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Aspergillosis 2008 guideline

This document provides guidelines from the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) for the treatment of aspergillosis. It recommends voriconazole as the primary treatment for invasive aspergillosis based on results from the largest randomized controlled trial showing it is superior to amphotericin B. Liposomal amphotericin B is also recommended as an alternative primary therapy. The guidelines review management of different forms of aspergillosis including invasive, chronic/saprophytic, and allergic forms. It emphasizes diagnosis, treatment and prevention of invasive aspergillosis and restoring impaired host defenses for improved outcomes.

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IDSA GUIDELINES Treatment of Aspergillosis: Clinical Practice Guidelines of the Infectious Diseases Society of America Thomas J. Walsh,1,a Elias J. Anaissie,2 David W. Denning,13 Raoul Herbrecht,14 Dimitrios P. Kontoyiannis,3 Kieren A. Marr,5 Vicki A. Morrison,6,7 Brahm H Segal,8 William J. Steinbach,9 David A. Stevens,10,11 Jo-Anne van Burik,7 John R. Wingard,12 and Thomas F. Patterson4,a 1 Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland; 2University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock; 3 The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, and 4The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio; 5Oregon Health and Sciences University, Portland; 6Veterans Affairs Medical Center and 7University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota; 8Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York; 9Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina; 10Santa Clara Valley Medical Center, San Jose, and 11Stanford University, Palo Alto, California; 12University of Florida, College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida; 13 University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom; and 14University Hospital of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France EXECUTIVE SUMMARY guidelines is to summarize the current evidence for treatment of different forms of aspergillosis. The quality Aspergillus species have emerged as an important cause of evidence for treatment is scored according to a stan- of life-threatening infections in immunocompromised dard system used in other Infectious Diseases Society patients. This expanding population is composed of of America guidelines. This document reviews guide- patients with prolonged neutropenia, advanced HIV in- lines for management of the 3 major forms of asper- fection, and inherited immunodeficiency and patients gillosis: invasive aspergillosis, chronic (and saprophytic) who have undergone allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell forms of aspergillosis, and allergic forms of aspergillosis. transplantation (HSCT) and/or lung transplantation. Given the public health importance of invasive asper- This document constitutes the guidelines of the Infec- gillosis, emphasis is placed on the diagnosis, treatment, tious Diseases Society of America for treatment of as- and prevention of the different forms of invasive as- pergillosis and replaces the practice guidelines for As- pergillosis, including invasive pulmonary aspergillosis, pergillus published in 2000 [1]. The objective of these sinus aspergillosis, disseminated aspergillosis, and sev- eral types of single-organ invasive aspergillosis. There are few randomized trials on the treatment of Received 23 October 2007; accepted 24 October 2007; electronically published 4 January 2008. invasive aspergillosis. The largest randomized con- These guidelines were developed and issued on behalf of the Infectious trolled trial demonstrates that voriconazole is superior Diseases Society of America. It is important to realize that guidelines cannot always account for individual to deoxycholate amphotericin B (D-AMB) as primary variation among patients. They are not intended to supplant physician judgment treatment for invasive aspergillosis. Voriconazole is rec- with respect to particular patients or special clinical situations and cannot be considered inclusive of all proper methods of care or exclusive of other treatments ommended for the primary treatment of invasive as- reasonably directed at obtaining the same results. Accordingly, the Infectious pergillosis in most patients (A-I). Although invasive Diseases Society of America considers adherence to these guidelines to be voluntary, with the ultimate determination regarding their application to be made pulmonary aspergillosis accounts for the preponder- by the physician in light of each patient’s individual circumstances. ance of cases treated with voriconazole, voriconazole a T.J.W. and T.F.P. served as co-chairs for the Infectious Diseases Society of has been used in enough cases of extrapulmonary and America Aspergillus Guidelines Committee. Reprints or correspondence: Dr. Thomas F. Patterson, The University of Texas disseminated infection to allow one to infer that vor- Health Science Center at San Antonio, Dept. of Medicine/Infectious Diseases, iconazole is effective in these cases. A randomized trial 7703 Floyd Curl Dr., MSC 7881, San Antonio, TX 78229-3900 (patterson @uthscsa.edu). comparing 2 doses of liposomal amphotericin B (L- Clinical Infectious Diseases 2008; 46:327–60 AMB) showed similar efficacy in both arms, suggesting 2008 by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. All rights reserved. 1058-4838/2008/4603-0001$15.00 that liposomal therapy could be considered as alter- DOI: 10.1086/525258 native primary therapy in some patients (A-I). For sal- IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 327
vage therapy, agents include lipid formulations of amphotericin strength of the randomized study, the panel recommends vor- (LFAB; A-II), posaconazole (B-II), itraconazole (B-II), caspo- iconazole for primary treatment of these very uncommon man- fungin (B-II), or micafungin (B-II). Salvage therapy for invasive ifestations of invasive aspergillosis (B-III). aspergillosis poses important challenges with significant gaps Management of the chronic or saprophytic forms of asper- in knowledge. In patients whose aspergillosis is refractory to gillosis varies depending on the condition. Single pulmonary voriconazole, a paucity of data exist to guide management. aspergillomas may be best managed by surgical resection (B- Therapeutic options include a change of class using an am- III), whereas chronic cavitary and chronic necrotizing pul- photericin B (AMB) formulation or an echinocandin, such as monary aspergillosis require long-term medical therapy (B-III). caspofungin (B-II); further use of azoles should take into ac- The management of allergic forms of aspergillosis involves count host factors and pharmacokinetic considerations. Re- a combination of medical and anti-inflammatory therapy. For fractory infection may respond to a change to another drug example, management of allergic bronchopulmonary aspergil- class (B-II) or to a combination of agents (B-II). The role of losis (ABPA) involves the administration of itraconazole and combination therapy in the treatment of invasive aspergillosis corticosteroids (A-I). as primary or salvage therapy is uncertain and warrants a pro- spective, controlled clinical trial. INTRODUCTION Assessment of patients with refractory aspergillosis may be Heretofore considered to be an unusual cause of infection, difficult. In evaluating such patients, the diagnosis of invasive Aspergillus species have emerged as important causes of mor- aspergillosis should be established if it was previously uncertain bidity and mortality in immunocompromised patients [2–4]. and should be confirmed if it was previously known. The drug Invasive aspergillosis currently constitutes the most common dosage should be considered. Management options include a cause of infectious pneumonic mortality