmesoproterozoic-crustal- evolution-and-crustmantle-geodynamics-of-western-liaoningnortheastern- hebei-provinces-north-china-craton-1st-edition-wei-wang-auth-6844746 Archean Geodynamics And Environments Keith Benn Jeanclaude Mareschal https://ebookbell.com/product/archean-geodynamics-and-environments- keith-benn-jeanclaude-mareschal-4299448 Archean Raremetal Pegmatites In Zimbabwe And Western Australia Geology And Metallogeny Of Pollucite Mineralisations 1st Ed Thomas Dittrich https://ebookbell.com/product/archean-raremetal-pegmatites-in- zimbabwe-and-western-australia-geology-and-metallogeny-of-pollucite- mineralisations-1st-ed-thomas-dittrich-9962826
- 3. Archean Eon ArtI Eat Tomatoes Wochixihongshi https://ebookbell.com/product/archean-eon-art-i-eat-tomatoes- wochixihongshi-230832086 Geobiology Microbial Mats In Sandy Deposits From The Archean Era To Today 1st Edition Nora Noffke Auth https://ebookbell.com/product/geobiology-microbial-mats-in-sandy- deposits-from-the-archean-era-to-today-1st-edition-nora-noffke- auth-1712922 The Archaean Geological And Geochemical Windows Into The Early Earth 1st Edition Andrew Y Glikson Auth https://ebookbell.com/product/the-archaean-geological-and-geochemical- windows-into-the-early-earth-1st-edition-andrew-y-glikson-auth-4931426 The Archaean Geology Of The Kaapvaal Craton Southern Africa 1st Ed Alfred Krner https://ebookbell.com/product/the-archaean-geology-of-the-kaapvaal- craton-southern-africa-1st-ed-alfred-krner-9960326 Warrior Awakening Alien Warrior Science Fiction Fantasy Romance Archans Of Ailaut Book 1 Sa Ravel Emma Alisyn Starr Huntress Ravel https://ebookbell.com/product/warrior-awakening-alien-warrior-science- fiction-fantasy-romance-archans-of-ailaut-book-1-sa-ravel-emma-alisyn- starr-huntress-ravel-33123550
- 5. Modern Approaches inSolid Earth Sciences Arthur H. Hickman Archean Evolution of the Pilbara Craton and Fortescue Basin
- 6. Modern Approaches inSolid Earth Sciences Volume 24 Series Editors Yildirim Dilek, Department of Geology and Environmental Earth Sciences, Miami University, Oxford, OH, USA Franco Pirajno, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia Brian Windley, Department of Geology, The University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
- 7. Background and motivation EarthSciences are going through an interesting phase as the traditional disciplin- ary boundaries are collapsing. Disciplines or sub-disciplines that have been tradi- tionally separated in the past have started interacting more closely, and some new fields have emerged at their interfaces. Disciplinary boundaries between geology, geophysics and geochemistry have become more transparent during the last ten years. Geodesy has developed close interactions with geophysics and geology (tectonics). Specialized research fields, which have been important in development of fundamental expertise, are being interfaced in solving common problems. In Earth Sciences the term System Earth and, correspondingly, Earth System Science have become overall common denominators. Of this full System Earth, Solid Earth Sciences – predominantly addressing the Inner Earth - constitute a major component, whereas others focus on the Oceans, the Atmosphere, and their interac- tion. This integrated nature in Solid Earth Sciences can be recognized clearly in the field of Geodynamics. The broad research field of Geodynamics builds on contribu- tions from a wide variety of Earth Science disciplines, encompassing geophysics, geology, geochemistry, and geodesy. Continuing theoretical and numerical advances in seismological methods, new developments in computational science, inverse modelling, and space geodetic methods directed to solid Earth problems, new analytical and experimental methods in geochemistry, geology and materials science have contributed to the investigation of challenging problems in geodynamics. Among these problems are the high-resolution 3D structure and composition of the Earth’s interior, the thermal evolution of the Earth on a planetary scale, mantle convection, deformation and dynamics of the lithosphere (including orogeny and basin formation), and landscape evolution through tectonic and surface processes. A characteristic aspect of geodynamic processes is the wide range of spatial and temporal scales involved. An integrated approach to the investigation of geodynamic problems is required to link these scales by incorporating their interac- tions. Scope and aims of the new series The book series “Modern Approaches in Solid Earth Sciences” provides an integrated publication outlet for innovative and interdisciplinary approaches to problems and processes in Solid Earth Sciences, including Geodynamics. It acknowledges the fact that traditionally separate disciplines or sub-disciplines have started interacting more closely, and some new fields have emerged at their interfaces. Disciplinary boundaries between geology, geophysics and geochemistry have become more transparent during the last ten years. Geodesy has developed close interactions with geophysics and geology (tectonics). Specialized research fields (seismic tomography, double difference techniques etc), which have been important in development of fundamental expertise, are being interfaced in solving common problems. Accepted for inclusion in Scopus. Prospective authors and/or editors should consult one of the Series Editors or the Springer Contact for more details. Any comments or suggestions for future volumes are welcomed.
- 8. Arthur H. Hickman ArcheanEvolution of the Pilbara Craton and Fortescue Basin
- 9. Arthur H. Hickman GeologicalSurvey of Western Australia East Perth, WA, Australia ISSN 1876-1682 ISSN 1876-1690 (electronic) Modern Approaches in Solid Earth Sciences ISBN 978-3-031-18005-7 ISBN 978-3-031-18007-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-18007-1 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 Figures © Geological Survey of Western Australia. All Rights Reserved. Does not apply to Figures 3.12 and 4.10 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
- 10. To the PilbaraCraton mapping team, 1994–2005, and to my wife Caroline for her understanding and support during my work on the book.
- 11. Preface Based on informationgathered over almost half a century of investigations, this book reviews and interprets the Eoarchean to Neoarchean crustal evolution of the northern, best exposed part of the Pilbara Craton. The investigations included two periods of systematic geological mapping by the Geological Survey of Western Australia (GSWA), government airborne geophysical surveys, regional geochemical and geochronological investigations, and detailed local studies by numerous researchers and government organizations. Through full-time employment with the GSWA since 1972, the author has been heavily involved in much of the work, including geological mapping, management of a major mapping project, and exten- sive research and publication. With the completion of mapping and follow-up geological interpretation, it is timely to review the results. The Pilbara Craton is one of two Archean cratons in Western Australia, the other being the Yilgarn Craton, which together have provided important contributions to our understanding of Earth’s Archean crustal evolution. Since 1970, Perth has been selected to host six successive international symposia on Archean geology, which testifies to the international recognition of the work conducted on Western Australia’s cratons, and the significance of the results to our understanding of Archean geology. The Pilbara Craton contains Earth’s most complete geological record of Paleoarchean crustal evolution and provides the best evidence on a transition from vertical to horizontal tectonics between the Paleoarchean and the Mesoarchean. From the advent of plate tectonic theory in the 1970s, a long-running controversial issue has been whether or not plate tectonic processes operated throughout the Archean or if these processes evolved during or after the Archean. As documented in this book, evidence from the Pilbara Craton has resolved this issue, at least as far as this craton is concerned. The Pilbara Craton has also revealed the processes and timing involved in the formation of its dome–and–keel crustal architecture, a feature common to many Archean cratons worldwide. Another important finding in the Pilbara is that geo- chemical, geochronological, and isotopic data support early suggestions that the oldest well-preserved greenstone succession of the craton, the 3530–3235 Ma vii
- 12. Pilbara Supergroup, wasdeposited on older sialic crust. Formation of this pre-3530 Ma crust occurred over at least 250 million years in the Eoarchean and early Paleoarchean. This negates some previous assumptions that the Paleoarchean ‘greenstones’ of the Pilbara Craton are the oldest rocks preserved, and that they originated as oceanic crust. viii Preface Any review of the regional geology and crustal evolution of the Pilbara Craton would not be complete without mention of the strong geological similarities to the Barberton region in the eastern Kaapvaal Craton of South Africa. Almost all previous comparisons have focussed on the Neoarchean to Paleoproterozoic succes- sions of these areas. However, as explained in this book, there are even greater similarities between the Paleoarchean successions of the cratons. The concept that both cratons are fragments of the same Archean supercontinent, ‘Vaalbara’ (Cheney et al., 1988), has been slow to gain general acceptance. However, stratigraphic, tectonic, geochronological, and paleomagnetic data have now combined to support the interpretation that the Pilbara and Kaapvaal Cratons shared a common, billion- year-long, evolutionary history on the same continent. The Pilbara Craton is now interpreted to have experienced two episodes of continental breakup, and recognition that the present Pilbara Craton is merely a fragment of a once far more extensive Archean continental plate provides a far better appreciation of the original scale of its stratigraphy and tectonic units. In summary, the main aims of this book are to review all currently available data on the Archean geology of the northern half of the Pilbara Craton. The southern half of the craton is largely concealed by Neoarchean and Paleoproterozoic cover. The review cites previous sources of information on all the subjects covered and provides up-to-date interpretations of the craton’s stratigraphy, evolving tectonic and deposi- tional environments, deformation history, geochronology, and overall crustal evo- lution. In the process, several new concepts on Paleoarchean crustal evolution are introduced or expanded upon, including the existence of mantle plume-related large igneous provinces from ~3530 Ma onwards, and that from ~3335 Ma onwards the individual granite–greenstone domes of the east Pilbara evolved into separate tectonic domains. Additionally, geochronology, geochemistry, and Sm–Nd isotope data have been combined to confirm a long-held interpretation that the Mesoarchean evolution of the northwest Pilbara Craton was controlled by plate convergence and subduction. Finally, the Neoarchean Fortescue Basin is reviewed because its evolu- tion marks the second continental breakup in the history of the craton. The book fills a gap in the present literature by providing students, researchers, and geoscientific organizations with a detailed and comprehensive modern account of the Archean geology of the Pilbara Craton, and of important previous investiga- tions on which present interpretations are based. As such, it will facilitate access to background information for future geoscientific studies. It should also help identify remaining questions requiring more work. It is hoped that the book will lead to the Archean geology of the Pilbara Craton featuring more prominently in future global reviews of Archean granite–greenstone terranes, and of Archean crustal evolution generally.
- 13. Preface ix The authorhas drawn heavily on previously published data and interpretations, in particular in publications by GSWA and Geoscience Australia. However, he takes full responsibility for any new interpretations using previously published data, and for summaries and comments relating to the evidence and interpretations of previous workers. East Perth, Australia Arthur H. Hickman
- 14. Acknowledgements The author thanksFranco Pirajno for his suggestion to write this review of geolog- ical information on the Pilbara Craton and Fortescue Basin gained from investiga- tions by GSWA staff and others over the past 50 years, and in particular from the 1994–2005 Pilbara Craton Mapping Project. This project, conducted jointly by GSWA and Geoscience Australia, provided a wealth of new geoscientific data that resulted in numerous key publications, both during and after the project. The present book would not have been possible without extensive use of observations and interpretations made within the project, and from related research over the past 15 years. Special acknowledgment is made to major geoscientific contributions to the project from Martin Van Kranendonk, Hugh Smithies, Ian Williams, Leon Bagas, and Terry Farrell of GSWA, and from Andrew Glikson, David Huston, David Champion, and Richard Blewett of Geoscience Australia. The author pub- lishes with permission of the Executive Director of the Geological Survey of Western Australia and with his permission to include many figures drafted for previous GSWA publications. xi
- 15. About This Book Theresponsible series editor of this book is Dr. F. Pirajno. xiii
- 16. 5 Contents 1 Outline ofthe Pilbara Craton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1.1 Investigations of the Pilbara Craton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2 Stratigraphy of the Northern Pilbara Craton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.3 Tectonic Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.3.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.3.2 Summary of Tectonic Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.4 Fragment of an Archean Continent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 1.5 Vaalbara Continent? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 1.6 Concept of an ‘Ancient Nucleus’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 1.7 Concealed Pilbara Craton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2 Eoarchean and Early Paleoarchean Crust of the Pilbara Craton . . 3 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 2.2 Eoarchean to Early Paleoarchean Crust (3800–3530 Ma) . . . . . . 37 2.2.1 U–Pb Zircon Geochronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 2.2.2 Sm–Nd Isotope Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 2.2.3 Lu–Hf Isotopes in Zircon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 2.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 3 Warrawoona Large Igneous Province, 3530–3427 Ma . . . . . . . . . . . 89 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 3.1.1 Preservation of the Warrawoona Group . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 3.2 Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 3.2.1 Coonterunah Subgroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 3.2.2 Talga Talga Subgroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 3.2.3 Coongan Subgroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 3.2.4 Salgash Subgroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 3.3 Origin of the Warrawoona Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 xv
- 17. xvi Contents 3.4 Evolutionof the Warrawoona Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 3.5 Large Igneous Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 3.6 Granitic Supersuites of the Warrawoona LIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 3.6.1 Mulgundoona Supersuite (3530–3490 Ma) . . . . . . . . . . 145 3.6.2 Callina Supersuite (3484–3462 Ma) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 3.6.3 Tambina Supersuite (3451–3416 Ma) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 3.6.4 Emu Pool Supersuite (3324–3290 Ma) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 3.6.5 Cleland Supersuite (3270–3223 Ma) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 3.7 Tectonic Setting of the Warrawoona LIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 3.7.1 Plate Tectonic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 3.7.2 Oceanic Plateau? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 4 Strelley Pool Formation: Continental Sedimentation Between Paleoarchean LIPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 4.2 Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 4.2.1 Stratigraphic Rank: Formation or Group? . . . . . . . . . . . 174 4.2.2 Relations to the Panorama Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 4.2.3 Unconformities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 4.3 Geochronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 4.4 World’s Oldest Paleosols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 4.5 Suggestion of Hydrothermal Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 4.6 Correlation with the Buck Reef Chert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 4.7 Fossil Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 4.7.1 Stromatolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 4.7.2 Microfossils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 4.7.3 Microbial Mats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 4.8 Significance to Crustal Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 4.9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 5 Kelly Large Igneous Province, 3350–3315 Ma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 5.1.1 Tectonic Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 5.1.2 Kelly Large Igneous Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 5.2 Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 5.2.1 Euro Basalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 5.2.2 Wyman Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 5.2.3 Charteris Basalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 5.2.4 Unconformities within the Kelly Group . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 5.3 Komatiite and Komatiitic Basalt in the Kelly Group . . . . . . . . . 206 5.4 Tholeiitic Basalt in the Kelly Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 5.5 Sm–Nd Isotope Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 5.6 Relevance to Continental Deposition of the Warrawoona Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