in patients under- change to intravenous (IV) therapy, therapeutic monitoring of going HSCT and is an important cause of opportunistic re- drug levels, change of drug class, and/or combination therapy. spiratory and disseminated infection in other immunocom- Antifungal prophylaxis with posaconazole can be recom- promised patients [5–11]. Furthermore, Aspergillus species mended in the subgroup of HSCT recipients with graft-versus- also produce a wide range of chronic, saprophytic, and allergic host disease (GVHD) who are at high risk for invasive asper- conditions. Although other forms of aspergillosis, such as gillosis and in neutropenic patients with acute myelogenous ABPA, allergic sinusitis, and saprophytic infection, are also leukemia or myelodysplastic syndrome who are at high risk for causes of morbidity, they are seldom life-threatening. invasive aspergillosis (A-I). Management of breakthrough in- Throughout this document, treatment recommendations are vasive aspergillosis in the context of mould-active azole pro- rated according to the standard scoring system of the Infec- phylaxis is not defined by clinical trial data. The approach to tious Diseases Society of America and United Stated Public such patients should be individualized on the basis of clinical Health Service for rating recommendations in clinical guide- criteria, including host immunosuppression, underlying dis- lines, as summarized in table 1. ease, and site of infection, as well as consideration of antifungal dosing, therapeutic monitoring of drug levels, a switch to IV MICROBIOLOGY AND EPIDEMIOLOGY OF therapy, and/or a switch to another drug class (B-III). ASPERGILLOSIS Certain conditions of invasive aspergillosis warrant consid- Organisms. Aspergillus fumigatus is the most common species eration for surgical resection of the infected focus. These in- recovered from cases of invasive aspergillosis [12]. The next clude but are not limited to pulmonary lesions contiguous with most commonly recovered species are Aspergillus flavus, As- the heart or great vessels, invasion of the chest wall, osteo- pergillus niger, and Aspergillus terreus [13]. Some institutions myelitis, pericardial infection, and endocarditis (B-III). Res- may have a predominance of A. flavus or A. terreus as the most toration of impaired host defenses is critical for improved out- frequently recovered species of Aspergillus [14]. A. terreus is come of invasive aspergillosis (A-III). Recovery from clinically resistant to AMB, but species, including A. flavus, neutropenia in a persistently neutropenic host or reduction of Aspergillus lentulus, Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus ustus, As- corticosteroids in a patient receiving high-dose glucocortico- pergillus glaucus, and others, can also demonstrate resistance steroids is paramount for improved outcome in invasive [15–20]. aspergillosis. Classification and definitions. Aspergillosis causes patient A special consideration is made concerning recommenda- afflictions that are classically defined as invasive, saprophytic, tions for therapy of aspergillosis in uncommon sites, such as or allergic [21]. Invasive diseases caused by Aspergillus species osteomyelitis and endocarditis. There are very limited data on include infections of the lower respiratory tract, sinuses, and these infections, and most involve D-AMB as primary therapy skin as portals of entry. The CNS, cardiovascular system, and simply because of its long-standing availability. Based on the other tissues may be infected as a result of hematogenous dis- 328 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
Table 1. Infectious Diseases Society of America–United States Public Health Service grading system for ranking recommendations in clinical guidelines. Category, grade Definition Strength of recommendation A Good evidence to support a recommendation for use B Moderate evidence to support a recommendation for use C Poor evidence to support a recommendation Quality of evidence I Evidence from 1 properly randomized, controlled trial II Evidence from 1 well-designed clinical trial, without randomization; from co- hort or case-controlled analytic studies (preferably from 11 center); from multiple time-series; or from dramatic results from uncontrolled experiments III Evidence from opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience, descriptive studies, or reports of expert committees semination or direct extension from contiguous foci of infec- for probable invasive aspergillosis with a surrogate non–culture- tion. Saprophytic involvement includes Aspergillus otomycosis based method (i.e., a positive galactomannan assay or b-glucan and pulmonary aspergilloma. Allergic conditions encompass assay result and radiologically compatible CT findings) in an allergic Aspergillus sinusitis and allergic bronchopulmonary as- immunocompromised host with clinical findings of infection pergillosis [22]. Although other classifications have been pro- that constitute the definition of probable invasive aspergillosis. posed, reference to the above clinical conditions will be made Several other points bear note concerning these definitions throughout these guidelines. of aspergillosis. First, the term “probable” denotes a relatively Members of the European Organization for Research in high degree of certainty that the signs and symptoms of infec- Treatment of Cancer–Invasive Fungal Infection Cooperative tion in the immunocompromised host are truly due to an Group and National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Aspergillus species. A study by Stevens and Lee [24] that ex- Mycoses Study Group formed a Consensus Committee to de- amined response of invasive aspergillosis to itraconazole using velop standard definitions for invasive fungal infections for Mycoses Study Group definitions found similar outcomes for clinical research [23]. Based on a review of the literature and proven and probable invasive aspergillosis, suggesting that com- an international consensus, a set of research-oriented defini- bining these 2 categories is appropriate for outcomes analyses. tions for invasive fungal infections (including invasive asper- Second, the European Organization for Research in Treatment gillosis), as observed in immunocompromised patients with of Cancer–Mycoses Study Group document clearly articulates cancer, was developed. Three levels of certainty of invasive as- that the consensus definitions are not intended to be a direct pergillosis were defined: proven, probable, and possible. Al- guide to practice [23]. Third, the definitions are principally though the definitions are intended for use in the context of applicable to immunocompromised patients with cancer and clinical and/or epidemiological research, they provide a stan- HSCT recipients. These definitions are currently being refined dard set of criteria by which guidelines can be developed for to reflect increasing understanding of the patterns of invasive the treatment of invasive aspergillosis. aspergillosis in an expanded population of immunocompro- The definition for proven aspergillosis requires histopatho- mised patients. logical documentation of infection and a positive result of cul- Diagnosis. Aspergillus species grow well on standard media ture of a specimen from a normally sterile site. The definition and can be identified to species level in most laboratories. Cul- of probable aspergillosis requires the fulfillment of criteria ture confirmation, where possible, is important to differentiate within 3 categories: host factors, clinical manifestations (symp- aspergillosis from other filamentous fungal infections, such as toms, signs, and radiological features), and microbiological evi- fusariosis and scedosporiosis. Blood cultures are of limited util- dence. Throughout these guidelines, the term “invasive asper- ity, because the results are often not positive even in dissem- gillosis” will assume a diagnostic certainty of proven or inated infection. Bronchoalveolar lavage, transthoracic percu- probable invasive aspergillosis. With 2 important exceptions, taneous needle aspiration, or video assisted thoracoscopic proven or probable infection requires the recovery of an or- biopsy are standard procedures for establishing a diagnosis of ganism. The first exception includes the fairly frequent occur- invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Fluid and tissue specimens rence of histopathological demonstration of hyphae consistent from these procedures may reveal characteristic angular di- with Aspergillus species in patients with negative culture results. chotomously branching septate hyphae on direct microscopic The other exception consists of fulfilling the diagnostic criteria examination and/or Aspergillus species on culture. Where fea- IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 329
sible, specimens obtained from these procedures are cultured gillosis in patients with hematological malignancy [33, 35, 50– on fungal media for optimal growth of Aspergillus species [25, 52]. However, the sensitivity in nonneutropenic patients may 26]. However, results of cytologic examination, pathologic ex- be lower, possibly because of a lower residual fungal burden amination, direct smears, and culture may be falsely negative or anti-Aspergillus antibodies [53, 54]. The combined use of for clinical specimens from patients who are already receiving serum galactomannan antigen measurement and detection of systemic antifungal therapy and in cases in which the diagnostic pulmonary infiltrates by early use of CT should improve de- procedure could not be performed directly in the affected area tection of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis and permit earlier (e.g., when the bronchoscopic examination or washing could initiation of antifungal therapy [55]. Several variables, including not be performed directly in the affected area or when the antifungal therapy or prophylaxis, significantly reduce levels of bronchoscope or biopsy needle could not reach the infected circulating galactomannan [35, 52]. False-positive results have tissues). Thus, lack of a positive culture or direct smear result been reported in several contexts, including in patients who does not rule out the diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis. More- have received certain antibiotics (pipercillin-tazobactam and over, recovery of Aspergillus species from clinical specimens by amoxicillin-clavulanate), in cases of neonatal colonization with invasive procedures may be impractical in patients who are Bifidobacterium, the in cases in which plasmalyte is used in hemodynamically unstable, are severely hypoxic, have low bronchioalveolar lavage fluids, and in patients with other in- platelet counts, or have advanced coagulation deficits. Thus, vasive mycoses (including Penicillium, histoplasmosis, and blas- other markers of infection are often used in the assessment of tomycosis) [36, 56–61]. Despite these limitations, this assay is patients at risk for invasive aspergillosis. a useful adjunctive test to establish an early diagnosis, partic- Increasing recognition of the halo sign and air-crescent sign ularly when used in serial screening of patients at high risk of by improved CT technology in immunocompromised patients infection. has greatly facilitated the diagnosis of invasive pulmonary as- Other potential circulating markers for detection of asper- pergillosis in patients with hematologic conditions [27–31]. gillosis include (1r3)-b-D-glucans detected by the Tachypleus Although these radiological features are characteristic, they are or Limulus assay [62–66]. The Tachypleus or Limulus assay not diagnostic of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Infections used to detect the presence of (1r3)-b-D-glucans is a variation due to other angioinvasive filamentous fungi, such as Zygo- of the limulus assay used to detect endotoxin. The presence of mycetes, Fusarium species, and Scedosporium species, as well as (1r3)-b-D-glucans in serum signifies the presence of fungal to Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Nocardia species, may cause a invasion but is not specific for Aspergillus species [67]. False- halo sign and other radiological features described for asper- positive results can occur in a variety of contexts, such as gillosis. Although these more characteristic radiological patterns through glucan contaminated blood collection tubes, gauze, of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis have been well described depth-type membrane filters for blood processing, and in vitro in neutropenic hosts, less is known about the features of these tests using various antibiotics (e.g., some cephalosporins, car- lesions in other immunocompromised patients [27, 29]. bapenems, and ampicillin-sulbactam) [68]. The Fungitell assay The availability of the galactomannan EIA also may con- (Associates of Cape Cod) for detection of (1r3)-b-D-glucans tribute substantially toward a non–culture-based diagnosis of is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) invasive aspergillosis. EIA for galactomannan has been validated for the diagnosis of invasive mycoses, including aspergillosis in animal models and in patients as a surrogate marker for [66, 69]. One study reported that, among 283 patients with detection of invasive aspergillosis [32–42]. Galactomannan an- acute myeloid leukemia and myelodysplastic syndrome who tigen has also been detected in CSF samples from patients with were receiving antifungal prophylaxis, the (1r3)-b-D-glucan CNS aspergillosis [43–45] and in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid assay was sensitive and specific in early detection of 20 proven specimens from patients with invasive pulmonary aspergillosis, or probable invasive fungal infections, including candidiasis, although the use of EIA for galactomannan in such contexts fusariosis, trichosporonosis, and aspergillosis [66, 69]. The da- is investigational [46, 47]. In addition to facilitating early de- tabase for this assay in other populations at high risk for in- tection, serial assessment of galactomannan antigenemia may vasive aspergillosis is limited, and more research is required in facilitate therapeutic monitoring [48, 49]. However, the use of these populations [66, 69]. PCR-based diagnosis, which am- serial galactomannan for therapeutic monitoring remains in- plifies Aspergillus-specific fungal genes (usually ribosomal DNA vestigational. Thus, duration of therapy should be determined, genes), has shown considerable promise for invasive aspergil- not solely by normalization of antigenemia, but also by reso- losis [70–79]. However, these systems have not been standard- lution of clinical and radiological findings. ized, are not commercially available, and remain investigational Several well-conducted studies of this EIA system have dem- [80]. Combining non–culture-based diagnostics (e.g., PCR and onstrated good sensitivity in the detection of invasive asper- GM and GM and [1r3]-b-D-glucan) is an important research 330 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