- 18. 9 Contents xvii 5.7 GraniticRocks of the Kelly LIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 5.7.1 Emu Pool Supersuite (3324–3290 Ma) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 5.8 Emu Pool Event (3325–3290 Ma) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 6 Paleoarchean Continental Breakup of the Pilbara Craton . . . . . . . . 219 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 6.2 East Pilbara Terrane Rifting Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 6.3 Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 6.3.1 Sulphur Springs Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 6.3.2 Roebourne Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 6.3.3 Cleland Supersuite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 6.4 Continental Breakup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 6.4.1 Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 6.4.2 Other Fragments of the Paleoarchean Plateau . . . . . . . . 242 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 7 Mesoarchean Rift and Marginal Basins of the Pilbara Craton . . . . 24 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 7.2 Basaltic Rift Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 7.2.1 Regal Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 7.3 Early Mesoarchean Passive Margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 7.3.1 Soanesville Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 7.3.2 Nickol River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 7.3.3 Early Mosquito Creek Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 8 Mesoarchean Subduction in the Pilbara Craton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 8.2 Sholl Terrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 8.2.1 Whundo Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 8.2.2 Railway Supersuite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 8.3 Ophiolite (3220–3165 Ma Regal Formation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 8.4 Prinsep Orogeny and Elizabeth Hill Supersuite . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 8.4.1 Elizabeth Hill Supersuite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 8.5 Magmatic Arcs of the De Grey Superbasin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 8.5.1 Orpheus Supersuite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 8.5.2 Maitland River Supersuite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 8.5.3 Sisters Supersuite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 9 Mesoarchean Basin Evolution Inland of Magmatic Arcs . . . . . . . . . 321 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 9.2 De Grey Supergroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 9.2.1 Gorge Creek Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 9.2.2 Regional Stratigraphic Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
- 19. xviii Contents 9.2.3 Conclusionsregarding the Gorge Creek Basin . . . . . . . 335 9.2.4 Geochronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 9.2.5 Coonieena Basalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 9.2.6 Croydon Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 9.2.7 Whim Creek Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 9.2.8 Bookingarra Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 9.3 Tectonic Evolution of the De Grey Superbasin . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 10 Orogenies, Cratonization, and Post-Orogenic Granites . . . . . . . . . . 367 10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 10.1.1 North Pilbara Orogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 10.1.2 Mosquito Creek Orogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 10.2 Cutinduna Supersuite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 10.3 Split Rock Supersuite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 11 Mineralization in the Northern Pilbara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 11.1 Paleoarchean Mineralization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 11.1.1 Sediment-Hosted, Hydrothermal Massive Sulphates . . . 389 11.1.2 Volcanogenic Massive Sulphides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 11.1.3 Black Shale-Hosted Cu–Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 11.1.4 Vein and Hydrothermal Base Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 11.1.5 Copper and Molybdenum Mineralization . . . . . . . . . . . 393 11.1.6 Precious Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 11.2 Mineralization during the EPTRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 11.2.1 Sulphur Springs Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 11.2.2 Roebourne Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 11.2.3 VMS Cu–Zn Mineralization, Tabba Tabba Shear Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 11.2.4 Soanesville Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 11.3 Mesoarchean Mineralization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 11.3.1 Mineralization during Closure of the Regal Basin . . . . . 400 11.3.2 Gold and Copper North of the Sholl Shear Zone . . . . . . 402 11.3.3 Mineralization in the De Grey Superbasin . . . . . . . . . . 403 11.3.4 Gold in the Mosquito Creek Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 11.3.5 Post-Orogenic Mineralization (2895–2830 Ma) . . . . . . 413 11.4 Neoarchean Mineralization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 12 Fortescue Group: The Neoarchean Breakup of the Pilbara Craton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 12.1.1 Re-Definition of the Fortescue Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 12.2 Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 12.2.1 Tectono-Stratigraphic Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
- 20. About the Author ArthurHugh Hickman joined the Geological Survey of Western Australia (GSWA) early in 1972 shortly after being awarded a PhD (Geology) at Birmingham University, England. His interpretations of the stratigraphy, structure, and geochem- istry of 800 km2 of the Southwest Highlands of Scotland were subsequently published in UK journals between 1975 and 1983. Parts of his geological mapping were incorporated into maps produced by the British Geological Survey. Arthur’s main aim during his first 20 years at GSWA was to contribute to increasing the geological understanding of parts of the vast state of Western Australia. His initial investigations covered the 100,000 km2 Pilbara region, and after a few years Arthur wrote a book (GSWA Bulletin 127) providing the first comprehensive interpretation of this area’s stratigraphy, crustal evolution, and mineralization. GSWA priorities then moved his investigations to other parts of Western Australia, but in 1993 a project was set up for a more detailed geological study of the Pilbara. The Pilbara Craton Mapping Project was conducted jointly between GSWA and Geoscience Australia between 1994 and 2005. The project was focused on more detailed geological mapping, with the GSWA Pilbara team quickly expanding to eight geo- scientists under Arthur’s management. After 2005, members of the Pilbara team were moved to other projects and Arthur commenced follow-up compilation of maps and reports, geological interpretations, and working to make the large volume of data from the project more accessible in digital format. During his 50-year career with GSWA, Arthur has led many local and international geological excursions to the Pilbara and is recognized as a leading authority on the geology of this scientifically important area. He has published widely, and has given presentations to international audiences in Australia, South Africa, Japan, and USA. xix
- 21. List of Figures Fig.1.1 Simplified Archean and Proterozoic chronological divisions of Western Australia, showing an interpretation of the concealed extents of the Pilbara and Yilgarn Cratons (From Hickman 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) . . . . . . 2 Fig. 1.2 Tectonic units of northwestern Western Australia, showing the setting of the Pilbara Craton. The southern half of the craton is concealed by Neoarchean and Proterozoic rocks except for rare exposures within inliers (From Hickman 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .......................... 3 Fig. 1.3 Major tectonic units of the Northern Pilbara Craton. The mainly Paleoarchean East Pilbara Terrane is separated from Mesoarchean terranes and basins of the Northwest Pilbara by the Tabba Tabba Shear Zone. The Central Pilbara Tectonic Zone is a Mesoarchean zone of deformation and magmatic intrusion formed by 3165 to 2900 Ma plate convergence between the East Pilbara and Karratha Terranes. Abbreviations: KSZ Kurrana Shear Zone; LF Loudens Fault; MB Mallina Basin; MCB Mosquito Creek Basin; MLSZ Mallina Shear Zone; MSZ Maitland Shear Zone; PF Pardoo Fault (part of TTSZ); TSZ Terenar Shear Zone; TTSZ Tabba Tabba Shear Zone (From Hickman 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 4 xxi
- 22. xxii List ofFigures Fig. 1.4 Simplified geological map of the eastern section of the Northern Pilbara Craton. Mainly volcanic groups and subgroups of the Paleoarchean East Pilbara Terrane are unconformably overlain by mainly sedimentary Mesoarchean groups. The Paleoarchean stratigraphy is continuous across the East Pilbara Terrane but shows deformation into a dome–and–keel crustal architecture. Paleoarchean granitic intrusions were emplaced into the cores of the domes during diapiric deformation, whereas Mesoarchean granitic intrusions were emplaced in zones controlled by plate- tectonic processes and are therefore unrelated to the dome–and– keel structure. Paleoarchean granitic intrusions have contemporaneous felsic volcanic equivalents in the Paleoarchean succession, whereas Mesoarchean granitic intrusions have no volcanic equivalents in the East Pilbara. Inset figure: shows the East Pilbara Terrane separated into east and west sections by the Lalla Rookh–Western Shaw Structural Corridor (LWSC) and separated from the Mesoarchean Central Pilbara Tectonic Zone of the Northwest Pilbara Craton by the Tabba Tabba Shear Zone (TTSZ). The Coongan–Warralong Fault Zone (CWFZ) defines the western limit of the 3324–3290 Ma Emu Pool Supersuite, whereas the Kurrana Shear Zone (KSZ) is the southeast limit of the East Pilbara Terrane and overlying Mosquito Creek Basin. The Chichester Tectonic Zone (CTZ) is a broad east–southeast trending zone of 3070–2920 Ma deformation and metamorphism. Dome abbreviations: C Carlindi; E, Mount Edgar; I Yilgalong; M, Muccan; N North Pole; O Corunna Downs; P McPhee; S Shaw; T Tambourah; W Warrawagine; Y Yule (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ................................................ 6 Fig. 1.5 Diagrammatic illustration of the main events in the evolution of the Pilbara Craton. Following the formation of 3800–3530 Ma continental crust, a series of Paleoarchean mantle plume events resulted in the eruption of the mafic volcanic Warrawoona, Kelly, and Sulphur Springs Groups. Resulting gravitational instability led to phases of diapiric doming between 3460 and 3223 Ma. The Sulphur Springs plume uplifted and extended the crust causing rifting and the first breakup of the craton at 3220 Ma. Plate separation developed basins of oceanic-like basaltic crust between the newly formed continental microplates (KT, EPT, and KUT). Compression from c. 3160 to 2920 Ma led to Mesoarchean plate tectonic processes including subduction, obduction, evolution of magmatic arcs, terrane accretion, and orogenic deformation (Modified from Van Kranendonk et al. 2006; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) 9
- 23. List of Figuresxxiii Fig. 1.6 Comparison of the timing of episodes of granitic intrusion and felsic volcanism in the Northern Pilbara Craton, as indicated by published U–Pb zircon geochronology (309 samples) (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 10 Fig. 1.7 Granite–Greenstone Domes of the Eastern Pilbara Craton: (a) simplified structural map showing separation of domes by major faults; (b) Landsat Thematic Mapper image (Bands 7, 4, and 1). Domes composed of coupled granitic cores and greenstone belts are separated by major faults. Colours have no age significance (Modified from Gardiner et al. 2018; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ...................................... 16 Fig. 1.8 Diagrammatic illustration of the ages and contact relationships of terranes, basins, supersuites, and events in the East Pilbara Craton. The East Pilbara Terrane Rifting Event separates the Paleoarchean East Pilbara Terrane from Mesoarchean units commencing with the Soanesville Basin and Mount Billroth Supersuite. The Mosquito Creek Basin and Kurrana Terrane have uncertain stratigraphic relationships to the successions overlying the East Pilbara Terrane, although the Coondamar Basin (not shown), underlying the Mosquito Creek Basin, is about the same age as the Soanesville Basin (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) 18 Fig. 1.9 Geological map showing basins and supersuites of the northwest Pilbara Craton. Granitic supersuites are distributed in east- northeast trending linear zones, with decreasing intrusive ages toward the southeast. LF Loudens Fault; MLSZ Mallina Shear Zone; SSZ Sholl Shear Zone; TSZ Terenar Shear Zone; TTSZ Tabba Tabba Shear Zone; WSZ Wohler Shear Zone (From Hickman 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 19 Fig. 1.10 Stratigraphic comparison of the Pilbara and Kaapvaal successions between 3550 and 2450 Ma. Major similarities include <2780 Ma, successions of the Fortescue and Hamersley Groups compared to the successions of the Klipriviersberg, Platberg, Pniel, and Ghaap Groups; >3180 Ma, successions of the Warrawoona, Kelly, Sulphur Springs, and Soanesville Groups compared to the successions of the Onverwacht, Fig Tree, and Moodies Groups; 3426–3350 Ma, sedimentary deposition of the Strelley Pool Formation and Buck Reef Chert during a contemporaneous c. 75 Ma break in volcanic activity; 3500–3065 Ma, contemporaneous granitic intrusion at c. 3500, 3470–3460, 3440, 3310, 3250–3220, 3180, 3110, and 3068–3065 Ma (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .................................. 25
- 24. xxiv List ofFigures Fig. 2.1 U–Pb analytical data for samples Geological Survey of Western Australia 180057 and 142870 from the Warrawagine Dome, revealing inheritance from Eoarchean to early Paleoarchean crust. In concordia diagrams (a, b), n = number of analyses: yellow squares indicate magmatic zircons; green diamonds indicate metamorphic zircon rims; orange diamond indicates a younger metamorphic rim; red circles indicate xenocrystic zircons; crossed squares indicate possible core–rim mixtures. In probability diagrams (c, d), n = number of ages in each significant age component (Ma, based on three or more ages) (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ................................................ 38 Fig. 2.2 Histograms showing the frequency of detrital zircon ages in sedimentary formations of the East Pilbara Craton, excluding the Mosquito Creek and Mallina Formations. The total dataset (a) is distinguished by dome and formation (b and c). The total dataset shows three well-defined peaks at 3660–3560 Ma (early crust), 3540–3400 Ma (Warrawoona Group and EPT granitic intrusions of the same age), and 3360–3280 Ma (Kelly Group and Emu Pool Supersuite). Pre-3530 Ma detrital zircons are concentrated in the Corboy and Strelley Pool Formations (large sedimentary basins), although the Apex Basalt and parts of the Duffer and Wyman Formations also contain old zircons, presumably from more proximal sources. Differences between the zircon age spectra of different domes support the interpretation of relatively local derivation of detritus in most formations (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 46 Fig. 2.3 U–Pb analytical data for sample GSWA 168996, an altered felsic volcaniclastic rock of the c. 3470 Ma Duffer Formation, Warralong greenstone belt. The zircon age component at c. 3571 Ma indicates a felsic source of this age in either the Muccan Dome or Carlindi Dome. The c. 3524 Ma age component is consistent with derivation from the Coonterunah Subgroup currently exposed in the Carlindi Dome, or from granitic rocks of similar age. Age components in this sample are recalculated from Nelson (2002). Yellow squares indicate magmatic (or detrital) zircons; red circles indicate inherited or detrital zircons; crossed squares indicate analyses >5% discordant. n, number of analyses; MSWD, mean square of weighted deviates (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 52
- 25. List of Figuresxxv Fig. 2.4 Histograms showing the frequency of detrital zircon ages in sedimentary formations of the Croydon, Gorge Creek, Soanesville, and Sulphur Springs Groups. Gaps between depositional age and average detrital zircon age increase with decreasing depositional age, and the dominant source for all groups except the Soanesville Group was 3520–3400 Ma, indicating derivation of detritus from the Warrawoona Group and granites of the same age (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 54 Fig. 2.5 Histogram showing the frequency of detrital zircon ages in the 3015–2930 Ma Mallina and Mosquito Creek Basins. Both these large Late Mesoarchean basins contain far more diverse zircon age components than are present in the Paleoarchean and rifting- related early Mesoarchean formations. The Mosquito Creek Basin contains the higher percentage of 3600–3400 Ma zircons (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ................................................ 55 Fig. 2.6 Concordia plot for detrital zircons in a sandstone unit of the Apex Basalt, Warrawoona Group (data from sample MB384, WJ Collins). Zircon age components at c. 3650 and c. 3592 Ma are consistent with zircon age peaks from other sedimentary formations in the East Pilbara, supporting crust-forming magmatic events at about these times. The c. 3454 Ma age component is consistent with derivation from erosion of the Duffer Formation underlying the Apex Basalt (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 56 Fig. 2.7 Nd two-stage model ages from the Northern Pilbara Craton, distinguishing data from mafic and felsic igneous rocks. Nd model ages older than the maximum depositional age of the Pilbara Supergroup (3530 Ma) have been obtained only from the East Pilbara Terrane, (a) whereas model ages <3310 Ma are mainly confined to the northwest area of the Pilbara Craton (c). Paleoarchean Nd model ages in the Northwest Pilbara (b) were obtained from units in the Karratha Terrane and tectonic units overlying that terrane. These data indicate that, apart from the Karratha Terrane, igneous formations and intrusions in the Northwest Pilbara Craton were derived from juvenile Mesoarchean crust (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .......................... 66