direction that may improve the overall predictive value of these experience of administration of these agents is predominantly systems. in adults, specific notice is given to the need for adjustment of The development of standardized methodology for antifun- dosages in pediatric patients, to obtain plasma exposures com- gal susceptibility testing is another recent advance in the lab- parable to those of adults. These pharmacological differences oratory evaluation of Aspergillus species. Interpretive break- in pediatric and adult dosing are discussed in more detail else- points have not been established for any of the antifungal agents where [87, 88]. against filamentous fungi. However, new developments through the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute provide repro- AMB ducible methods for antifungal susceptibility testing. Further AMB is a natural polyene macrolide antibiotic that consists of studies using these in vitro methods may lead to improved 7 conjugated double bonds, an internal ester, a free carboxyl rationale for selection of antifungal compounds in the treat- group, and a glycoside side chain with a primary amino group. ment of invasive aspergillosis. Although azole resistance by As- It is not orally absorbed. For IV use, AMB has been solubilized pergillus species is unusual, patients exposed chronically to an- with deoxycholate as micellar suspension (D-AMB). AMB pri- tifungal triazoles have been reported to have refractory infection marily acts by binding to ergosterol (the principal sterol in the caused by isolates with elevated MICs [81, 82]. cell membrane of most medically important fungi), leading to Recognizing that other filamentous fungi, such as Fusarium species, Scedosporium species, various dematiaceous (pig- the formation of ion channels and fungal cell death. AMB also mented) moulds, and Zygomycetes, may cause similar patterns binds to cholesterol (the main sterol of mammalian cell mem- of infection, a definitive microbiological diagnosis should be branes), although with less avidity than for ergosterol, resulting established where possible. Non-Aspergillus filamentous fungi in cellular injury and end organ dysfunction. A second mech- may require different antifungal agents and may carry a prog- anism of action of AMB may involve oxidative damage of the nosis that is distinct from those of Aspergillus species. cell through a cascade of oxidative reactions linked to lipo- peroxidation of the cell membrane. AMB has in vitro and in ANTIFUNGAL COMPOUNDS USED FOR vivo activity against most Aspergillus species. Most isolates of TREATMENT OF INVASIVE ASPERGILLOSIS A. terreus are resistant to AMB in vitro, in vivo, and in patients. Following IV administration, AMB becomes highly protein Over the past decade, a considerable expansion in antifungal bound before distributing predominantly into the reticuloen- drug research and the clinical development of several new com- dothelial tissues (liver, spleen, bone marrow, and lung) and the pounds and strategies targeted against invasive aspergillosis kidney. Peak plasma concentrations of 2–4 mg/mL are achieved have occurred [83]. The following FDA-approved compounds following IV infusion of 1 mg/kg of D-AMB. Clearance from have in vitro, in vivo, and clinical activity against Aspergillus plasma is slow, with a b half-life of 24–48 h and a terminal species and are licensed for treatment of invasive aspergillosis: half-life of 15 days. Despite mostly undetectable concentra- D-AMB and its lipid formulations (AMB lipid complex tions in the CSF, D-AMB is active in the treatment of some [ABLC], L-AMB, and AMB colloidal dispersion [ABCD]), itra- fungal infections of the CNS because of its penetration into conazole, voriconazole, posaconazole, and caspofungin. infected brain tissue via a disrupted blood-brain barrier. Voriconazole and D-AMB are the only compounds licensed D-AMB causes acute infusion-related reactions and dose- in the United States for primary treatment of invasive asper- limiting nephrotoxicity. Infusion-related reactions include fe- gillosis. The LFABs, itraconazole, and caspofungin are approved ver, rigors, chills, myalgias, arthralgias, nausea, vomiting, head- for salvage therapy of invasive aspergillosis. Posaconazole is licensed for prophylaxis of invasive aspergillosis in neutropenic aches, and bronchospasm. D-AMB–induced nephrotoxicity is patients with leukemia and myelodysplasia and in allogeneic characterized by azotemia, urinary wasting of potassium and HSCT recipients with GVHD. Posaconazole also was approved magnesium, renal tubular acidosis, and impaired urinary con- in the European Union for treatment of invasive aspergillosis centration ability. Azotemia attributable to D-AMB is partic- that is refractory to an AMB formulation or to itraconazole. ularly common in the doses required for treatment of invasive Micafungin and anidulafungin, which are also members of the aspergillosis. D-AMB–related azotemia is exacerbated by con- class of echinocandins, have in vitro, in vivo, and clinical ac- comitant nephrotoxic agents, particularly cyclosporine and tac- tivity against aspergillosis but are not licensed in the United rolimus. Renal toxicity associated with the use of D-AMB has States for this indication. Antifungal management of invasive the potential to lead to renal failure and dialysis, particularly aspergillosis is summarized in table 2. A comprehensive review in HSCT recipients and in patients with diabetes mellitus, pa- of antifungal compounds is beyond the scope of these guide- tients with underlying renal impairment, and patients receiving lines and is covered in detail elsewhere [84–86]. Because the concomitant nephrotoxic agents. Hospitalized patients receiv- IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 331
Table 2. Summary of recommendations for the treatment of aspergillosis. a Therapy b Condition Primary Alternative Comments Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Voriconazole (6 mg/kg IV every 12 h for 1 L-AMB (3–5 mg/kg/day IV), ABLC (5 mg/ Primary combination ther- day, followed by 4 mg/kg IV every 12 kg/day IV), caspofungin (70 mg day 1 IV apy is not routinely rec- h; oral dosage is 200 mg every 12 h) and 50 mg/day IV thereafter), micafun- ommended based on gin (IV 100–150 mg/day; dose not esta- lack of clinical data; ad- c blished ), posaconazole (200 mg QID dition of another agent initially, then 400 mg BID PO after sta- or switch to another d bilization of disease ), itraconazole (dos- drug class for salvage e age depends upon formulation) therapy may be consid- ered in individual pa- tients; dosage in pediat- ric patients for voriconazole is 5–7 mg/ kg IV every 12 h and for caspofungin is 50 mg/ m2/day; limited clinical experience is reported with anidulafungin; dos- age of posaconazole in pediatric patients has not been defined; indi- cations for surgical in- tervention are outlined in table 3 Invasive sinus aspergillosis Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Similar to invasive pulmo- nary aspergillosis Tracheobronchial aspergillosis Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Similar to invasive pulmo- nary aspergillosis Chronic necrotizing pulmonary Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Because chronic necrotiz- aspergillosis (subacute inva- ing pulmonary aspergil- sive pulmonary aspergillosis) losis requires a pro- tracted course of therapy measured in months, an orally ad- ministered triazole, such as voriconazole or itra- conazole, would be pre- ferred over a parenter- ally administered agent Aspergillosis of the CNS Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis This infection is associ- ated with the highest mortality among all of the different patterns of invasive aspergillosis; drug interactions with anticonvulsant therapy f Aspergillus infections of the … Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Endocardial lesions heart (endocarditis, pericardi- caused by Aspergillus tis, and myocarditis) species require surgical resection; aspergillus pericarditis usually re- quires pericardiectomy f Aspergillus osteomyelitis and … Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Surgical resection of devi- septic arthritis talized bone and carti- lage is important for cu- rative intent Aspergillus infections of the Intraocular AMB indicated with partial Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillo- Systemic therapy may be f eye (endophthalmitis and vitrectomy sis; limited data with echinocandins beneficial in manage- keratitis) ment of aspergillus en- dophthalmitis; ophthal- mologic intervention and management is rec- ommended for all forms of ocular infection; topi- cal therapy for keratitis is indicated (continued) 332