- 26. Fig. 2.9 εHfevolution diagram for analyses of cognate and inherited zircons, detrital zircons with U–Pb ages older than 3550 Ma or younger than 3200 Ma, and whole-rock samples (mostly komatiites) from the East Pilbara. Blue shading shows Hf evolution line defined by a 176 Lu/177 Hf ratio of 0.010 (after Gardiner et al. 2017). Data for detrital and inherited zircons older than 3550 Ma are from Kemp et al. (2015a, b). Two abrupt changes in εHf values (negative to positive) at c. 3530 Ma (initial deposition of Pilbara Supergroup) and c. 3200 Ma (intrusion of Mount Billroth Supersuite) indicate major influxes of magma from juvenile sources at these times. Increasingly negative εHf values from 3530 to 3220 Ma indicate progressively more evolved sources with time (recycling of older crust) (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 73 xxvi List of Figures Fig. 2.8 Two-stage depleted mantle Nd model ages (TDM 2 ) (a) and εNd (b) versus magmatic ages for the Northern Pilbara Craton. (a) Between 3530 and 3220 Ma, the East Pilbara Terrane shows only gradually decreasing model ages indicating reworking of 3700–3500 Ma crust with only minor additions of juvenile material. At c. 3200 Ma, some rocks of the Soanesville Basin (green shaded area) show derivation from juvenile crust. Mesoarchean granitic rocks that intruded the East Pilbara Terrane between 2950 and 2830 Ma show a spread of Nd model ages that is resolved into samples from the Carlindi (CA) and Northern Yule (NY) Domes (yellow shaded area) with juvenile sources and those from farther east in the terrane still showing evidence of derivation from Eoarchean to early Paleoarchean sources; (b) Apart from samples from the Soanesville Basin and the Yule and Carlindi Domes, rocks from the East Pilbara Terrane show steadily decreasing εNd with decreasing magmatic age. This indicates ongoing reworking of Eoarchean to early Paleoarchean sources with time, except in western areas of the East Pilbara Terrane where granitic magmas were derived from melting of subducted juvenile crust of the Mallina Basin (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 68
- 27. List of Figuresxxvii Fig. 2.10 Histograms of two-stage Hf model (TDM 2 ) ages for cognate and inherited zircons from igneous rocks of the East Pilbara Terrane. Calculations used 176 Lu/177 Hf ratio of 0.015 (Scherer et al. 2001) and a 176 Lu decay constant of 1.865 x 10-11 . Most model ages fall between 3750 and 3500 Ma. Separation of model ages by supersuite (b–d) shows increasing gaps between zircon crystallization ages and model ages from the older to the younger supersuites, indicating ongoing crustal recycling of similar old crustal sources with time (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .......................... 75 Fig. 2.11 Histograms of two-stage Hf model ages (TDM 2 ) for igneous and detrital zircons from Paleoarchean and Mesoarchean rocks of the east part of the Northern Pilbara Craton. Calculations used 176 Lu/177 Hf ratio of 0.015 and a Scherer et al. (2001) 176 Lu decay constant (1.865 × 10-11 ). (a) Model ages for all detrital and igneous zircons; (b) model ages for 3540–3200 igneous and detrital zircons; (c) model ages for >3540 Ma zircons (note the much older model ages, and the greater separation of crystallization ages and model ages, compared to <3540 Ma zircons); (d, e, f) model ages from three different granitic cores of east Pilbara domes, showing no major differences (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 77 Fig. 3.1 Generalized lithostratigraphy of the Pilbara Supergroup. The succession is composed of multiple volcanic cycles, mostly separated by unconformities. Geochronology indicates that the Coonterunah and Talga Talga Subgroups are the same age, and each contains three volcanic cycles. Events of deformation, metamorphism, erosion, and mineralization are summarized. (Modified from Hickman 2011; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ...................................... 91 Fig. 3.2 Geological map of the Talga Talga Subgroup in the McPhee Reward area showing geochemical sample sites and localities visited on a field excursion (From Hickman 1980a; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 101 Fig. 3.3 Vertical geochemical trends in basaltic rocks of the North Star and Mount Ada Basalts, Marble Bar greenstone belt. The data indicate two similar volcanic cycles separated by the McPhee Formation. Geochronology establishes a continuous stratigraphic succession without structural repetition (Modified from Hickman 1980a; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ................................................ 102
- 28. xxviii List ofFigures Fig. 3.4 Stromatolites and microbial mats in the c. 3481 Ma Dresser Formation. (a) Outcrop section through domical stromatolite overlying a bed composed of silicified weakly laminated microbial mats; (b) Dresser domical stromatolite enlargement (centre right on a); (c) Bedding plane view of a domical stromatolite (From Van Kranendonk et al. 2008; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 103 Fig. 3.5 Concordia plot of U–Pb zircon data from a sample of pale green chert (silicified felsic tuff, Geological Survey of Western Australia 148498) of the McPhee Formation, Eight Mile Bore south of McPhee Reward mine. (From Nelson 2000; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 106 Fig. 3.6 U–Pb zircon geochronology of igneous rocks of the Coongan and Salgash Subgroups that constrain the depositional age of the Marble Bar Chert Member. Sources of data: (a) De Vries et al. 2006; (b) RI Thorpe, writ. Comm. 1991; (c) Thorpe et al. 1990; (d) Thorpe et al. 1992a, b; (e) McNaughton et al. 1993; (f) Nelson 2000; (g) Nelson 1999; (h) Nelson 2002; (i) Nelson 2004; (j) Nelson 2001 (Modified from Glikson et al. 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 107 Fig. 3.7 Geological sketch map of the Marble Bar area showing the exceptional thickness of the Duffer Formation, and a swarm of dolerite dykes and sills that were feeders to the Apex Basalt (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ................................................ 108 Fig. 3.8 Depositional extent of the Duffer Formation in the East Pilbara Terrane showing diminishing stratigraphic thicknesses away from an 8-km thickness at Marble Bar. Based on the depositional area and the total volume of felsic volcanics erupted, the Duffer Formation evolved in a c. 3465-Ma supervolcano (With Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 109 Fig. 3.9 Geological map of part of the East Pilbara Terrane showing outcrops of the Marble Bar Chert Member (red lines) within the stratigraphy of the Pilbara Supergroup. U–Pb zircon dates from the Pilbara Supergroup is summarized, and the location of stratigraphic drill hole ABDP 1 is shown (Modified from Glikson et al. 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 111 Fig. 3.10 Vertical differentiation trends in the Duffer Formation north of Marble Bar. Systematic geochemical sampling was conducted through the 4-km stratigraphic thickness of the formation from the Coongan River west to Bowls Gorge (From Hickman 1983; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) . . . . . . 112
- 29. List of Figuresxxix Fig. 3.11 Zr/TiO2:Nb/Y diagram (after Winchester and Floyd 1977) for all samples of the Duffer Formation collected between the Coongan River and Bowls Gorge (From Hickman 1983; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .......................... 113 Fig. 3.12 The ACM-1 impact ejecta in the c. 3470-Ma Antarctic Creek Member of the Mount Ada Basalt at Miralga Creek, North Pole: (a) outcrops of the Antarctic Creek Member north of Miralga Creek; (b) lens of impact spherules within chert; (c) chert breccia; (d) microkrystite spherule showing quench textures (All photographs are kindly provided by AY Glikson) ................ 115 Fig. 3.13 Stretching of pebbles in conglomerate of the upper Duffer Formation resulting from vertical deformation (sagduction) near Salgash on the northwest side of the Warrawoona Syncline (MGA Zone 50, 789930E 7645930 N) (Previously unpublished photograph; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 117 Fig. 3.14 Thin-section views (plane-polarized light) of ignimbrite in the upper part of the Duffer Formation north of Marble Bar: (a) flow lamination is deflected around a rounded fragment of porphyritic dacite; (b) devitrified glass shards with fragments of pumice and lava. (a, from Hickman 2021; b, from Hickman 1983; both with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 118 Fig. 3.15 Outcrops of jaspilitic chert of the Marble Bar Chert Member at Marble Bar Pool: (a) view (looking south) of an exposure of the upper 10 m of the member on the east bank of the Coongan River, 70 m south of Marble Bar Pool. Grey rocks to the right of the chert, and in the bed of the river, are pillowed basalt flows at the base of the Apex Basalt; (b) close-up view showing alternating layers of red, white, and grey chert with a central bed of fragmented chert. Notably, the grey chert (hydrothermal), and some of the white chert (partly replacing red chert), locally cut across layers of red chert. The red chert contains fine-scale microbanding whereas the grey and white chert units are massive. Outcrop width (foreground) two metres (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 119 Fig. 3.16 Hydrothermal intrusion and brecciation of the Marble Bar Chert Member and underlying altered volcanic rock of the Duffer Formation at Marble Bar Pool: (a) bedded jaspilitic chert partly replaced by veins and pods of massive or weakly layered white chert; (b) network of dark grey hydrothermal chert veins intruding and fragmenting bleached basaltic rocks of the Duffer Formation immediately east of the Marble Bar Chert Member; (c) dark grey hydrothermal chert breccia cutting through layered grey and white chert; (d) sills of grey and white chert emanating from a crosscutting feeder vein (Modified from Van Kranendonk 2010b; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 120
- 30. xxx List ofFigures Fig. 3.17 Stratigraphy of the Marble Bar Chert Member intersected in drill hole ABDP 1. Drilling intersected bedding at an angle of about 35°, indicating a true stratigraphic thickness of about 110 m. Zones shown alongside the column are from the interpretation of Hoashi et al. (2009). Zones 2 and 3 are dominated by fractured chert veined by dark grey hydrothermal chert and are interpreted to have no stratigraphic significance. Notable stratigraphic features are the presence of siderite zones, diamictite, and impact spherule layers in Zone 1, and the almost complete restriction of jaspilitic chert to Zones 4 and 5. The presence of hematite at depths greater than 200 m has been interpreted as evidence of oxygen in the Paleoarchean depositional environment (Hoashi et al., 2009) (Modified from Glikson et al. 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .......................... 121 Fig. 3.18 Tectono-stratigraphic units of the Mount Edgar Dome, summarizing domal structure and geochronology. Structures characteristic of diapiric doming include radial outward- plunging stretching lineations within and adjacent to the 3440–3290 Ma Limestone Shear Zone (ring fault) and radial swarms of c. 3455 Ma dolerite dykes intrusive into extensional fractures formed by domal uplift. Place names (bold) are localities commonly cited in the text (From Gardiner et al. 2018; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) . . . . . . 128 Fig. 3.19 Simplified geological map of the Northern Pilbara Craton showing the distribution of the Emu Pool Supersuite (Modified from Van Kranendonk et al. 2006a, b; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ...................................... 138 Fig. 4.1 Geological map of part of the East Pilbara Terrane showing outcrops of the Strelley Pool Formation within the stratigraphy of the Pilbara Supergroup. Although the formation is typically less than 100 m thick, it outcrops across most of the terrane, and marks a 75-Ma break between LIP-scale volcanism of the Warrawoona and Kelly Groups (From Hickman 2008; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 169 Fig. 4.2 Outcrops of the Strelley Pool Formation in the central part of the East Strelley greenstone belt showing locations of stratigraphic logs (Modified from Wacey et al. 2010; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .................................. 170
- 31. List of Figuresxxxi Fig. 4.3 Stratigraphic logs through the Strelley Pool Formation in the East Strelley greenstone belt. In detail, the logs show considerable lateral variations in thicknesses and sedimentary facies although the main features of the succession (basal sandstone, overlain by carbonate rocks, overlain by chert, overlain by conglomerate, overlain by basaltic volcaniclastic rocks) are laterally continuous except in the far western sections (logs P-R) where the basal sandstone is absent: (a) Logs A-L; (b) Logs M-R, Legend (Modified from Wacey et al. 2010; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 171 Fig. 4.4 Outcrop of chert of the Strelley Pool Formation on the east bank of the Shaw River, showing a bedding plane of conical ‘egg carton’ stromatolites exposed by the author and colleagues K Grey and HJ Hofmann in 1997. The largest cones are about 10 cm in diameter (From Geological Survey of Western Australia 1999; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 179 Fig. 4.5 Close-up view of the stromatolites in Fig. 4.4 (Previously unpublished Geological Survey of Western Australia photograph; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 180 Fig. 4.6 Natural exposure of conical stromatolites on a bedding plane in a cliff overlooking the outcrop in Fig. 4.4. The largest cones are about 10 cm in diameter (Previously unpublished photograph; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) . . . . . . 180 Fig. 4.7 Stratigraphic sections through the Strelley Pool Formation in the East Strelley and Panorama greenstone belts showing the positions of stromatolitic horizons (From Van Kranendonk 2000; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) . . . . . . 181 Fig. 4.8 Outcrops of the Strelley Pool Formation along ridges north and south of the Trendall Locality showing the locations of stratigraphic sections studied by A Allwood (From Allwood et al. 2007a; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 182 Fig. 4.9 Large conical stromatolites in the Strelley Pool Formation on the west side of the Panorama greenstone belt: (a) a 3D reconstruction of stromatolite morphology by AC Allwood (the scale bar is approximately 5 cm); (b) a conical stromatolite in outcrop at Trendall Ridge; (c) a conical stromatolite at North Shaw Ridge (From Allwood et al. 2007a; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .......................... 184
- 32. xxxii List ofFigures Fig. 4.10 Photomicrographs of carbonaceous microfossils in black chert of the Strelley Pool Formation, Goldsworthy greenstone belt: (a) a cluster of flanged lenticular structures, possibly originally connected in one or more chains; (b) similar to ‘a’ but forming a tighter cluster; c, polar and equatorial views of the microfossils (Previously unpublished photomicrography kindly provided by the discoverer of the microfossils, K Sugitani) ................... 186 Fig. 5.1 Basaltic agglomerate and tuff at the stratigraphic base of the Euro Basalt in the Kelly greenstone belt: (a) blocks of basaltic breccia from a unit immediately overlying chert of the Strelley Pool Formation (scale shown by hammer); (b) close-up view of angular fragmental textures in one of the blocks (MGA Zone 51, 196600E 7622950N) (From Grey et al. 2012; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .......................... 199 Fig. 5.2 Olivine spinifex texture close to the top of a komatiite flow in the Euro Basalt at Coppin Gap. The rock is extensively carbonated. (MGA Zone 50, 200260E 7687830 N) (Modified from Van Kranendonk 2010b; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ................................................ 200 Fig. 5.3 Partly silicified komatiite of the Euro Basalt, showing platy olivine spinifex texture, Mount Elsie greenstone belt (MGA Zone 51, 252360E 7610850N) (From Farrell 2006; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 201 Fig. 5.4 Outcrop of coarse pyroxene spinifex texture in weakly metamorphosed komatiitic basalt in the Euro Basalt (MGA Zone 50, 798290E 7683455N) (Modified from Van Kranendonk 2010a; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 201 Fig. 5.5 Ocelli in komatiitic basalt of the Euro Basalt in the northwestern part of the McPhee greenstone belt (MGA Zone 51205250E 7612030N) (From Bagas 2005; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ...................................... 202 Fig. 5.6 Trace element plots normalized to primitive mantle for basalts of the Pilbara Supergroup, Honeyeater Basalt, and Coonieena Basalt (From Smithies et al. 2007; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ...................................... 203 Fig. 5.7 Pillow structures in the Euro Basalt in the northwestern part of the McPhee greenstone belt (MGA Zone 51202200E 7609100N) (From Bagas 2005; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 204 Fig. 5.8 Columnar rhyolite in the Wyman Formation: (a) Camel Creek, Kelly greenstone belt (MGA 787454E, 7640098N); (b) northern McPhee greenstone belt (MGA 222200E, 7619200N) (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 204
- 33. Fig. 6.5 Samplingsite (Geological Survey of Western Australia sample142433) in the Karratha Granodiorite near Mount Regal. The crystallization age of the granodiorite, using the U–Pb zircon method, was calculated as c. 3270 Ma and the Sm–Nd T 2 DM model age was calculated as c. 3480 Ma (data in Smithies et al. 2007) (From Hickman et al. 2010; with Geological Survey of List of Figures xxxiii Fig. 5.9 Geological sketch map of the southern part of the Warralong greenstone belt showing angular unconformities between the Euro Basalt and the Wyman Formation, and between the Wyman Formation and the Sulphur Springs Group (locality centred at Zone 50, MGA 751600E, 7688350N) (From Van Kranendonk 2004a; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 213 Fig. 6.1 Komatiitic pillow basalt of the Kunagunarrina Formation (Zone 50, MGA 706659E 7649650N). (From Blewett and Champion 2005; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 225 Fig. 6.2 Bladed olivine spinifex texture in a komatiite flow of the Ruth Well Formation at Mount Hall: (a) platy olivine crystals, pseudomorphed by serpentine, tremolite, and chlorite, up to 50 cm long; (b) close-up of interlocking olivine crystals. Scale in both pictures, 3 cm diameter coin (Zone 50, MGA 520770 E, 7701337N). (From Hickman et al. 2010; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .................................. 231 Fig. 6.3 Banded grey-white chert in the Ruth Well Formation west of the Karratha Granodiorite. The chert is interpreted to be a unit of silicified carbonaceous shale between flows of komatiite and basalt (Zone 50, MGA 476560E, 7,696,400 N). (From Hickman et al. 2010; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 232 Fig. 6.4 Trace element plots normalized to primitive mantle for komatiites and komatiitic basalts of the Ruth Well Formation (From Smithies et al. 2007; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ................................................ 232 Western Australia permission) ...................................... 234 Fig. 6.6 Concordia plot of U–Pb zircon data for a sample of tonalite (Geological Survey of Western Australia sample 142433) from the Karratha Granodiorite near Mount Regal (From Nelson 1998; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) . . . . . . 235 Fig. 6.7 Interpreted bedrock geology in the central section of the Tabba Tabba Shear Zone, showing a complete mismatch of the geology between the East Pilbara Terrane in the southeast and the Central Pilbara Tectonic Zone in the northwest. Reference in 6.7b. (From Smithies et al. 2001b; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ................................................ 238
- 34. xxxiv List ofFigures Fig. 6.8 Mylonite in the Sholl Shear Zone at Nickol River (MGA Zone 50, 494950E, 7689700N): (a) extensive outcrop in the Nickol River showing vertically inclined layers of felsic and mafic mylonite. Felsic mylonite (pale colour) was derived from intensely sheared granitic rocks and mafic mylonite originating from similarly sheared greenstones; (b) view of mylonite layering from above, showing minor folding of some layers indicating dextral shear sense (2940–2920 Ma). Scale: lens cap, 5 cm diameter; (c) isoclinal folding of mylonite fabric. Scale: coin, 2 cm diameter. (From Hickman 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .......................... 241 Fig. 7.1 Simplified geological map of the Northwest Pilbara Craton between Cape Preston and Whim Creek, showing lithostratigraphy, tectonic units, and major structures (From Hickman 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 251 Fig. 7.2 Trace element plots normalized to primitive mantle for komatiites and komatiitic basalts of the Regal Formation (From Smithies et al. 2007; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ................................................ 252 Fig. 7.3 Pillow structures in basalt of the Regal Formation exposed on a wave-cut platform near Cleaverville (Zone 50, MGA 503290E, 7716644N). The local succession of pillow basalt flows is 1 km thick, with most pillow structures being between 1.0 and 1.5 m wide in cross section. Convex pillow tops and cuspate tail structures developed above adjoining underlying pillows indicate stratigraphic way-up. (From Hickman 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 254 Fig. 7.4 Outcrops of basaltic mylonite in the Regal Thrust southeast of Mount Regal: (a) mylonite dipping northwest under the Regal Formation (top right); (b) close-up of the mylonite showing its strongly planar tectonic foliation (MGA Zone 50, 474800E 7698290N). (From Hickman et al. 2010; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .................................. 256 Fig. 7.5 Structures in silicic mylonite of the Regal Thrust 14 km southeast of Karratha: (a) finely laminated silicic mylonite deformed by isoclinal folds (field of view 1 m across); (b) close-up of a refolded isocline (lens cap 5 cm diameter); (c) sheaf folds with a parallel mineral lineation (MGA Zone 50, 492000E 7696800N). (From Hickman et al. 2010; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ................................................ 257
- 35. List of Figuresxxxv Fig. 7.6 Simplified structural geology of the southern Yule Dome showing outcrops of high-Mg diorite and granodiorite, and hornblende tonalite. The east-southeast trend of fold structures, foliations, greenstone xenoliths, and amphibolite facies metamorphism is at a high angle to structural trends farther north in the Yule Dome and transects the dome-and-keel architecture of the East Pilbara Terrane. (Modified from Smithies 2003; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 261 Fig. 7.7 Concordia plot of U–Pb zircon data for a sample of metasandstone (Geological Survey of Western Australia 169013) from the Corboy Formation in the Cheearra greenstone belt, southwest Yule granitic complex. Many detrital zircons pre-date the Pilbara Supergroup. (From Nelson 2004; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 262 Fig. 7.8 Concordia plot of U–Pb zircon data for a sample of sandstone (Geological Survey of Western Australia sample 178045) from the Corboy Formation near Quininya Well in the northeast Yule granitic complex. Most detrital zircons pre-date the Pilbara Supergroup. (From Nelson 2005b; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ...................................... 263 Fig. 7.9 U–Pb analytical data for sample Geological Survey of Western Australia sample 178185 from a gabbro sill of the Dalton Suite at Sulphur Springs. Yellow squares indicate Group I (magmatic zircons); black squares indicate Group P (radiogenic Pb loss). (From Wingate et al. 2009a; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ................................................ 264 Fig. 7.10 Boulder of welded rhyolitic tuff in the Honeyeater Basalt in the Pilbara Well greenstone belt (MGA Zone 50, 632662E 7653025N). (Modified from Van Kranendonk et al. 2010; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 264 Fig. 7.11 U–Pb analytical data from a unit of welded rhyolitic tuff in the Honeyeater Basalt (Geological Survey of Western Australia sample 180098, boulder shown in Fig. 7.10). Yellow squares indicate Group I magmatic zircons; black squares indicate Group P radiogenic Pb loss; crossed squares indicate Group D (discordance >5%) (From Wingate et al. 2009b; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .......................... 265 Fig. 7.12 Basaltic breccia at the base of the Hong Kong Chert in the Annie Gap area of the Pilbara Well greenstone belt. Note the cuspate fragments in the bottom left corner of the photograph (MGA Zone 50, 637000E 7659000N). (From Smithies and Farrell 2000; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 267
- 36. xxxvi List ofFigures Fig. 7.13 Greenstone belts and granitic complexes of the Northwest Pilbara Craton. Each of the granitic complexes contains more than one supersuite (From Hickman 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .......................... 271 Fig. 7.14 Breakaway outcrop of metaconglomerate and metasandstone in the Nickol River Formation south of Port Robinson (MGA Zone 50, 502725 E, 7713758 N): (a) Steeply dipping beds of cross- bedded metasandstone exposed in a 4 m-high cliff; (b) close-up of cross-bedding indicating variable paleocurrent directions. Most dark grains in the metasandstone are fragments of black chert. Scale: lens cap, 5 cm diameter (Modified from Hickman 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 272 Fig. 7.15 Outcrop of strongly sheared matrix-supported conglomerate in the Nickol River Formation 2 km east of Lydia gold mine (MGA Zone 50, 501505E, 7707865N): (a) acutely stretched clasts of grey chert and pelitic schist within mylonitized sandstone; (b) small cobble of grey chert, largely undeformed, within sheared and lineated metasandstone matrix; (c) stretched boulders of grey chert and fine-grained metasedimentary rock within strongly sheared metasandstone; (d) numerous clasts of grey chert define a strongly oriented lineation in the metasandstone. Scale: lens cap, 5 cm diameter. (From Hickman 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .......................... 273 Fig. 7.16 Conglomerate at the base of the Budjan Creek Formation (MGA Zone 50, 791200E 7578400N). The boulder in the bottom right- hand corner of the photograph is 0.5 m across. (From Bagas et al. 2004b; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 278 Fig. 8.1 Interpreted pre-Fortescue Group outcrops of the Whundo Group and adjacent stratigraphic units based on geophysical data. The Whundo Group is interpreted to underlie the Mallina Basin (from Hickman 2004a; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 288 Fig. 8.2 Chemostratigraphic column of the Whundo Group, with lithostratigraphic formation boundaries shown for comparison (modified from Smithies et al. 2005; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ...................................... 290 Fig. 8.3 Pillow lava in the Bradley Basalt 2.5 km northwest of Harding Dam (MGA Zone 50, 508900E, 7682000N). The pillow structures are 1.5 to 2 m in diameter, and their morphology is exceptionally well revealed due to the weathering and removal of inter-pillow material. Scale provided by geological hammer (modified from Hickman 2002; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ...................................... 293
- 37. List of Figuresxxxvii Fig. 8.4 Sedimentary structures exposed in an outcrop of a 20-m-thick felsic volcaniclastic unit within the Bradley Basalt (MGA Zone 50, 505426E, 7684197 N): (a) view of the outcrop showing well- developed bedding; (b) fine-scale cross-bedding revealed in a weathered vertical section through eroded ripples; (c) slump folding and local diapiric injection of fine-grained felsic volcaniclastic sediment into overlying coarser-grained units (basal parts of upward-fining graded beds); (d) well-developed flame structures (centre and right) and syndepositional slump folding (left). Scale, b–d: coin, 2 cm diameter. (From Hickman 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .............. 294 Fig. 8.5 Trace element plots normalized to primitive mantle for various volcanic rocks of the Whundo Group (From Smithies et al. 2007a; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........ 296 Fig. 8.6 Southeast migration of granitic intrusion in the Northwest Pilbara from c. 3024 Ma to c. 2919 Ma: (a) granite crystallization ages from all available SHRIMP U–Pb zircon geochronology; (b) summary of geochronological data used in (a). (From Hickman 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ................ 309 Fig. 8.7 Tonalite of the Indee Suite containing numerous megacrysts of hornblende, 3 km south of Mallindra Well on the Wallaringa 1:100,000 map sheet area. (From Smithies et al. 2002; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 311 Fig. 9.1 Simplified geological map of the Northern Pilbara Craton showing outcrops and exposed thicknesses of the Gorge Creek Group. Interpreted concealed sections of the group (from magnetic imagery) illustrate the minimum original extent of its depositional basin. Thickness data indicate that the basin extended well beyond the present outcrop areas. In the East Pilbara, the group was folded around the domes, establishing a late Mesoarchean reactivated stage of doming. Domes and igneous complexes: C Carlindi Dome; CH Cherratta Igneous Complex; CW Caines Well Igneous Complex; D Dampier Igneous Complex; E Mount Edgar Dome; H Harding Igneous Complex; I Yilgalong Dome; KUT Kurrana Igneous Complex; M Muccan Dome; MI Mingar Igneous Complex; O Corunna Downs Dome; P Pippingarra Igneous Complex; PO Portree, Igneous Complex; S Shaw Dome; SA Satirist Granite; T Tambourah Dome; W Warrawagine Dome; Y Yule Dome. Major faults and shear zones: KSZ Kurrana Shear Zone; LWF Lalla Rookh–Western Shaw Fault; MSZ Maitland Shear Zone; Pf Pardoo Fault; SSZ Sholl Shear Zone; TTSZ, Tabba Tabba Shear Zone. Section locations: AB Abydos; BC Budjan Creek; CL Cleaverville; DV Devil Creek; GO Goldsworthy; MA Mount Ada; MC Miralga Creek; MP McPhee Creek; MT Mount Cecelia; NC North Coongan; NY Nunyerry Gap; OR Ord Range; PB Pilbara Well; RO Roebourne; SH Shay Gap; WA Warralong; WO Wodgina. (From Hickman 2021a, b; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .................................... 324
- 38. xxxviii List ofFigures Fig. 9.2 Outcrops of the Farrel Quartzite in the Warralong greenstone belt: (a) polymictic boulder conglomerate overlying an angular unconformity on the Euro Basalt (Zone 50, MGA 755640E 7690200N); (b) graded conglomerate–sandstone–mudstone beds from near the top the basal polymictic conglomerate of the Farrel Quartzite (MGA Zone 50, 755700E 7690250N). (From Van Kranendonk 2004; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 327 Fig. 9.3 Folded jaspilitic iron formation in the Cleaverville Formation of the Warralong greenstone belt (MGA Zone 50, 756120E 7689400N) (From Van Kranendonk 2004; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .......................... 329 Fig. 9.4 A bed containing densely packed ooids in the Cleaverville Formation of the Warralong greenstone belt (MGA Zone 50, 751870E 7678350N) (From Van Kranendonk 2004; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 329 Fig. 9.5 Mesobanding in BIF of the Cleaverville Formation in the Ord Range (MGA Zone 50, 722495E 7754034N) (Modified from Smithies 2004; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 330 Fig. 9.6 Flat pebble conglomerate/breccia within BIF of the Cleaverville Formation in the Ord Range (MGA Zone 50, 722495E 7754034N) (From Smithies 2004; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ...................................... 330 Fig. 9.7 U–Pb zircon data from the Constantine Sandstone (sample Geological Survey of Western Australia 142942), Croydon Well: (a) concordia plot showing most zircon analyses clustered at c. 2994 Ma; (b) Gaussian summation probability density plot. (From Nelson 2000; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ................................................ 342 Fig. 9.8 Conglomerate and breccia at the base of the Lalla Rookh Sandstone in the Gorge Range, consisting of angular to rounded clasts of the underlying Farrel Quartzite in a silicified fine- grained clastic matrix (MGA Zone 50, 761000E 7691200N). (From Van Kranendonk 2010; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ...................................... 345 Fig. 9.9 Basal boulder conglomerate of the Warambie Basalt near Red Hill in the Whim Creek greenstone belt. Angular boulders of basalt and granite are set in a poorly sorted sandstone/ granulestone matrix (from Hickman et al. 2010; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .......................... 349 Fig. 9.10 Isoclinally folded jaspilitic BIF of the Cleaverville Formation at Coppin Gap (previously unpublished photograph; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 359
- 39. List of Figuresxxxix Fig. 10.1 Stratigraphic and structural differences between the central Mallina Basin and the Whim Creek greenstone belt. (a) Simplified geological map illustrating geological differences across the Loudens Fault. Note that the Gorge Creek Group, which underlies the Croydon Group in the Mallina Basin, is exposed within the cores of several anticlines. Fold axial traces simplified from Smithies (1998), Smithies and Farrell (2000), and Krapež and Eisenlohr (1998). (a) Reference to map, summarizing stratigraphy and deformation events (from Hickman 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 370 Fig. 10.2 Extract from an interpreted bedrock geology map accompanying the Roebourne 1:250,000 map sheet, showing 30–40 km dextral displacement (A to B) of the Whim Creek and Bookingarra Groups, and of the Caines Well granitic complex, along the Sholl Shear Zone. Geochronology indicates that the dextral movement occurred at c. 2920 Ma. Maximum compression is interpreted to have been northwest–southeast (modified from Hickman and Smithies 2000; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 372 Fig. 10.3 Structural map of the Lalla Rookh Structural Corridor, showing major faults and senses of displacement, major folds, and rotation movements of rock panels. The σ1 direction is inferred from the orientation of the Soanesville Syncline and sinistral LRWS fault. 1–1′ and 2–2′ indicate points of measured offset across fault segments, as described by Van Kranendonk (2008). Circled S, Strelley Monzogranite; PSZ, Pulcunah Shear Zone. Strain ellipsoid in inset is oriented according to the σ1 direction in the map area and shows the major structures predicted from experimental studies. (From Van Kranendonk 2008; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 373 Fig. 10.4 Geological map showing the principal tectonostratigraphic divisions and structures of the Northwest Pilbara Craton, including an interpretation of underlying crustal ages. Note that units within the Central Pilbara Tectonic Zone are underlain by relatively young crust but that isotopic data indicates Paleoarchean crust between the Loudens Fault and Sholl Shear Zone. LF Loudens Fault; MLSZ Mallina Shear Zone; PF Pardoo Fault; SSZ Sholl Shear Zone; TSZ Terenar Shear Zone; TTSZ Tabba Tabba Shear Zone; WF Woodbrook Fault; WSZ Wohler Shear Zone (from Hickman 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ...................................... 376 Fig. 10.5 Geological setting of the Mosquito Creek Basin showing major structures and areas of gold mineralization (from Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) . . . . . . 378
- 40. xl List ofFigures Fig. 10.6 Simplified geological map of the Northern Pilbara Craton showing the distribution of the Split Rock Supersuite (from Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 380 Fig. 11.1 Mineralization in the East Pilbara in relation to stratigraphy and tectonic events. (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .................................. 388 Fig. 11.2 Simplified geological map of the Northern Pilbara Craton, showing the distribution of important lead–zinc–silver occurrences. (From Ferguson 1999; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ...................................... 390 Fig. 11.3 The pit and adit of the Bamboo Queen gold mine (looking northwest) on the Bamboo Creek Shear Zone. Gold mineralization is within sheared komatiitic rocks of the Euro Basalt. (From Ferguson and Ruddock 2001; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .......................... 395 Fig. 11.4 Simplified geological map of the East Pilbara Terrane, showing the distribution of vein and hydrothermal gold deposits. Apart from gold mineralization within the Mosquito Creek Formation east of Nullagine, most of the deposits are located on shear zones within greenstones close to the granitic cores of the granite– greenstone domes. (From Ferguson and Ruddock 2001; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 396 Fig. 11.5 View of the Yarrie iron ore mine, showing the basal unconformity of the Gorge Creek Group on granitic rocks of the Warrawagine granitic complex. A thin sandstone of the Farrel Quartzite separates c. 3020 Ma BIF of the Cleaverville Formation from the underlying c. 3430 Ma granitic rocks. Kimberley Gap and terminal loop of Yarrie–Port Hedland Railway separate the mine from the Callawa Plateau to the south (from Ferguson and Ruddock 2001; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ...................................... 403 Fig. 11.6 Simplified interpreted bedrock geological map of the western part of the Mallina Basin, showing the largest high-Mg diorite (sanukitoid) intrusions of the Indee Suite. Extensive gold mineralization has been discovered under about 30 m of regolith north and west of the unnamed high-Mg diorite near Mount Dove between the Wallareenya and Peawah Granodiorites. MSZ, Mallina Shear Zone; TTSZ, Tabba Tabba Shear Zone. Star shows the location of the recently discovered Hemi gold mineralization (modified from Smithies and Champion 1999; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) . . . . . . 405