Table 2. (Continued.) a Therapy b Condition Primary Alternative Comments f Cutaneous aspergillosis … Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Surgical resection is indi- cated where feasible f Aspergillus peritonitis … Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis … Empirical and preemptive anti- For empirical antifungal therapy, L-AMB (3 … Preemptive therapy is a fungal therapy mg/kg/day IV), caspofungin (70 mg day logical extension of em- 1 IV and 50 mg/day IV thereafter), itra- pirical antifungal therapy conazole (200 mg every day IV or 200 in defining a high-risk mg BID), voriconazole (6 mg/kg IV ev- population with evi- ery 12h for 1 day, followed by 3 mg/kg dence of invasive fungal IV every 12 h; oral dosage is 200 mg infection (e.g., pulmo- every 12 h) nary infiltrate or positive galactomannan assay result) Prophylaxis against invasive Posaconazole (200 mg every 8h) Itraconazole (200 mg every 12 h IV for 2 Efficacy of posaconazole aspergillosis days, then 200 mg every 24 h IV) or prophylaxis demon- itraconazole (200 mg PO every 12 h); strated in high-risk pa- micafungin (50 mg/day) tients (patients with GVHD and neutropenic patients with AML and MDS) g Aspergilloma No therapy or surgical resection Itraconazole or voriconazole; similar to in- The role of medical ther- vasive pulmonary aspergillosis apy in treatment of as- pergilloma is uncertain; penetration into preex- isting cavities may be minimal for AMB but is excellent for itraconazole Chronic cavitary pulmonary Itraconazole or voriconazole Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Innate immune defects g aspergillosis demonstrated in most of these patients; long- term therapy may be needed; surgical resec- tion may lead to signifi- cant complications; an- ecdotal responses to IFN-g Allergic bronchopulmonary Itraconazole Oral voriconazole (200 mg PO every 12 h) Corticosteroids are a cor- aspergillosis or posaconazole (400 mg PO BID) nerstone of therapy; itraconazole has a de- monstrable corticoste- roid-sparing effect Allergic aspergillus sinusitis None or itraconazole Few data on other agents … NOTE. ABLC, AMB lipid complex; AMB, amphotericin B; AML, acute myelogenous leukemia; BID, twice daily; GVHD, graft-versus-host disease; IV, intravenous; L-AMB, liposomal AMB; MDS, myelodysplastic syndrome; PO, orally; QID, 4 times daily. a Duration of therapy for most conditions for aspergillosis has not been optimally defined. Most experts attempt to treat pulmonary infection until resolution or stabilization of all clinical and radiographic manifestations. Other factors include site of infection (e.g., osteomyelitis), level of immunosuppression, and extent of disease. Reversal of immunosuppression, if feasible, is important for a favorable outcome for invasive aspergillosis. b Alternative (salvage) therapy for patients refractory to or intolerant of primary antifungal therapy. c Micafungin has been evaluated as salvage therapy for invasive aspergillosis but remains investigational for this indication, and the dosage has not been established. d Posaconazole has been approved for the salvage treatment of invasive aspergillosis in the European Union but has not been evaluated as primary therapy for invasive aspergillosis. e Dosage of itraconazole in treatment of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis depends on formulation. The dosage for tablets is 600 mg/day for 3 days, followed by 400 mg/day. Although used in some case reports, oral solution is not licensed for treatment of invasive aspergillosis. Parenteral formulation has been studied in a limited series using a dosage of 200 mg every 12h IV for 2 days, followed by 200 mg daily thereafter (whether this is an optimal dosage has not been defined). f Most of these cases have been treated primarily with deoxycholate AMB in individual case reports. Although the preponderance of cases treated with voriconazole in the randomized trial consisted of pulmonary invasive aspergillosis, successful treatment of other cases of extrapulmonary and disseminated infection allows one to infer that voriconazole would also be effective in these cases, so that voriconazole is recommended as primary therapy for most of these patients. g A more recent classification divides aspergilloma into 2 categories: chronic cavitary and single aspergilloma. The latter does not require antifungal therapy but does require surgical therapy under some circumstances, and the former requires long-term antifungal therapy. 333
ing D-AMB have been reported to sustain a high frequency of relationships for ABLC and ABCD have not been well studied. renal insufficiency and an excess mortality [89, 90]. Whether higher dosages of LFABs are beneficial in the treatment of CNS aspergillosis, in other sites of infection, or in certain LFAB conditions is also not well defined. Dosages of LFABs in pe- Three LFABs have been approved in the United States and the diatric and adult patients achieve similar plasma exposures of European Union: ABCD (Amphocil or Amphotec), ABLC AMB. (Abelcet), and a small unilamellar vesicle L-AMB (AmBisome). Because of their reduced nephrotoxicity in comparison with Antifungal Triazoles D-AMB, these compounds allow for the infusion of higher The antifungal triazoles are synthetic compounds that have 1 dosages of AMB. Higher dosages are required for equivalent triazole ring attached to an isobutyl core (e.g., voriconazole, antifungal efficacy, because amphotericin has to be released ravuconazole, and isavuconazole) or to an asymmetric carbon from the synthetic phospholipids when in close proximity to atom with a lipophilic complex mixed functional aromatic ergosterol, allowing for delivery of enough AMB to the site of chain (e.g., itraconazole and posaconazole). These 2 classes of infection. anti-Aspergillus triazoles vary in their pharmacology and mech- Each of the lipid formulations has plasma pharmacokinetic anisms of resistance. Fluconazole, which also is an antifungal properties that are distinct from those of AMB. All 3 LFABs triazole, is not active against invasive aspergillosis. Voriconazole preferentially distribute to reticulo endothelial system tissues is FDA approved for the primary treatment of invasive asper- and functionally spare the kidney. In the kidney, less AMB is gillosis. Itraconazole is licensed for treatment of invasive as- released from the lipid carrier, because the synthetic phospho- pergillosis in patients who are refractory to or intolerant of lipids have a greater affinity for AMB than does cholesterol in standard antifungal therapy. Posaconazole is FDA approved for renal epithelial cell membranes. prevention of invasive aspergillosis in neutropenic patients re- Infusion-related adverse effects of fever, chills, and rigor are ceiving remission induction chemotherapy for acute myelo- less frequent with L-AMB, compared with D-AMB. However, genous leukemia or myelodysplastic syndrome and for HSCT individual cases of substernal chest discomfort, respiratory dis- recipients with GVHD. The antifungal triazoles target ergosterol tress, and sharp flank pain have been noted during infusion of biosynthesis by inhibiting the fungal cytochrome P450–depen- L-AMB, and in a comparative study, hypoxic episodes asso- dent enzyme lanosterol 14-a-demethylase, resulting in altered ciated with fever and chills were more frequent in ABCD re- cell membrane function and cell death or inhibition of cell cipients than in D-AMB recipients. Mild increases in serum growth and replication. The triazoles also inhibit cytochrome bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase levels have been observed P450–dependent enzymes of the fungal respiration chain. The with all 3 formulations. Idiosyncratic reactions to one LFAB anti-Aspergillus triazoles are active in vitro and in vivo against do not preclude the use of another LFAB. all common species of Aspergillus. Although some