- 41. List of Figuresxli Fig. 12.1 Simplified geological map of the Fortescue and Hamersley Basins, showing sub-basins of the Fortescue Basin (Blake 1984). (Modified by Thorne and Trendall 2001; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .................................. 425 Fig. 12.2 The basal unconformity of the Fortescue Group in the Chichester Range 48 km north of the Auski Roadhouse. In this view, the Tumbiana Formation unconformably overlies granitic rocks of the Yule granitic complex. (From Van Kranendonk and Hickman 2012; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 427 Fig. 12.3 View of the northern end of an exposure of the Black Range 40 km southwest of Marble Bar. The rocks forming the range are part of the Black Range Dolerite, a unit that forms a suite of c. 2770 Ma, north-northeast trending dolerite dykes across the Northern Pilbara. The dykes are interpreted to have been magma conduits for eruption of the Mount Roe Basalt. The Black Range exposes the largest dyke of the suite that has a length of 200 km. (From Van Kranendonk and Hickman 2012; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .......................... 429 Fig. 12.4 Ropy pahoehoe lava flow top in the Mount Roe Basalt. (From Van Kranendonk and Hickman 2012; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ...................................... 431 Fig. 12.5 Outcrop of the Mount Roe Basalt showing an example of the glomeroporphyritic texture characteristic of many parts of the formation. Clusters of 1-cm-long plagioclase phenocrysts are set in a basaltic matrix. (Modified from Van Kranendonk 2010; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 432 Fig. 12.6 Poorly sorted, polymictic conglomerate at the base of the Mount Roe Basalt near Mount Elsie, Northeast Pilbara Sub-basin. Clasts are mainly composed of basaltic lithologies derived from the Euro Basalt (MGA Zone 51, 244360E 7604760N). (From Farrell 2006; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 433 Fig. 12.7 Basal conglomerate of the Hardey Formation near the Harding Dam. Polymictic conglomerate overlies the Mount Roe Basalt. Most of the boulders are vesicular or porphyritic basalt typical of lithologies in the underlying Mount Roe Basalt, but other lithologies including granite are also present. Scale provided by hammer (top centre). (From Hickman et al. 2010; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 435 Fig. 12.8 Ripple marks in siltstone of the Hardey Formation, Northwest Pilbara Sub-basin 24 km south of Harding Dam (MGA Zone 50, 504250E 7655000N). (From Van Kranendonk and Hickman 2012; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 436
- 42. xlii List ofFigures Fig. 12.9 Welded ignimbrite in the Hardey Formation, showing eutaxitic texture, with flamme, lithic fragments (dark), and compacted quartz and feldspar phenocrysts (MGA Zone 51, 224720E 7650705N). (From Van Kranendonk 2010; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .......................... 437 Fig. 12.10 Reworked volcaniclastic breccia of the Lyre Creek Member, northern face of Table Hill, Northwest Pilbara Sub-basin. Partly rounded boulders and pebbles of dacitic volcanic rocks are set in a poorly sorted dacitic tuffaceous matrix (MGA Zone 50, 510600E 7674200N). Scale card is 10 cm long. (From Hickman 2004a; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 438 Fig. 12.11 Convergent sandstone channels in felsic pyroclastic rocks of the Lyre Creek Member, 1.5 km southeast of Mount Montagu, Northwest Pilbara Sub-basin (MGA Zone 50, 534750E 7635250 N). (From Hickman 2004a; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ................................................ 439 Fig. 12.12 Vertical geochemical trends in the Kylena and Maddina Formations of the Northwest Pilbara Sub-basin. (From Kojan and Hickman 1998; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ................................................ 442 Fig. 12.13 Outcrop of silicified stromatolitic carbonate rock in the Mopoke Member (MGA Zone 51, 246377E 7641976N) 9 km east of Meentheena. (From Williams 2007; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ...................................... 443 Fig. 12.14 View of Table Hill from a quarry on the Robe River Railway, showing the upper sill of the Cooya Pooya Dolerite (top of hill) overlying volcaniclastic lithologies of the Lyre Creek Member. The dark rubbly outcrops and low hills in the middle distance are composed of the lower sill. (From Hickman (2004a; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 444 Fig. 12.15 View of the angular unconformity between basalt flows of the Kylena Formation, dipping to the right (middle distance) and the horizontal Tumbiana Formation (far distance). Photograph taken 4 km southeast of Python Pool (MGA Zone 50, 524750E 7640900N). (From Hickman 2004a; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ...................................... 446 Fig. 12.16 Accretion lapilli in tuff within the basal part of the Mingah Member, Tumbiana Formation, 19 km south of Nullagine, Northeast Pilbara Sub-basin (MGA Zone 51, 197430E 7567285N). (From Bagas 2005; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ...................................... 447
- 43. List of Figuresxliii Fig. 12.17 Stromatolites in the Meentheena Member of the Tumbiana Formation: (a) natural cross-section exposure of columnar, umbellate, branching-style stromatolite bioherms covered by climbing rippled calcareous sandstone, about 15 km north of Meentheena, Northeast Pilbara Sub-basin. Columns are about 50 cm across. (From Williams and Bagas 2007; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission). (b) Large domical stromatolites about 8 km west-southwest of Meentheena. Domes are over 1 m high. (Previously unpublished photograph by author). (c) Cross-sectional view of round-topped, branching, coniform columnar stromatolites truncated by rippled calcareous sandstone, Chichester Range (MGA Zone 50, 688400E 7565800N). Columns are 5 cm across. (From Van Kranendonk and Hickman 2012; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission). (d) Bedding-plane view of the same stromatolites shown in c. (From Van Kranendonk and Hickman 2012; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ........................................................... 448 Fig. 12.18 Photomicrograph of a zoned amygdale in basalt of the Maddina Formation (MGA Zone 51, 281671E 7623044N), 15 km west of Carawine Pool. (From Williams 2007; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) .................................. 450 Fig. 12.19 A graded bed of accretion lapilli in siltstone of the Kuruna Member (MGA Zone 51, 245467E 7664613N), 15 km north- northeast of the Nullagine River crossing on the Ripon Hills Road. (From Williams 2007; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ................................................ 451 Fig. 12.20 Outcrops of conglomerate of the Pear Creek Formation, northern Marble Bar Sub-basin: (a) polymictic conglomerate near the base of the formation containing clasts of basalt, granite and vein quartz (MGA Zone 50, 768890E 7681956N); (b) conglomerate from the lower part of the formation (MGA Zone 50, 769800E 7680850N) composed of basalt clasts from the underlying Fortescue Group and clasts of granitic gneiss from adjacent outcrops of the Pilbara Craton. (From Van Kranendonk 2010; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) . . . . . . 452
- 44. xliv List ofFigures Fig. 12.21 Diagrammatic illustration of the evolution of the northern Marble Bar Sub-basin: (a) deposition of the Mount Roe Basalt and basal conglomerates on a greenstone basement with relict topography between domal granitic uplands; (b) deformation of the Mount Roe Basalt due to reactivation of the domes and intervening syncline in the underlying Pilbara Craton, and resulting erosion of uplifted areas with influx of detritus to deposit the unconformably overlying Hardey Formation; (c) with ongoing deformation, deposition of the Kylena Formation; (d) asymmetric downthrow across the Pear Creek Fault resulted in unconformable deposition of the Pear Creek Formation on the Kylena Formation. (Modified from Van Kranendonk 2003; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............ 453 Fig. 12.22 Stromatolites in the Woodiana Member at Tambrey, Northwest Pilbara Sub-basin: (a) cross section of cumulate microcolumnar stromatolites in chert (silicified sedimentary carbonate rock); (b) transverse section of the same type of stromatolites. (From Thorne and Trendall 2001; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ................................................ 457
- 45. Table 2.2 Sm–Ndmodel ages (TDM2) and εNd values from igneous stratigraphic units of the East Pilbara Craton. (From Hickman List of Tables Table 1.1 Generalized Paleoarchean to Mesoarchean lithostratigraphy (excluding intrusive units) of the Northern Pilbara Craton .. .. . .. 11 Table 2.1 Summary of >3530 Ma U–Pb zircon ages in igneous rocks of the East Pilbara Craton (Extract of data from Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ............. 39 2021; with GSWA permission) ..................................... 59 Table 3.1 Generalized lithostratigraphy of the East Pilbara Craton (Modified from Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) ...................................... 93 Table 3.2 Listing of all granitic intrusions of the East Pilbara Craton, showing age ranges from UâPb zircon dating, and identifying the samples dated (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permision) ........................................ 139 Table 4.1 Members (informal) and facies of the Strelley Pool Formation in the type section, Strelley Pool. From Lowe (1983) ................ 173 xlv
- 46. 1 Chapter 1 Outline ofthe Pilbara Craton Abstract Previous investigations of the northern Pilbara Craton are briefly summa- rized, followed by an outline of the region’s lithostratigraphy and major tectonic units. Previous interpretations of its tectonic evolution have not taken account evidence that the presently preserved 500,000 km2 Pilbara Craton is composed of fragments of much larger Paleoarchean and Mesoarchean continents. This consid- eration provides important new insights on the original scales of the processes and tectonic units that existed before two major events of continental breakup. Keywords Previous investigations · Lithostratigraphy · Tectonic units · Continental breakup 1.1 Introduction The Pilbara Craton is a 500,000 km2 segment of Eo–Mesoarchean granite–green- stone crust underlying the Pilbara region of northwestern Australia (Figs. 1.1 and 1.2). Although large sections of the craton are concealed by Neoarchean– Paleoproterozoic successions of the Fortescue, Hamersley, and Turee Creek Basins, there are areas of erosion that provide large windows onto the granite–greenstones. The largest exposure is a 60,000 km2 inlier that extends 500 km east from the northwest Pilbara coast (Fig. 1.3). Once described as the ‘Pilbara Block’ (Ryan 1965; Blockley 1975; Hickman 1983), the eastern part of this inlier contains the 40,000 km2 East Pilbara Terrane (EPT, Fig. 1.3). This is arguably the world’s best preserved Paleoarchean terrane, providing unique insights on Paleoarchean crustal evolution and the earliest life on Earth. Equally informative is the western area of the inlier where Mesoarchean terranes and basins record the beginning of plate tectonic processes in the Pilbara. Trendall (1990) argued that the Fortescue, Hamersley, and Turee Creek Basins should be included in the Pilbara Craton because crustal stability was not attained until about 2400 Ma. However, more recent geological investigations have established that cratonization was completed during orogenic episodes between 2955 and 2890 Ma, after which there was over 100 Ma of crustal stability (Hickman © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. H. Hickman, Archean Evolution of the Pilbara Craton and Fortescue Basin, Modern Approaches in Solid Earth Sciences 24, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-18007-1_1
- 47. 2 1 Outlineof the Pilbara Craton PERTH Kalgoorlie Esperance Albany Meekatharra Carnarvon Newman Port Hedland 115° 120° 125° 129° 30° 35° 25° 20° 15° PILBARA CRATON YILGARN CRATON King Leopold O rogen P a t e r s o n Paterson Orogen O r o g e n O r o g e n Albany F r a s e r – Orogen Capricorn P in ja r r a O r o g e n H a l l s C r e e k O r o g e n 200 km AHH659 21.10.19 Phanerozoic Paleo–Neoproterozoic Paleoproterozoic Neoarchean–Paleoproterozoic Neoarchean Meso–Neoarchean Mesoarchean Paleoarchean Eo–Paleoarchean Concealed craton boundary Fig. 1.1 Simplified Archean and Proterozoic chronological divisions of Western Australia, show- ing an interpretation of the concealed extents of the Pilbara and Yilgarn Cratons (From Hickman 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission)
- 48. et al. 2006;Van Kranendonk et al. 2006; Hickman and Van Kranendonk 2012). A c. 2775 Ma regional unconformity at the base of the Fortescue Basin marks the end of this stability and the commencement of rifting and breakup of the Pilbara Craton (Blake and Barley 1992; Blake 1993; Martin et al. 1998a, b; Thorne and Trendall 2001; Barley et al. 2005; Hickman et al. 2010; Pirajno and Santosh 2015). 1.1 Introduction 3 P i l b a r a 114° 118° 122° 26° 22° PILBARA CRATON YILGARN CRATON OFFICER BASIN HAMERSLEY BASIN EDMUND BASIN FORTESCUE BASIN LAMBERT SHELF DAMPIER SUB-BASIN BARROW SUB-BASIN PEEDAMULAH SHELF PARDOO SHELF EARAHEEDY BASIN SALVATION BASIN YERRIDA BASIN COLLIER BASIN GASCOYNE PROVINCE ASHBURTON BASIN YENEENA BASIN FORTESCUE TUREE CREEK BASIN BASIN RUDALL PROVINCE ROEBUCK BASIN BRESNAHAN BASIN PADBURY and BRYAH BASINS SCORPION BASIN BADGERADDA BASIN COLLIER BASIN EDMUND BASIN MARBLE BAR SUB–BASIN CARRANDIBBY INLIER NORTHERN CARNARVON BASIN SOUTHERN CARNARVON BASIN NARRYER TERRANE MARYMIA INLIER SYLVANIA RAT HILL INLIER MILLI MILLI INLIER ROCKLEA INLIER WYLOO INLIER TURKEY, ROONEY and SPRINGO INLIERS BILLINOOKA INLIER COONINIA INLIER INLIER GOODIN INLIER CANNING BASIN PERTH BASIN GUNBARREL BASIN O RO G E N P A T E R S O N O R O G E N CA P R I C O R N Concealed 200 km AHH670 08.11.18 C r a t o n b oundary of Fig. 1.2 Tectonic units of northwestern Western Australia, showing the setting of the Pilbara Craton. The southern half of the craton is concealed by Neoarchean and Proterozoic rocks except for rare exposures within inliers (From Hickman 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) 1.1.1 Investigations of the Pilbara Craton Early geological investigations of the Pilbara Craton were reviewed by Noldart and Wyatt (1962) and Hickman (1983). Present geological interpretations are based on information obtained during three periods of investigation: • 1972 to 1975: the Geological Survey of Western Australia (GSWA) undertook systematic 1: 50,000 geological mapping of the East Pilbara for the compilation of four 1: 250,000 maps. Results included stratigraphic interpretations of green- stone stratigraphy (Hickman and Lipple 1975; Lipple 1975; Hickman 1977,
- 49. 4 1 Outlineof the Pilbara Craton 22° 21° 20° 117° 118° 119° 120° KURRANA TERRANE 100 km Phanerozoic cover 04.12.19 INDIAN OCEAN Fortescue and Hamersley Groups AHH660 NORTH PILBARA CRATON YILGARN CRATON INDIAN OCEAN 20° PROTEROZOIC P H A N E R O Z O IC 26° 121° DE GREY SUPERBASIN REGAL TERRANE KARRATHA TERRANE SHOLL TERRANE DE GREY SUPERBASIN DE GREY SUPERBASIN DE GREY SUPERBASIN EAST PILBARA TERRANE Granitic rocks intruding terrane Regal Formation: pillow basalt Nickol River Formation: sedimentary rocks Granitic rocks intruding terrane Roebourne Group: volcanic rocks Honeyeater Basalt: pillow basalt Clastic sedimentary rocks and BIF Granitic rocks intruding terrane Pilbara Supergroup: predominantly volcanic rocks Whundo Group: volcanic rocks RT Regal Thrust MSZ Maitland Shear Zone SSZ Sholl Shear Zone DE GREY SUPERBASIN Sholl Terrane Regal Terrane Nickol River Basin WEST PILBARA SUPERTERRANE Karratha Terrane Soanesville Basin (volcanic section) Soanesville Basin (lower sedimentary section) and similar basins East Pilbara Terrane Granitic rocks intruding De Grey Supergroup De Grey Supergroup: sedimentary and volcanic rocks Split Rock Supersuite Regional unconformity c. 3220 Ma MCB MB M L S Z PF MLSZ KSZ LF TTSZ MB CENTRAL PILBARA TECTONIC ZONE TTSZ MSZ SSZ S S Z SSZ FORTESCUE and HAMERSLEY BASINS 116° TSZ RT Regional unconformity c. 3066 Ma Regional unconformity c. 2780 Ma Fig. 1.3 Major tectonic units of the northern Pilbara Craton. The mainly Paleoarchean East Pilbara Terrane is separated from Mesoarchean terranes and basins of the northwest Pilbara by the Tabba Tabba Shear Zone. The Central Pilbara Tectonic Zone is a Mesoarchean zone of deformation and magmatic intrusion formed by 3165 to 2900 Ma plate convergence between the East Pilbara and Karratha Terranes. Abbreviations: KSZ Kurrana Shear Zone; LF Loudens Fault; MB Mallina Basin; MCB Mosquito Creek Basin; MLSZ Mallina Shear Zone; MSZ Maitland Shear Zone; PF Pardoo Fault (part of TTSZ); TSZ Terenar Shear Zone; TTSZ Tabba Tabba Shear Zone (From Hickman 2016; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission)
- 50. 1.2 Stratigraphy ofthe Northern Pilbara Craton 5 1980a, b, c) and an interpretation of the area’s crustal evolution (Hickman 1981, 1983). In 1976, the northwest Pilbara was briefly examined to clarify local stratigraphy and to assess if correlations could be made with the geology of the East Pilbara; however, limited time did not permit a mapping program. • 1994 to 2005: a collaborative project between GSWA and Geoscience Australia (GA) investigated the entire 60,000 km2 granite–greenstone inlier, plus all sur- rounding outcrops of the Fortescue and Hamersley Groups north of the Fortescue River. Work involved systematic 1:25,000-scale geological mapping (for publi- cation of 1:100,000 scale geological maps), airborne aeromagnetic and radiomet- ric surveys, extensive U–Pb zircon geochronology, zircon Lu–Hf and whole-rock Sm–Nd isotope studies, geochemistry, and local studies of structural geology and mineralization. For most of its duration, this ‘Pilbara Craton Mapping Project’ (PCMP) employed between 10 and 12 geoscientists. In addition to a new series of geological maps over almost 100,000 km2 , the PCMP resulted in a major revision of the stratigraphy, structural geology, crustal evolution, and mineralization of the northern Pilbara Craton (Van Kranendonk et al. 2002, 2006, 2007a, b; Huston et al. 2002; Hickman 2004; Smithies et al. 2004, 2005a, b, 2007; Champion and Smithies 2007). • 2006 onwards: the geological evidence provided by the PCMP laid the founda- tion for numerous subsequent studies by Australian and international researchers, all of which have contributed valuable additional information. This book reviews and reinterprets the data and conclusions from all these investigations. Over 300 U–Pb zircon dates on intrusive and volcanic rocks proved essential in better defining the stratigraphy of the Pilbara Craton. In combination with new geochemical data, the geochronology led to the recognition of discrete granitic supersuites (Van Kranendonk et al. 2006) and the correlation of these between all eleven granite–greenstone domes of the EPT (Fig. 1.4). 1.2 Stratigraphy of the Northern Pilbara Craton The first detailed stratigraphic correlations between the east and northwest Pilbara assumed that the northern Pilbara Craton was essentially a single terrane (Hickman 1980a, b, c, 1981, 1983). Contrary evidence appeared in the early 1980s when Landsat imagery revealed a series of northeast-trending lineaments cutting across the northern Pilbara Craton. These lineaments were first interpreted to coincide with late-stage faults that had no significance to the early crustal evolution of the craton (Krapež and Barley 1987). However, subsequent geochronological evidence (Horwitz and Pidgeon 1993) cast doubt on existing east–west correlations between the older sections of the Pilbara stratigraphy. This led to interpretations that the lineaments marked either boundaries between separate tectonostratigraphic domains
- 51. (Krapež 1993; Krapežand Eisenlohr 1998) or sutures between accreted terranes (Barley 1997). 6 1 Outline of the Pilbara Craton MAJOR STRUCTURES C EN TR A L PILB A R A TEC TO N IC ZO N E T T S Z L W S F L W S C L W S C M SZ KSZ CTZ C W F Z 119° 120° 118° 22°30' 21°30' 50 km AHH732 07.11.18 CENTRAL PILBARA TEC TO N IC ZO N E C M W E I P O S Y T N FORTESCUE AND HAMERSLEY BASINS CANNING BASIN (a) Fig. 1.4 Simplified geological map of the eastern section of the northern Pilbara Craton. Mainly volcanic groups and subgroups of the Paleoarchean East Pilbara Terrane are unconformably overlain by mainly sedimentary Mesoarchean groups. The Paleoarchean stratigraphy is continuous across the East Pilbara Terrane but shows deformation into a dome–and–keel crustal architecture. Paleoarchean granitic intrusions were emplaced into the cores of the domes during diapiric deformation, whereas Mesoarchean granitic intrusions were emplaced in zones controlled by plate-tectonic processes and are therefore unrelated to the dome–and–keel structure. Paleoarchean granitic intrusions have contemporaneous felsic volcanic equivalents in the Paleoarchean succes- sion, whereas Mesoarchean granitic intrusions have no volcanic equivalents in the East Pilbara. Inset figure: shows the East Pilbara Terrane separated into east and west sections by the Lalla Rookh–Western Shaw Structural Corridor (LWSC) and separated from the Mesoarchean Central Pilbara Tectonic Zone of the northwest Pilbara Craton by the Tabba Tabba Shear Zone (TTSZ). The Coongan–Warralong Fault Zone (CWFZ) defines the western limit of the 3324–3290 Ma Emu Pool Supersuite, whereas the Kurrana Shear Zone (KSZ) is the southeast limit of the East Pilbara Terrane and overlying Mosquito Creek Basin. The Chichester Tectonic Zone (CTZ) is a broad east– southeast trending zone of 3070–2920 Ma deformation and metamorphism. Dome abbreviations: C Carlindi; E, Mount Edgar; I Yilgalong; M, Muccan; N North Pole; O Corunna Downs; P McPhee; S Shaw; T Tambourah; W Warrawagine; Y Yule (From Hickman 2021; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission) Mid-way through the PCMP, it was recognized that the Pilbara Craton had evolved through stages of rifting and continental breakup between 3280 and 3165 Ma (Hickman 2001a, b, 2004, 2016, 2021; Hickman et al. 2001; Van
- 52. Kranendonk et al.2002, 2006, 2010; Smithies et al. 2005b). From breakup and plate separation that occurred at 3220 Ma, the east and northwest parts of the Pilbara Craton evolved independently until 3070 Ma when, following re-convergence and plate collision, the east and northwest Pilbara were recombined. Therefore, the 1.2 Stratigraphy of the Northern Pilbara Craton 7 Major fault or shear zone: exposed, concealed VOLCANIC AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS MESOZOIC INTRUSIVE ROCKS Bridget Suite, c. 1803 Ma Split Rock Supersuite Sisters Supersuite PALEOZOIC Granodiorite to monzogranite Tambina Supersuite Callina Supersuite Mount Billroth Supersuite Cleland Supersuite PROTEROZOIC MESOARCHEAN Granodiorite to syenogranite Tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite Tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite Monzogranite Granodiorite to monzogranite Emu Pool Supersuite Dalton Suite PALEOARCHEAN Elizabeth Hill Supersuite Tonalite–trondhjemite-granodiorite Ultramafic-mafic intrusions NEOARCHEAN Fortescue and Lower Hamersley Groups Callawa and Parda Formations Paterson For PROTEROZOIC Eel Creek For MESOARCHEAN Mosquito Creek For Lalla Rookh Sandstone and Cattle Well For Gorge Creek Group Soanesville Group and Coondamar For PALEO ARCHEAN PALEOARCHEAN Talga Talga and Coonterunah Subgroups Strelley Pool Formation (too thin to sho Salgash Subgroup Warrawoona Group Coongan Subgroup Wyman For Kelly Group Sulphur Springs Group AHH733 08.06.20 (b) Fig. 1.4 (continued)
- 53. northwest Pilbara stratigraphythat evolved between 3220 and 3070 Ma is unrelated to the stratigraphy of the East Pilbara. Owing to separate evolution of the east and northwest Pilbara, no single stratigraphic column can be applied across the northern part of the craton. Following the PCMP, a major revision of the stratigraphy was provided by Van Kranendonk et al. (2006). This included stratigraphic comparisons between the east and northwest parts of the Pilbara Craton (Van Kranendonk et al. 2006) and a diagrammatic interpretation of the tectonic processes involved in the evolution of the stratigraphy (Fig. 1.5) (Van Kranendonk et al. 2006). 8 1 Outline of the Pilbara Craton Figure 1.6 makes a stratigraphic comparison between the east and northwest Pilbara Craton based on a statistical analysis of over 300 U–Pb zircon dates on volcanic and intrusive units and highlights the differences and similarities between the two areas. However, it should be noted that there is relatively limited exposure of Paleoarchean rocks in the northwest Pilbara. Table 1.1 reviews the relative ages of formations and groups in both successions. 1.3 Tectonic Units Tectonic units provide the geological framework used in most descriptions of the Pilbara Craton. 1.3.1 Terminology The Pilbara Craton is divided into three main types of tectonic unit, terranes, basins, and tectonic zones. A terrane is a fault-bounded body of rock of regional extent, characterized by a geological history different from that of contiguous bodies of rock. A basin is an area underlain by a substantial thickness of sedimentary or volcanic rocks, which has unifying characteristics of stratigraphy and structure due to deposition in a regionally restricted area. Basins are bounded by unconformities except where major faults have juxtaposed a basin with another tectonic unit. A superbasin is a connected series of basins. Tectonic zones are linear belts of deformation crosscutting the terranes and basins. Additionally, the craton is composed of greenstone belts and granitic complexes. These are principally lithological divisions restricted to individual terranes. Green- stone belts contain successions of volcanic and sedimentary formations and groups, typically including mafic intrusive rocks but lacking large granitic intrusions. Gra- nitic complexes are large accumulations of granitic intrusions, in many cases amalgamated over hundreds of millions of years. In the EPT, the granitic complexes are composed of Paleoarchean intrusions forming the central cores of granite– greenstone domes with total diameters between 30 and 120 km. Within each dome, the outer boundary of the granitic core is a tectonic or intrusive contact with one or more greenstone belts (Fig. 1.7). The age ranges of the granites and
- 54. 1.3 Tectonic Units9 MVK615a 24.08.10 Tectonic Event 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Age (Ga) Horizontal Tectonics Vertical Tectonics Compression + doming Extension Rifting Diapirism Plume Diapirism Plume Doming Platform sedimentation EP EP EP EP EP Lithospheric root Multiple plume events WPS–EP collision Crustal construction= multiple plumes Accretion of Kurrana Terrane Subduction/ Oceanic arc M De Grey Supergroup clastic sediments Whim Creek Group Oceanic crust including Regal Formation Plume-related volcanism Diapir Thrust Intracrustal melting Whundo Group intra-oceanic arc Protocontinental basement Mantle plume T T T T T T T EP Post-tectonic granite intrusion KUT 3.8 Proto EP Early crust formation Flat subduction? T Slab breakoff Orogenic relaxation Gorge Creek Group KT EP EP 2930–2890 Ma 2970–2940 Ma 3020–2970 Ma Migrating deformation 2970 Ma 2950 Ma Influx of hot mantle Slab breakoff Pluton from metasomatized mantle KT KT KT KT KT KUT Erosion Kurrana Terrane KUT KT Karratha Terrane Mantle metasomatism M Terrane boundary East Pilbara EP ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Stage 1 5 6 TTG magmatism 4.2 4.1 3 2.3 2.2 2.1 Granitic events Fig. 1.5 Diagrammatic illustration of the main events in the evolution of the Pilbara Craton. Following the formation of 3800–3530 Ma continental crust, a series of Paleoarchean mantle plume events resulted in the eruption of the mafic volcanic Warrawoona, Kelly, and Sulphur Springs Groups. Resulting gravitational instability led to phases of diapiric doming between 3460 and 3223 Ma. The Sulphur Springs plume uplifted and extended the crust causing rifting and the first breakup of the craton at 3220 Ma. Plate separation developed basins of oceanic-like basaltic crust between the newly formed continental microplates (KT, EPT, and KUT). Compression from c. 3160 to 2920 Ma led to Mesoarchean plate tectonic processes including subduction, obduction, evolution of magmatic arcs, terrane accretion, and orogenic deformation (Modified from Van Kranendonk et al. 2006; with Geological Survey of Western Australia permission)
- 55. Random documents withunrelated content Scribd suggests to you:
- 56. [5] "The largeriver Tumbiri, mentioned by Dr. Krapf as flowing towards Egypt from the northern counterslope of Mount Kenia, rests upon the sole authority of a single wandering native. As, moreover, the word T'humbiri or Thumbili means a monkey, and the people are peculiarly fond of satire in a small way, it is not improbable that the very name had no foundation of fact. This is mentioned, as some geographers—for instance, Mr. Macqueen ('Observations on the Geography of Central Africa,' Proceedings of the R.G.S. of London, May 9, 1859)—have been struck by the circumstance that the Austrian missionaries and Mr. Werne ('Expedition to discover the Source of the White Nile, in 1840-41') gave Tubirih as the Bari name of the White Nile at the southern limit of their exploration." [6] Richard long mourned the loss of his friend, whom Captain Speke, on his second journey with Colonel Grant—whether unable to assist I know not—left to be killed by the negroes of Mirámbo, his African enemy, in the bush.—I. B. [7] Richard was a strong-willed, outspoken, and grievously injured man, under the greatest provocation ever put forth. He behaved with dignity, calmness, and generosity, above all praise.—I. B. CHAPTER XV. RICHARD AND I MEET AGAIN. "For life, with all its yields of joy and woe And hope and fear, Is just our chance o' the prize of learning love— How love might be, hath been indeed, and is." ——Robert Browning. "Dying is easy; keep thou steadfast. The greater part, to live and to endure." ——Mrs. Hamilton King, The Disciples. "When Calumny's foul dart thy soul oppresses, Think'st thou the venomed shaft could poison me? No! the world's scorn, still more than its caresses, Shall bind me closer, O my love, to thee.
- 57. "Should the daysdarken, and severe affliction Close whelming o'er us like a stormy sea, Love shall transform them into benedictions Binding me closer, O my love, to thee." * * * * * "When truth or virtue an affront endures, The affront is mine, my friend, and should be yours; Mine as a friend to every worthy mind, And mine as man who feels for all mankind." ——Pope. Just as I was getting into despair, and thinking whether I should go and be a Sister of Charity (May, 1859), as the appearance of Speke alone in London was giving me the keenest anxiety, and as I heard that Richard was staying on in Zanzibar, in the hopes of being allowed to return into Africa, I was very sore.[1] On May 22nd, 1859, I chanced to call upon a friend. I was told she was gone out, but would be in to tea, and was asked if I would wait. I said, "Yes;" and in about five minutes another ring came to the door, and another visitor was also asked to wait. The door was opened, and I turned round, expecting to see my friend. Judge of my feelings when I beheld Richard. For an instant we both stood dazed, and I cannot attempt to describe the joy that followed. He had landed the day before, and came to London, and now he had come to call on this friend to know where I was living, where to find me. No one will wonder if I say that we forgot all about her and tea, and that we went downstairs and got into a cab, and took a long drive. I felt like one stunned; I only knew that he put me in and told the cabman to drive. I felt like a person coming to after a fainting fit or
- 58. We try to effecta Reconciliation between in a dream. It was acute pain, and for the first half-hour I found no relief. I would have given worlds for tears or breath; neither came, but it was absolute content, which I fancy people must feel the first few moments after the soul is quit of the body. The first thing that happened was, that we mutually drew each other's pictures out from our respective pockets at the same moment, which, as we had not expected to meet, showed how carefully they had been kept. After that, we met constantly, and he called upon my parents. I now put our marriage seriously before them, but without success as regards my mother. I shall never forget Richard as he was then; he had had twenty-one attacks of fever, had been partially paralyzed and partially blind; he was a mere skeleton, with brown yellow skin hanging in bags, his eyes protruding, and his lips drawn away from his teeth. I used to give him my arm about the Botanical Gardens for fresh air, and sometimes convey him almost fainting to our house, or friends' houses, who allowed and encouraged our meeting, in a cab. The Government and the Royal Geographical Society looked coldly on him; the Indian army brought him under the reduction; he was almost penniless, and he had only a few friends to greet him. Speke was the hero of the hour, the Stanley of 1859-1864. This was one of the martyrdoms of that uncrowned King's life, and I think but that for me he would have died. He told me that all the time he had been away the greatest consolation he had had was my fortnightly journals, in letter form, to him, accompanied by all newspaper scraps and public and private information, and accounts of books, such as I knew would interest him, so that when he did get a mail, which was only in a huge batch now and then, he was as well posted up as if he were living in London. He never abused Speke, as a mean man would have done; he used to say, "Jack is one of the bravest fellows in the world; if he has a fault it is overweening vanity,
- 59. Speke and Richard. and beingso easily flattered; in good hands he would be the best of men. Let him alone; he will be very sorry some day, though that won't mend my case." It is interesting now to mark in their letters how they descend from "Dear Jack," and "Dear Dick," to "Dear Burton," and "Dear Speke," until they become "Sir!" But I must relate in Speke's favour that the injury once done to his friend, and the glory won for himself, he was not happy with it. Speke and I had a mutual friend, a lady well known in Society as Kitty Dormer (Countess Dormer)—she would be ninety-four were she now living. She was one of the fashionable beauties of George IV.'s time, and was engaged to my father when they were young. About a hundred years or more ago, a John Hanning Speke had married one of the Arundells of Wardour, and Lord Arundell always considered the Spekes as sort of neighbours and distant connections, so through this lady's auspices, Speke and I met, and also exchanged many messages; and we nearly succeeded in reconciling Richard and Speke, and would have done so, but for the anti-influences around him. He said to me, "I am so sorry, and I don't know how it all came about. Dick was so kind to me; nursed me like a woman, taught me such a lot, and I used to be so fond of him; but it would be too difficult for me to go back now." And upon that last sentence he always remained and acted. Richard was looking so lank and thin. He was sadly altered; his youth, health, spirits, and beauty were all gone for the time. He fully justified his fevers, his paralysis and blindness, and any amount of anxiety, peril, hardship, and privation in unhealthy latitudes. Never did I feel the strength of my love as then. He returned poorer, and dispirited by official rows and every species of annoyance; but he was still, had he been ever so unsuccessful, and had every man's hand against him, my earthly god and king, and I could have knelt at his feet and worshipped him. I used to feel so proud of him; I used to like to sit and look at him, and to think, "You are mine, and there is no man on earth the least like you."