isolates of ABLC and ABCD are approved at dosages of 5 mg/kg/day A. fumigatus have been found to be resistant to itraconazole, and 3–4 mg/kg/day, respectively, and L-AMB is approved at a resistance to the anti-Aspergillus triazoles has been unusual thus dosage of 3–5 mg/kg/day for salvage therapy of invasive as- far; however, recent studies suggest that the rate may be in- pergillosis. A dosage of 3 mg/kg/day of L-AMB is used initially creasing [82, 93]. for empirical antifungal therapy in persistently febrile neutro- Voriconazole. Voriconazole is formulated as tablets or as a penic patients. The optimal dosage for treatment of invasive sulfobutyl-ether cyclodextrin solution for IV administration. aspergillosis has not been defined for any of the LFABs. Al- Sulfobutyl-ether cyclodextrin and voriconazole dissociate in though many experts would use the higher dosage range for plasma and follow their own disposition. As the cyclodextrin treatment of documented infection, there are no data from molecule is renally cleared, accumulation of the vehicle occurs controlled trials supporting higher dosages. Although L-AMB in individuals with renal insufficiency. The consequences of has been safely administered at dosages as high as 15 mg/kg/ plasma accumulation of sulfobutyl-ether cyclodextrin are un- day, one study did not demonstrate a trend to a dose-response certain at this time, and caution is advised when using the IV relationship [91]. That higher dosages of L-AMB are not nec- formulation in patients with renal impairment (C-III). The essarily equivalent to greater response rate was recently dem- relative benefits and uncertain risks of the sulfobutyl-ether cy- onstrated by Cornely et al. [92]. This recent prospective, ran- clodextrin parenteral solution of voriconazole in the context domized trial of L-AMB, which compared a dosage of 3 mg/ of invasive aspergillosis and renal failure should be determined kg/day with a dosage of 10 mg/kg/day for primary treatment on an individual patient basis. This concern does not apply to of proven and probable invasive aspergillosis in 201 patients, orally administered voriconazole. The oral formulation has found similar survival rates and overall response rates; greater good bioavailability in the fed or fasted state. Voriconazole is toxicity was seen in the higher-dosage group. The dose-response widely distributed in mammalian tissues, with CSF levels of 334 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
∼50% in plasma levels. The elimination half-life of ∼6 h war- Absorption is improved when the capsules are taken with food rants twice-daily dosing. Voriconazole is hepatically metabo- or an acidic cola beverage. HPCD solution of itraconazole pro- lized, with only 5% of the drug appearing unchanged in the vides more-uniform oral bioavailability that is further enhanced urine. This agent exhibits nonlinear pharmacokinetics, with in the fasting state. Systemic absorption of the cyclodextrin maximum concentration in plasma and area under the curve carrier is negligible. increasing disproportionally with increasing dose. Voriconazole Itraconazole is extensively metabolized in the liver and is is both a substrate and an inhibitor of CYP2C19, CYP2C9, and excreted in metabolized form into bile and urine. The major CYP3A4. The patient’s current medications should be reviewed metabolite, hydroxy-itraconazole, possesses antifungal activity for potentially deleterious drug interactions. Allelic polymor- that is similar to that of itraconazole [96–98]. Most observed phisms in CYP2C19 may result phenotypically in rapid or slow reactions to itraconazole are transient and include nausea and metabolism of voriconazole, possible resulting in significant vomiting, hypertriglyceridemia, hypokalemia, and elevated he- variation in plasma concentrations. Single-nucleotide poly- patic aminotransferase enzyme levels. Gastrointestinal intol- morphisms contributing to slow metabolism are represented erance appears to be more frequent with oral HPCD itracon- in higher frequencies among non-Indian Asian populations azole solution. Because itraconazole use may infrequently cause than among other populations. negative inotropic effects, it should be administered with cau- Treatment of invasive aspergillosis with voriconazole is ini- tion to patients with ventricular dysfunction. Itraconazole is a tiated with a loading dose of 6 mg/kg IV every 12 h for 2 doses, substrate of CYP3A4 but also interacts with the heme moiety followed by 4 mg/kg every 12 h. These dosages are greater than of CYP3A4, resulting in noncompetitive inhibition of oxidative those routinely administered for oral therapy (200 mg every metabolism of many CYP3A4 substrates. Serious interactions 12 h). Oral therapy can be approximated to the standard IV with some chemotherapeutic agents (e.g., cyclophosphamide) dosage by using 4 mg/kg/dose rounded up to convenient pill further limit its use [99]. sizes (B-III), although use of oral voriconazole in these doses The recommended dosage range of oral itraconazole in adults is investigational and has not been carefully studied. Because is 400 mg/day (capsules) and 2.5 mg/kg twice daily (HPCD patients initially received IV therapy in the original randomized solution). In pediatric patients aged 15 years, a dosage of oral clinical trial of voriconazole, parenteral therapy, where feasible, itraconazole HPCD solution of 2.5 mg/kg twice daily has been is recommended to approximate the results of that study. Be- recommended [100]. The approved adult dosages of IV HPCD cause of the more accelerated metabolic clearance in pediatric itraconazole are 200 mg twice daily for 2 days, followed by 200 patients, the doses of voriconazole may be higher [94]. A main- mg once daily for a maximum of 12 days. Because of the erratic tenance dosage of 7 mg/kg twice daily in pediatric patients is bioavailability of itraconazole, measurements of plasma con- recommended by the European Medicines Agency for the at- centrations of itraconazole by bioassay or by HPLC are rec- tainment of plasma levels comparable to those of adults. Load- ommended during oral therapy of invasive aspergillosis (A-III). ing regimens in pediatric populations have not been adequately Posaconazole. Posaconazole is structurally similar to itra- studied. Measurement of serum levels, especially in patients conazole but has been studied in the treatment of invasive receiving oral therapy, may be useful in some patients, either aspergillosis only in the oral formulation. Posaconazole exhibits to evaluate for potential toxicity or to document adequate drug exposure, especially in progressive infection (B-III) [95]. not only linear kinetics but also saturable absorption; thus, oral Voriconazole’s profile of adverse reactions includes transient loading doses are not possible. Steady-state levels may not be visual disturbances (characterized principally by photopsia); achieved for up to a week with posaconazole therapy, which hepatotoxicity, which may be dose limiting (manifested by el- may impact its use in primary therapy. Posaconazole undergoes evated serum bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase, and hepatic ami- hepatic metabolism via glucuronidation and also has the ca- notransferase enzyme levels); skin rash (usually in sunlight- pacity for drug-drug interactions through inhibition of CYP450 exposed areas), visual hallucinations; and others [85]. 3A4 isoenzymes. Significantly more toxicity was observed in Itraconazole. Itraconazole is a high molecular weight, patients with acute leukemia or myelodysplasia who were re- highly lipophilic compound that is formulated as capsules, oral ceiving posaconazole for prophylaxis than in such patients re- solution in hydroxypropyl-b-cyclodextrin (HPCD), and par- ceiving prophylactic fluconazole or itraconazole [92]. enteral solution that also uses HPCD as solubilizer. Absorption Laboratory animal studies demonstrate activity of the oral from the capsular formulation, which is enhanced by low gastric formulation in the prevention and treatment of experimental pH and dietary lipids, may be erratic or negligible in the fasting pulmonary and disseminated aspergillosis [101, 102]. Recently state, particularly in granulocytopenic patients with cancer and completed clinical trials are consistent with these laboratory in patients with hypochlorhydria, and its use in seriously ill findings, demonstrating activity in the prevention of invasive patients with life-threatening infection is not recommended. aspergillosis in neutropenic patients with acute myelogenous IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 335