- 60. My Appeal to myMother. At one time, when he was at his worst, I found the following in his journal— "I hear the sounds I used to hear, The laugh of joy, the groan of pain; The sounds of childhood sound again. Death must be near! "Mine eye reviveth like mine ear; As painted scenes pass o'er the stage, I see my life from youth to age. Ah, Death is near! "The music of some starry sphere, A low, melodious strain of song, Like to the wind-harp sweeps along. Yes, Death is near! "A lovely sprite of smiling cheer, Sits by my side in form of light; Sits on my left a darker sprite. Sure, Death is near! "The meed for ever deemed so dear, Repose upon the breast of Fame; (I did but half), while lives my name. Come then, Death, near! "Where now thy sting? Where now thy fear? Where now, fell power, the victory? I have the mastery over thee. Draw, Death, draw near!" I felt bitterly not having the privilege of staying with Richard and nursing him, and he was very anxious that our marriage should take place; so I wrote the following
- 61. letter to mymother, who was still violently opposing me, and who was absent on some visits:— "October, 1859. "My dearest Mother,[2] "I feel quite grateful to you for inviting my confidence. It is the first time you have ever done so, and the occasion shall not be neglected. It will be a great comfort to me to tell you all; but you must forgive me if I say that I have one tender place too sore to be touched, and that an unkind or slighting word might embitter all our future lives. I know it is impossible for you, with your views for me, both spiritual and temporal, to understand, far less sympathize with me on the present occasion. "I feel nothing in common with the world I live in. I dreamt of a Companion and a Life that would suit me exactly, and I them. Like many other people, I suppose, I found my heart yearning, and my tastes developing towards quite opposite things to those which fall naturally in my way. I am rather ashamed to tell you that I fell in love with Captain Burton at Boulogne, and would have married him at any time between this and then, if he had asked me. The moment I saw his brigand-daredevil look, I set him up as an idol, and determined that he was the only man I would ever marry; but he never knew it until three years ago, before he went to Africa. From Boulogne he went to Mecca and Medina, and then to Harar, and then to the Crimea, and on his return home, in 1856, you may remember he came to see us, and I saw him again, and then he fell in love with me and asked me to be his wife, and was perfectly amazed to find that I had cared for him all that time. He was then just going to start for Central Africa; he could not marry me, he could not take me, but we promised to be true to each other, and, as you well know, we met every day. When I came home one day in an ecstasy and told you that I had found the Man and the Life I longed for, that I clung to them with all my soul, and that
- 62. nothing would turnme, and that all other men were his inferiors, what did you answer me? 'That he was the only man you would never consent to my marrying; that you would rather see me in my coffin.' Did you know that you were flying in the face of God? Did you know it was my Destiny? Do you not realize that, because it is not your ideal, you want to dash mine from me? He has been away three years, and I have waited for him, feeling sure that in the end you would relent. You have faith in the hand of God in these matters! I called on a friend who was not at home. I was asked to wait; five minutes after the bell rang again, and another visitor was also asked to wait; the door opened, and Captain Burton and I stood face to face. He had disembarked the night before, had just arrived in town, and called there to know where I was living. The year and eight months' silence, which had distressed me so awfully, when you all said he had forgotten me, that he had been eaten by jackals, that he never meant to return, had been spent in the wildest part of the desert, where there was no means of communication. He had had twenty-one fevers, temporary blindness, and partial paralysis of the limbs; he has come back with flying colours, but youth, health, good looks, and spirits temporarily broken up from hardships, privations and dangers, and also many a scar. It surprises me that you should consider mine an infatuation, you who worship talent, and my father bravery and adventure, and here they are both united. Look at his military services—India and the Crimea! Look at his writings, his travels, his poetry, his languages and dialects! Now Mezzofanti is dead he stands first in Europe; he is the best horseman, swordsman, and pistol shot. He has been presented with the gold medal, he is an F.R.G.S., and you must see in the newspapers of his glory, and fame, and public thanks, where he is called 'the Crichton of the day,' 'one of the Paladins of the Age,' 'the most interesting figure of the nineteenth century,' 'the man par excellence of brain and pluck.' In his wonderful explorings, he goes where none but natives have ever trod, in hourly peril of his life, often wounded, often without food and
- 63. water. One dayhe is a doctor, one day a priest, another he keeps a stall in the bazar, sometimes he is a blacksmith. I could tell you such adventures of him, and traits of determination, which would delight you, were you unprejudiced. It makes me quite ill to see little men boasting of the paltry things that they have done or seen, after this man, who has never been known to speak of himself. He is not at all the man, speaking of his private character, that people take him to be, or what he sometimes, for fun, pretends to be. There is no one whom you would more respect, or attach yourself to, for he is lovable in every way; and what fascinates me is, that every thought, word, or deed is that of a thorough gentleman. I wish I could say the same for all our own acquaintances or relations. There is not a particle of pettiness or snobbery in him; he is far superior to any man I ever met; he has the brain, pluck, and manliness of any hundred of those I have ever seen, united to exceeding sensitiveness, gentleness, delicacy, generosity, and good pride. He is the only being who awes me into respect, and to whose command I bow my head; and any evil opinions you may have ever heard of him, arise from his recklessly setting at defiance conventional people, talking nonsense about religion and heart and principle, which those who do not know him unfortunately take seriously, and he amuses himself with watching their stupid faces. Once he is married to me, he will be the favourite of our family, and you will all be proud of him, and have implicit confidence in him. And let me tell you another thing: you and my father are immensely proud of your families, and we are taught to be the same; but from the present to the future, I believe that our proudest record will be our alliance with Richard Burton. I want to 'Live.' I hate the artificial existence of London; I hate the life of a vegetable in the country; I want a wild, roving, vagabond life. I am young, strong, and hardy, with good nerves; I like roughing it, and I always want to do something daring and spirited; you will certainly repent it, if you keep me tied up. I wonder that you do not see the magnitude of the position offered to me. His immense talent and adventurous life
- 64. must command interest.A master-mind like his exercises power and influence over all around him; but I love him because I find in him so much depth of feeling, and a generous heart; because, knowing him to be as brave as a lion, he is yet so gentle, of a delicate, sensitive nature, and the soul of honour. I am fascinated by his manners because they are easy, dignified, simple, and yet so original; there is such a touching forgetfulness of himself and his fame. He appears to me a something so unique and romantic. He unites the wild and daring, with the true gentleman in every sense of the word, and a stamp of a man of the world of the very best sort, having seen things without the artificial atmosphere we live in, as well as within. He has even the noble faults I love in a man, if they can be so called. He is proud, fiery, satirical, ambitious; how could I help looking up to him with fear and admiration? I worship ambition. Fancy achieving a good which affects millions, making your name a national one? It is infamous the way most men in the world live and die, and are never missed, and, like us women, leave nothing but a tombstone. By ambition I mean men who have the will and power to change the face of things. I wish I were a man. If I were, I would be Richard Burton; but, being only a woman, I would be Richard Burton's wife. He has not mere brilliancy of talent, but brains that are a rock of good sense, and stern decision of character. I love him purely, passionately, and respectfully; there is no void in my heart, it is at rest for ever with him. It is part of my nature, part of myself, the basis of all my actions, part of my religion; my whole soul is absorbed in it. I have given my every feeling to him, and kept nothing back for myself or for the world. I would this moment sacrifice and leave all to follow his fortunes, even if you all cast me out—if the world tabooed me, and no compensation could be given to me for his loss. Whatever the world may condemn of lawless or strong opinions, whatever he is to the world, he is perfect to me, and I would not have him otherwise than he is.
- 65. "That is myside of the business, and now I will turn to your few points. You have said that 'you do not know who he is, that you do not meet him anywhere.' I don't like to hear you say the first, because it makes you out illiterate, and you know how clever you are; but as to your not meeting him, considering the particular sort of society which you seek with a view to marrying your daughters, you are not likely to meet him there, because it bores him, and it is quite out of his line. In these matters he is like a noble, simple savage, and has lived too much in the desert to comprehend the snobberies of our little circles in London. He is a world-wide man, and his life and talents open every door to him; he is a great man all over the East, in literary circles in London, and in great parties where you and I would be part of the crowd, he would be remarkable as a star, also amongst scientific men and in the clubs. Most great houses are only too glad to get him. The only two occasions in which he came out last season it was because I begged him to, and he was bored to death. In public life every one knows him. As to birth, he is just as good as we are; all his people belong to good old families. The next subject is religion. With regard to this he appears to disbelieve, pretends to self-reliance, quizzes good, and fears no evil. He leads a good life, has a natural worship of God, innate honour, and does unknown good. At present he is following no form; at least, none that he owns to. He says there is nothing between Agnosticism and Catholicity. He wishes to be married in the Catholic Church, says that I must practise my own religion, and that our children must be Catholics, and will give such a promise in writing. I myself do not care about people calling themselves Catholics, if they are not so in actions, and Captain Burton's life is far more Christian, more gentlemanly, more useful, and more pleasing to God—I am sure —than many who call themselves Catholics, and whom we know. No. 3 point is money, and here I am before you, terribly crestfallen—- there is nothing except his pay. As captain, that is, I believe, £600 a year in India, and £300 in England. We want to try and get the Consulship of Damascus, where we could
- 66. have a lifeafter both our hearts, and where the vulgarity of poverty would not make itself apparent. If you do not disinherit me, I shall settle my portion on him, and after on any children we may have, in which case he would insure his life. He may have expectations or not, but we can't rely on them. "Now, dearest mother, I think we should treat each other fairly. Let him go to my father, and ask for me properly. Knowing you as I do, your ideas and prejudices, I know that a man of different religion and no means, would stand in a disagreeable position; so does he, and I will not have him insulted. I don't ask you to approve, nor to like it; I don't expect it. I do entreat your blessing, and even a passive, reluctant consent to anything that I may do. We shall never marry any one else, and never give each other up, should we remain so all our lives. Do not accuse me of deception, because I shall see him and write to him whenever I get a chance, and if you drive me to it I shall marry him in defiance, because he is by far my first object in life, and the day he (if ever) gives me up I will go straight into a convent. If you think your Catholic friends and relatives will blame you, shut your eyes, give me no wedding, no trousseau, let me get married how I can; but when it is done, acknowledge to yourself that I neither could nor would be dishonourable enough to marry any other man, that God made no law against poor people becoming attached to each other, that I am of an age when you can only advise but not hinder me, that your leave once asked my duty ends, that your life is three parts run, and mine is before me, and that if I choose to live out of the 'World' that forms your happiness, what is it to you? how does it hurt you? I have got to live with him night and day, for all my life. The man you would choose I should loathe. I see all the disadvantages, and am willing to accept them with him. Why should you object? I do not ask you to share it. You will see that I am so set on it, that the whole creation is as nothing in comparison, that nothing will keep me from it. Do not embitter my whole future life, for God's sake. I would rather die a
- 67. My Letter to myMother— Not a Success. thousand times than go through again what I have borne for the last five years. Do not quarrel with me, or keep me away from you, and you shall not regret it. I shall have a wide field for a useful, active life, if you do not crush me by an unhappy coldness. When you take the 'World' into your confidence, remember that the day will come when you will forgive and repent, and you will feel quite hurt to find that the 'World' does not forgive, that it remembers all you said when you were angry, and that you have debarred your own children from many pleasant things in this life. When we are parted there will be endless regrets. I will not allude to other marriages that you have consented to, but you should rejoice that I have got a man who knows how to protect me, and to take care of me. Do think it all over in earnest, and if you love me as you say you do—and I believe it well—do be generous and kind about this. Parents hold so much power to bless or curse the future. Which will you do for me? Let it be a blessing! I look upon him as my future husband; I only wait a kind word from you, the appointment, and Cardinal Wiseman's protection. Do write to me, dearest mother, but write not with your views, but entering into mine. "Your fondly attached child, "Isabel Arundell." The only answer to this letter was an awful long and solemn sermon, telling me "that Richard was not a Christian, and had no money." I do not defend my letter to my mother; I should not wish that girls should say or think that this is the way to write to one's mother, nor would mothers in general like to receive such a letter. I print it to show what Richard's character was, and the impression that a girl would receive of it, what views, and what feelings she was capable of entertaining for him. I only plead that I was fighting for my whole future life, and my natural destiny; that I had waited for five years; and that I saw that I had to force my mother's hand, or lose all that made life worth living for. Richard used to say that my mother and I
- 68. were both giftedwith "the noble firmness of the mule." Of course I can see now what an aggravating letter it must have been to a woman whose heart was set on big matches for her daughters. Richard now brought out the "Lake Regions of Equatorial Africa" (2 vols., 1860), and the Royal Geographical Society dedicated the whole of Vol. XXXIII. to the same subject (Clowes and Sons, 1860). My mother still remained obstinate, and Richard thought we should have to take the law into our own hands. I could not bear the thoughts of going against my mother. One day in April, 1860, I was walking out with two friends, and a tightening of the heart came over me that I had known before. I went home and said to my sister, "I am not going to see Richard for some time." She said, "Why, you will see him to-morrow." "No, I shall not," I said; "I don't know what is the matter." A tap came at the door, and a note with the well-known writing was put into my hand. I knew my fate, and with deep-drawn breath I opened it. He had left—could not bear the pain of saying good-bye; would be absent for nine months, on a journey to see Salt Lake City. He would then come back, and see whether I had made up my mind to choose between him or my mother, to marry me if I would; and if I had not the courage to risk it, he would go back to India, and from thence to other explorations, and return no more. I was to take nine months to think about it. I was for a long time in bed, and delirious. For six weeks I was doctored for influenza, mumps, sore throat, fever, delirium, and everything that I had not got, when in reality I was only heartsick, struggling for what I wanted, a last hard struggle with the suspense of my future before me, and nothing and nobody to help me. I felt it would be my breaking up if circumstances continued adverse, but I determined to struggle patiently, and suffer bravely to the end. At this juncture, as I was going to marry a poor man, and also to fit myself for Expeditions, I went, for change of air, to a farmhouse, where I learnt every imaginable thing that I might possibly want, so
- 69. that if wehad no servants, or if servants were sick or mutinous, we should be perfectly independent. On my return I saw the murder of a Captain Burton in the paper, and even my mother pitied me, and took me to the mail office, where a clerk, after numberless inquiries, gave us a paper. My life seemed to hang on a thread till he answered, and then my face beamed so that the poor man was quite startled. It was a Captain Burton, murdered by his crew. I could scarcely feel sorry—how selfish we are!—and yet he too, doubtless, had some one to love him. Richard, meantime, had gone all over the United States, and made a wonderful lot of friends; had gone to Salt Lake City to see Brigham Young, where he stayed with the Mormons and their Prophet for six weeks at great Salt Lake City, visiting California, where he went all over the gold-diggings, and learnt practically to use both pick and pan. He asked Brigham Young if he would admit him as a Mormon, but Brigham Young shook his head, and said, "No, Captain, I think you have done that sort of thing once before." Richard laughed, and told him he was perfectly right. About this time there was a meeting at the Royal Geographical Society—November 13. I quote from the papers— "Lord Ashburton (President) in the chair.—Captain J. Grantham, R.E.; R. Lush, Q.C.; J. A. Lockwood, and H. Cartwright, Esqs., were elected Fellows.—The minutes of the former meeting having been confirmed, the Chairman said that a letter would be read from Captain Burton, by the Secretary. It would be a matter of pleasure to all present to know that Captain Burton was in good health. Dr. Shaw then read the following characteristic letter, which had been addressed to him by that officer:— "'Salt Lake City, Deserat, Utah Territory, September 7. "My dear Shaw,
- 70. "'You'll see mywhereabouts by the envelope; I reached this place about a week ago, and am living in the odour of sanctity,—a pretty strong one it is too,—apostles, prophets, et hoc genus omne. In about another week I expect to start for Carson Valley and San Francisco. The road is full of Indians and other scoundrels, but I've had my hair cropped so short that my scalp is not worth having. I hope to be in San Francisco in October, and in England somewhere in November next. Can you put my whereabouts in some paper or other, and thus save me the bother of writing to all my friends? Mind, I'm travelling for my health, which has suffered in Africa, enjoying the pure air of the prairies, and expecting to return in a state of renovation and perfectly ready to leave a card on Muata Yanoo, or any other tyrant of that kind. "'Meanwhile, ever yours, "R. F. Burton.' "The paper read was, 'Proposed Exploration in North-Western Australia under Mr. F. Gregory.'—Mr. Galton read letters from Captain Speke, in command of the East African Expedition, conveying the gratifying intelligence that, through the kind assistance of Sir George Grey, Governor at the Cape of Good Hope, the party had been strengthened by the accession of a guard of twelve Hottentot soldiers and £300. Admiral Keppel had conveyed the expedition in her Majesty's steamer Brisk to Zanzibar.—A despatch from Sir George Grey on Mr. Chapman's and Mr. Anderson's late journeys in South Africa was read.—The President announced that subscriptions would be received at the Royal Geographical Society, 15, Whitehall Place, in aid of Consul Petherick's Expedition, to co-operate with that under Captains Speke and Grant, viâ Khartoum and the Upper Nile." Richard travelled about twenty-five thousand miles, and then he turned his head homewards. He wrote the "City of the Saints," 1
- 71. News of Richard and Subsequent Return. vol.,on the Mormons, and he brought it out in 1861. It was reprinted by Messrs. Harper of New York, and extensively reviewed, especially by the Tour du Monde. It was Christmas, 1860, that I went to stop with my relatives, Sir Clifford and Lady Constable (his first wife, née Chichester), at Burton Constable,—the father and mother of the present baronet. There was a large party in the house, and we were singing; some one propped up the music with the Times which had just arrived, and the first announcement that caught my eye was that "Captain R. F. Burton had arrived from America." I was unable, except by great resolution, to continue what I was doing. I soon retired to my room, and sat up all night, packing, and conjecturing how I should get away,—all my numerous plans tending to a "bolt" next morning,—should I get an affectionate letter from him. I received two; one had been opened and read by somebody else, and one, as it afterwards turned out, had been burked at home before forwarding. It was not an easy matter. I was in a large country-house in Yorkshire, with about twenty-five friends and relatives, amongst whom was one brother, and I had heaps of luggage. We were blocked up with snow and nine miles from the station, and (contra miglior noler voler mal pugna) I had heard of his arrival only early in the evening, and twelve hours later I had managed to get a telegram ordering me to London, under the impression that it was of the most vital importance. What a triumph it is to a woman's heart, when she has patiently and courageously worked, and prayed, and suffered, and the moment is realized that was the goal of her ambition!