leukemia and in HSCT recipients with GVHD, as well as in istration. They exhibit dose-proportional plasma pharmaco- salvage therapy for refractory invasive aspergillosis [103–105]. kinetics with a b half-life of 10–15 h that allows for once-daily The dosage of the oral suspension of prophylaxis is 200 mg dosing. All echinocandins are highly (195%) protein bound 3 times per day, and the dosage for salvage treatment is 800 and distribute into all major organ sites, including the brain; mg administered in 2 or 4 divided doses. The dosage in pe- however, concentrations in uninfected CSF are low. Caspofun- diatric patients is not established. Limited data are available on gin and micafungin are metabolized by the liver and slowly the use of therapeutic drug monitoring, but in one study, im- excreted into the urine and feces. Anidulafungin is slowly de- proved efficacy occurred with higher posaconazole drug levels graded nonenzymatically in plasma and then hepatically [103]. excreted. Therapeutic drug monitoring. A growing body of evidence At the currently investigated dosages, all echinocandins are suggests patient-to-patient variability in the pharmacokinetics generally well tolerated, and only a small fraction of patients of triazoles used for treatment or prophylaxis in invasive as- enrolled in the various clinical trials have discontinued therapy pergillosis [95, 103, 106, 107]. Absorption issues (for itracon- because of drug-related adverse events. The most frequently azole and posaconazole), drug-drug interactions (for all tria- reported adverse effects include increased liver aminotransfer- zoles), and pharmacogenetic differences (for voriconazole) all ase enzyme levels, gastrointestinal upset, and headaches. As with contribute in various degrees to this variability [84]. Although other basic polypeptides, the echinocandins have the potential the available data do not allow consensus and specific rec- to cause histamine release; however, histamine-like symptoms ommendations for therapeutic drug monitoring, accumulating have been observed only in isolated cases, which may be related reports suggest that plasma drug level monitoring may play an to infusion rates that are more rapid than recommended. The important role in optimizing the safety (for voriconazole and current echinocandins appear to have no significant potential flucytosine) and efficacy (for itraconazole, posaconazole, and for drug interactions mediated by the CYP450 enzyme system. possibly, voriconazole) of antifungals with significant interpa- Caspofungin can reduce the area under the curve of tacrolimus tient pharmacokinetic variability among a complex patient by ∼20% but has no effect on cyclosporine levels. However, population, such as patients at risk for or who have invasive cyclosporine increases the area under the curve of caspofungin aspergillosis. The necessity of documenting or continuing ther- by ∼35%; because of transient elevations of hepatic amino- apeutic drug monitoring (once therapeutic concentrations are transferase enzyme levels in single-dose interaction studies, the documented) should be individualized as determined by the concomitant use of both drugs should be done with caution clinical status of the host (e.g., specific organ function, co- (B-III). Finally, inducers of drug clearance and/or mixed in- morbidities, and receipt of concomitant medications) and the ducer/inhibitors, namely efavirenz, nelfinavir, nevirapine, phen- overall treatment plans. Although further work is needed to ytoin, rifampin, dexamethasone, and carbamazepine, may re- validate therapeutic drug monitoring approaches for antifun- duce caspofungin concentrations. gals, the committee recommends that determination of a Caspofungin is indicated in patients with probable or proven plasma drug level, in conjunction with other measures of clin- invasive aspergillosis that is refractory to or intolerant of other ical assessment, may be another factor in evaluating reasons approved therapies. The currently recommended dosage regi- for therapeutic failure attributable to suboptimal drug expo- men of caspofungin in adults consists of a single 70-mg loading sures or for toxicity attributable to the drug (B-III). dose on day 1, followed by 50 mg/day thereafter, administered by slow IV infusion of ∼1 h. Maertens et al. [109] reported Echinocandins: Caspofungin, Micafungin, and Anidulafungin the use of higher doses of caspofungin (70 mg/day) for use in The echinocandins are a novel class of semisynthetic amphi- salvage combination therapy of invasive aspergillosis. In cases philic lipopeptides composed of a cyclic hexapeptide core of markedly reduced hepatic function, adult patients should linked to a variably configured N-acyl side chain [108]. The receive a daily dose of 35 mg. Caspofungin administration at echinocandins act by noncompetitive inhibition of the synthesis 50 mg/m2/day in children provides exposure that is comparable of 1,3-b-glucan, a polysaccharide in the cell wall of many path- to that obtained at a dosage of 50 mg/day in adults [110]. ogenic fungi. Together with chitin, the rope-like glucan fibrils Micafungin and anidulafungin have activity against Aspergillus are responsible for the cell wall’s strength and shape. They are species but are not approved for that indication, and optimal important in maintaining the osmotic integrity of the fungal doses for aspergillosis have not been established. Micafungin cell and play a key role in cell division and cell growth. Because at a mean daily dose of 111 mg was used in one open-label of their distinct mechanism of action, the echinocandins have trial. However, on a mg/kg basis, higher doses may be needed the potential for use in combination regimens with currently in young children and infants to achieve a plasma exposure available standard antifungal agents. that is comparable to that in adults [111, 112]. Although an- All current echinocandins are only available for IV admin- idulafungin is active in experimental pulmonary aspergillosis, 336 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