- 72. MINIATURE PORTRAIT. As soonas we met, and had had our talk, he said, "I have waited for five years. The three first were inevitable on account of my journey to Africa, but the last two were not. Our lives are being spoiled by the unjust prejudices of your mother, and it is for you to consider whether you have not already done your duty in sacrificing two of the best years of your life out of respect to her. If once you really let me go, mind, I shall never come back, because I shall know that you have not got the strength of character which my wife must have. Now, you must make up your mind to choose between your mother and me. If you choose me, we marry, and I stay; if not, I go back to India and on other Explorations, and I return no more. Is your answer ready?" I said, "Quite. I marry you this day three weeks, let who will say nay." When we fixed the date of our marriage, I wanted to be married on Wednesday, the 23rd, because it was the Espousals of Our Lady and St. Joseph, but he would not, because Wednesday, the 23rd, and Friday, the 18th, were our unlucky days; so we were married on the Vigil, Tuesday, the 22nd of January. We pictured to ourselves much domestic happiness, with youth, health, courage, and talent to win honour, name, and position. We had the same tastes, and perfect confidence in each other. No one turns away from real happiness without some very strong temptation or delusion. I went straight to my father and mother, and told them what had occurred. My father said, "I consent with all my heart, if your mother consents," and my mother said, "Never!" I said, "Very well, then, mother! I cannot sacrifice our two lives to a mere whim, and you ought not to expect it, so I am going to marry him, whether you will or no." I asked all my brothers and sisters, and they said they would receive him with delight. My mother offered me a marriage with my father and brothers present, my mother and sisters not. I felt that that was a slight upon him, a slight upon his family, and a slur upon me, which I did not deserve, and I refused it. I went to Cardinal Wiseman, and I told him the whole case as it
- 73. A Family Council decides the Matter. stood,and he asked me if my mind was absolutely made up, and I said, "Absolutely." Then he said, "Leave the matter to me." He requested Richard to call upon him, and asked him if he would give him three promises in writing— 1. That I should be allowed the free practice of my religion. 2. That if we had any children they should be brought up Catholics. 3. That we should be married in the Catholic Church. Which three promises Richard readily signed. He also amused the Cardinal, as the family afterwards learnt, by saying sharply, "Practise her religion indeed! I should rather think she shall. A man without a religion may be excused, but a woman without a religion is not the woman for me." The Cardinal then sent for me, promised me his protection, said he would himself procure a special dispensation from Rome, and that he would perform the ceremony himself. He then saw my father, who told him how bitter my mother was about it; that she was threatened with paralysis; that we had to consider her in every possible way, that she might receive no shocks, no agitation, but that all the rest quite consented to the marriage. A big family council was then held, and it was agreed far better for Richard and me, and for every one, to make all proper arrangements to be married, and to be attended by friends, and for me to go away on a visit to some friends, that they might not come to the wedding, nor participate in it, in order not to have a quarrel with my mother; that they would break it to her at a suitable time, and that the secret of their knowing it, should be kept up as long as mother lived. "Mind," said my father, "you must never bring a misunderstanding between mother and me, nor between her and her children." I passed that three weeks preparing very solemnly and earnestly for my marriage day, but yet something differently to what many expectant brides do. I made a very solemn religious preparation, receiving the Sacraments. Gowns, presents, and wedding pageants had no part in it, had no place. Richard arranged with my own
- 74. Our Wedding. lawyer andmy own priest that everything should be conducted in a strictly legal and strictly religious way, and the whole programme of the affair was prepared. A very solemn day to me was the eve of my marriage. The following day I was supposed to be going to pass a few weeks with a friend in the country. At nine o'clock on Tuesday, the 22nd of January, 1861, my cab was at the door with my box on it. I had to go and wish my father and mother good-bye before leaving. I went downstairs with a beating heart, after I had knelt in my own room, and said a fervent prayer that they might bless me, and if they did, I would take it as a sign. I was so nervous, I could scarcely stand. When I went in, mother kissed me and said, "Good-bye, child, God bless you." I went to my father's bedside, and knelt down and said good-bye. "God bless you, my darling," he said, and put his hand out of the bed and laid it on my head. I was too much overcome to speak, and one or two tears ran down my cheeks, and I remember as I passed down I kissed the door outside. I then ran downstairs and quickly got into my cab, and drove to a friend's house (Dr. and Miss Bird, now of 49, Welbeck Street), where I changed my clothes—not wedding clothes (clothes which most brides of to-day would probably laugh at)—a fawn-coloured dress, a black-lace cloak, and a white bonnet—and they and I drove off to the Bavarian Catholic Church, Warwick Street, London. When assembled we were altogether a party of eight. The Registrar was there for legality, as is customary. Richard was waiting on the doorstep for me, and as we went in he took holy water, and made a very large sign of the Cross. The church doors were wide open, and full of people, and many were there who knew us. As the 10.30 Mass was about to begin, we were called into the Sacristy, and we then found that the Cardinal in the night had been seized with an acute attack of the illness which carried him off four years later, and had deputed Dr. Hearne, his Vicar-general, to be his proxy. After the ceremony was over, and the names signed, we went back to the house of our friend Dr. Bird and his sister Alice, who have
- 75. always been ourbest friends, where we had our wedding breakfast. RICHARD BURTON. (PRESENTED TO HIM, WITH HIS WIFE'S PORTRAIT, AS A WEDDING GIFT.) By Louis Desanges. During the time we were breakfasting, Dr. Bird began to chaff him about the things that were sometimes said of him, and which were not true. "Now, Burton, tell me; how do you feel when you have killed a man?" Dr. Bird (being a physician) had given himself away without knowing it. Richard looked up quizzically, and drawled out, "Oh, quite jolly! How do you?"
- 76. ISABEL BURTON ASA BRIDE. By Louis Desanges. We then went to Richard's bachelor lodgings, where he had a bedroom, dressing-room, and sitting-room, and we had very few pounds to bless ourselves with, but were as happy as it is given to any mortals out of heaven to be. The fact is that the only clandestine thing about it, and that was quite contrary to my desire, was that my poor mother, with her health and her religious scruples, was kept in the dark, but I must thank God that, though paralysis came on two years later, it was not I that caused it.
- 78. I here insertthe beautiful and characteristic letter which my husband wrote to my father on the following day, in case he should wish to give it to my mother. For the first few days of our marriage, Richard used to be so worried at being stared at as a bridegroom, that he always used to say that we had been married a couple of years; but that sort of annoyance soon wore off, and then he became rather
- 79. We are received at Homeagain. proud of being a married man. To say that I was happy would be to say nothing; a repose came over me that I had never known. I felt that it was for Eternity, an immortal repose, and I was in a bewilderment of wonder at the goodness of God, who had almost worked miracles for me. During this time my brothers visited us, keeping us up in all that was going on. Some weeks later, two dear old aunts, Mrs. Strickland-Standish and Monica, Lady Gerard, who lived at Portobello House, Mortlake, nearly opposite to where I live now, and where I had frequently passed several weeks every year (for they made a sort of family focus), got to hear that I was seen going into a bachelor lodging, and bowled up to London to tell my mother. She wrote in an agony to my father, who was visiting in the country, "that a dreadful misfortune had happened in the family; that I been seen going into a bachelor lodging in London, and could not be at the country house where I was supposed to be." My father telegraphed back to her, "She is married to Dick Burton, and thank God for it;" and he wrote to her, enclosing the letter just inserted, and desired her to send one of my brothers for us, who knew where to find us, and to mind and receive us properly. We were then sent for home. My mother behaved like a true lady and a true Christian. She kissed us both, and blessed us. I shall never forget how shy I felt going home, but I went in very calmly, I kissed them all round, and they received Richard in the nicest way, and then mother embarrassed us very much by asking our pardon for flying in the face of God, and opposing what she now knew to be His will. My husband was very much touched. It was not long before she approved of the marriage more than anybody, and as she grew to know him, she loved him as much as her own sons. And this is the way we came to be married. In short, mother never could forgive herself, and was always alluding to it either personally or by letter. It always was the same burthen of song—"that she exposed me to such a risk, that my relations might have abandoned me, that Society might not have received me, that I might have been forbidden to put my name down for the Drawing-
- 80. room, when Ihad done nothing wrong;" and she said, "All through me, and God had destined it, but I could not see it. I never thought you would have the courage to take the law in your own hands;" and I used to answer her, "Mother, if you had all cast me out, if Society had tabooed me, if I had been forbidden to go to Court, it would not have kept me from it—I could not have helped myself—I am quite content with my future crust and tent, and I would not exchange places with the Queen; so do not harass yourself." However, by the goodness of God, and the justness and kindness of a few great people, none of these catastrophes did happen. We used to entreat of her not to say anything more about it, but even on her deathbed she persisted in doing so. I shall never forget that first night when we went home; I went up to my room and changed my things, and ate my dinner humbly and silently. We were a very large family and were all afraid to speak, and as Richard was so very clever, the family stood rather in awe of him; so there was a silence and restraint upon us; but the children were allowed to come down to dessert for a treat, and, with the intuition that children have, they knew that he wanted them, and that they could do what they liked with him. One was a little enfant terrible, and very fond of copying our midshipmen brothers' slang. They crowded round my mother with their little doll-tumblers waiting for some wine. He was so constrained that he forgot to pass the wine at dessert as it came round to him, when a small voice piped out from the end of the long table, "I say, old bottle-stopper—pass the wine!" He burst out laughing, and that broke the ice, and we all fell to laughing and talking. Mother punished the child by giving him no wine, but Richard looked up and said so sweetly, "Oh, Mother, not on my first night at home!" that her heart went out to him. We had seven months of uninterrupted bliss. Through the kindness of Lord John Russell, Richard obtained the Consulship of Fernando Po, in the Bight of Biafra, West Coast of Africa, with a coast line of six or seven hundred miles for his jurisdiction, a deadly climate, and £700 a year. He was too glad to get his foot on the first rung of the ladder, so, though it was called the "Foreign Office Grave," he
- 81. A Delightful London Season. Fire at Grindlay's. cheerfullyaccepted it. It was not quite so cheerful for me, because it was a climate of certain death to white women, and he would not allow me to go out in an unlimited way. We had a glorious season, and took up our position in Society. He introduced me to all the people he knew, and I introduced him to all the people that I knew. Lord Houghton (Monckton-Milnes), the father of the present Lord Houghton, was very much attached to Richard, and he settled the question of our position by asking his friend Lord Palmerston to give a party, and to let me be the bride of the evening; and when I arrived, Lord Palmerston gave me his arm, and he introduced Richard and me to all the people we had not previously known, and my relatives clustered around us as well. I was allowed to put my name down for a Drawing-room. And Lady Russell, now the Dowager, presented me at Court "on my marriage." Shortly after this, happened Grindlay's fire, where we lost all we possessed in the world, except the few boxes we had with us. The worst was that all his books, and his own poetry, which was beautiful, especially one poem, called "The Curse of Vishnu," and priceless Persian and Arabic manuscripts, that he had picked up in various out-of-the-way places, and a room full of costumes of every nation, were burnt. He smiled, and said in a philosophical sort of way, "Well, it is a great bore, but I dare say that the world will be none the worse for some of those manuscripts having been burnt" (a prophetic speech, as I now think of it). When he went down to ask for some compensation, he found that Grindlay was insured, but that he was not—not, he said, that any money could repay him for the loss of the things. As he always saw the comic side of a tragedy as well as the pathetic, "the funniest thing was the clerk asking me if I had lost any plate or jewellery, and on my saying, 'No,' the change in his face from sympathy to the utter surprise that I could care so much for any other kind of loss, was amusing."
- 82. In 1861, whenthe Indian army changed hands, Richard suffered, and, as Mr. Hitchman remarked, "his enemies may be congratulated upon their mingled malice and meanness." He just gave the official animus a chance. It was a common thing in times of peace for Indian officers to be allowed to take appointments and remain on the cadre of their regiment, temporarily or otherwise. Richard, in remonstrance, would not quote names for fear of injuring other men, but any man who knew Egypt could score off half a dozen. His knowledge of the East, and of so many Eastern languages, would have been of incalculable service in Egypt, upon the Red Sea, in Marocco, Persia, in any parts of the East, and yet he, who in any other land would have been rewarded with at least a K.C.B. and a handsome pension, was glad to get his foot on the lowest rung of the ladder of the Consular service, called the "Foreign Office Grave," the Consulate of Fernando Po, and we could not think enough of, talk enough of, or be grateful enough to Lord John Russell, who gave it him; yet the acceptance of this miserable post was made an excuse to strike his name off the Indian army list, and the rule, which had been allowed to lapse in a score of cases, was revived for Richard's injury under circumstances of discourtesy so great, that it would be hard to believe the affront unintentional. He received no notice whatever, and he only realized, on seeing his successor gazetted, that his military career was actually ended, and his past life become like a blank sheet of paper. It would have been stretching no point to have granted this appointment, and to have been retained in the army on half-pay, but it was refused; they swept out his whole nineteen years' service as if they had never been, without a vestige of pay or pension. All his services in Sind had been forgotten, all his Explorations were wiped out, and at the age of forty he found himself at home, with the rank of Captain, no pay, no pension, plenty of fame, a newly married wife, and a small Consulate in the most pestilential climate, with £700 a year. In vain he asked to go to Fernando Po temporarily till wanted for active service. He wrote—
- 83. Welcome to ourwebsite – the perfect destination for book lovers and knowledge seekers. We believe that every book holds a new world, offering opportunities for learning, discovery, and personal growth. That’s why we are dedicated to bringing you a diverse collection of books, ranging from classic literature and specialized publications to self-development guides and children's books. More than just a book-buying platform, we strive to be a bridge connecting you with timeless cultural and intellectual values. With an elegant, user-friendly interface and a smart search system, you can quickly find the books that best suit your interests. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery services help you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading. Join us on a journey of knowledge exploration, passion nurturing, and personal growth every day! ebookbell.com