there is relatively little reported experience describing its use day) and showed similar efficacy in both arms but greater tox- in the treatment of invasive aspergillosis. icity in the higher-dose arm. These results suggest that L-AMB may be considered as alternative primary therapy in some TREATMENT GUIDELINE OVERVIEW patients (A-I). For salvage therapy, agents include LFABs (A- II), posaconazole (B-II), itraconazole (B-II), caspofungin (B- The following practice guidelines provide recommendations for II), or micafungin (B-II). In that context, the diagnosis should treatment of the different forms of aspergillosis. For each form be confirmed. Therapeutic options include a change of class of aspergillosis, the objective, treatment options, outcome of using an AMB formulation or an echinocandin (B-II); ad- treatment, evidence, values, benefits and harms, and key rec- ditional use of an azole should take into account prior therapy, ommendations are specified, where appropriate. The panel per- host factors, and pharmacokinetic considerations. formed extensive review of all the randomized, controlled, and In the absence of a well-controlled, prospective clinical observational trials published in the English-language literature. trial, routine administration of combination therapy for pri- Final recommendations were discussed by the panel and de- mary therapy is not routinely recommended (B-II). The com- termined by consensus. Because invasive pulmonary aspergil- mittee recognizes, however, that in the context of salvage losis is the most common life-threatening form of invasive aspergillosis, more emphasis is placed on its management than therapy, an additional antifungal agent might be added to on other aspects of clinical infection. Many of the statements current therapy, or combination antifungal drugs from dif- concerning treatment of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis are ferent classes other than those in the initial regimen may be also applicable to other forms of invasive aspergillosis. used (B-II). In addition, management of breakthrough in- vasive aspergillosis in the context of mould-active azole pro- INVASIVE ASPERGILLOSIS phylaxis or suppressive therapy is not defined by clinical trial data but would suggest a switch to another drug class (B- III). Paramount to the successful treatment of invasive pul- INVASIVE PULMONARY ASPERGILLOSIS monary aspergillosis is the reversal of immunosuppression (e.g., Without adequate therapy, invasive pulmonary aspergillosis will reduction in the dosage of corticosteroids) or recovery from almost always progress to relentless fatal pneumonia. In neu- neutropenia. Surgical resection of Aspergillus-infected tissue tropenic patients, this pneumonia may be characterized by dev- may be useful in patients with lesions that are contiguous astating hemorrhagic infarction or progressive necrotizing with the great vessels or pericardium, lesions causing he- pneumonia. Without adequate therapy, invasive pulmonary as- moptysis from a single focus, and lesions causing erosion pergillosis is further complicated by dissemination to the CNS into the pleural space or ribs (B-III). or by extension to contiguous intrathoracic structures, includ- Duration of antifungal therapy for invasive pulmonary as- ing the great vessels and the heart. Because of the potential pergillosis is not well defined. We generally recommend that progression of this infection, the early administration of an- treatment of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis be continued for tifungal therapy while diagnostic evaluation is undertaken is a minimum of 6–12 weeks; in immunosuppressed patients, critical. therapy should be continued throughout the period of im- munosuppression and until lesions have resolved. Long-term Key Recommendations therapy of invasive aspergillosis is facilitated by the availability Early initiation of antifungal therapy in patients with of oral voriconazole in stable patients. For patients with suc- strongly suspected invasive aspergillosis is warranted while cessfully treated invasive aspergillosis who will require sub- a diagnostic evaluation is conducted (A-I) [29, 92]. The de- sequent immunosuppression, resumption of antifungal ther- cision of medical therapy for treatment of invasive pulmonary apy can prevent recurrent infection (A-III) [113, 114]. aspergillosis has been greatly facilitated by a randomized, con- Therapeutic monitoring of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis trolled trial of voriconazole versus D-AMB. includes serial clinical evaluation of all symptoms and signs, as Because of better survival and improved responses of initial well as performance of radiographic imaging, usually with CT, therapy with voriconazole, primary therapy with D-AMB is not at regular intervals. The frequency with which CT should be recommended (A-I). For primary treatment of invasive pul- performed cannot be universally defined and should be indi- monary aspergillosis, IV or oral voriconazole is recom- vidualized on the basis of the rapidity of evolution of pul- mended for most patients (A-I). Oral therapy can be maxi- monary infiltrates and the acuity of the individual patient. The mized by using a dose of 4 mg/kg rounded up to convenient volume of pulmonary infiltrates may increase for the first 7– pill sizes (B-111). For seriously ill patients, the parenteral 10 days of therapy—especially in the context of granulocyte formulation is recommended (A-III). A randomized trial com- recovery [27]. The use of serial serum galactomannan assays pared 2 initial dosages of L-AMB (3 mg/kg/day and 10 mg/kg/ for therapeutic monitoring is promising but remains investi- IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 337
gational [48, 49]. Progressive increase in Aspergillus antigen treatment groups, the patient population included those with levels over time signifies a poor prognosis. However, resolution possible aspergillosis. When those patients with possible as- of galactomannan antigenemia to a normal level is not suf- pergillosis are excluded from the analysis, the data reveal a trend ficient as a sole criterion for discontinuation of antifungal toward improved response in patients with proven and prob- therapy (B-III). Further data elucidating the prognostic and able aspergillosis who were treated with the higher dosage, therapeutic value of serial galactomannan levels in patients with which is consistent with the data from animal models dem- invasive pulmonary aspergillosis are needed. onstrating a dose-response relationship [32, 121]. Another study randomized patients with documented invasive asper- Evidence gillosis to receive ABCD (6 mg/kg/day) versus D-AMB (1 mg/ Data on antifungal therapy. There are few randomized clin- kg/day) for primary treatment of invasive aspergillosis [119]. ical trials on the treatment of invasive aspergillosis. Invasive This study found that patients randomized to either arm had pulmonary aspergillosis is a life-threatening infection associated similar outcomes but poor overall responses (patients with with severe morbidity and mortality. Invasive pulmonary as- complete and partial responses, 17% in the ABCD group vs. pergillosis may be the source for dissemination to the CNS and 23% in the D-AMB group), and those receiving ABCD had less other critical organs. This infection has been extremely difficult nephrotoxicity (25% vs. 49%). More recently, Cornely et al. to study in prospective, randomized trials. The largest pro- [92] compared an initial dosage of L-AMB of 10 mg/kg/day spective, randomized trial for the treatment of invasive pul- for 2 weeks with a dosage of 3 mg/kg/day. In that study, among monary aspergillosis demonstrated that voriconazole was su- 201 patients, overall outcomes in the 2 arms were similar (46% perior to D-AMB, followed by other licensed antifungal therapy in the high-dose arm vs. 50% in the low-dose arm), but there [115]. All patients had proven or probable invasive aspergillosis, was more toxicity (32% vs. 20%) in the high-dose arm, sug- and most of them had pneumonia. Voriconazole was admin- gesting that higher doses were not beneficial in these patients, istered at a dosage of 6 mg/kg every 12 h for 2 doses as a the majority of whom had early invasive pulmonary aspergil- loading dose, followed by 4 mg/kg every 12 h IV for the first losis diagnosed by CT. 7 days, followed by 200 mg twice daily thereafter. D-AMB was For patients who are intolerant of or refractory to voricon- administered at 1.0–1.5 mg/kg/day IV; other licensed antifungal azole, a formulation of AMB is an appropriate alternative. D- therapy was permitted if the initial therapy failed or if the AMB historically has been used in the treatment of invasive patient had intolerance to the first drug. This study demon- aspergillosis. However, the available data indicate that the strated significantly improved survival, improved overall re- LFABs are as effective as D-AMB but less nephrotoxic [119, sponse rate at 12 weeks of therapy, and improved overall re- 122–125]. That LFABs are effective against invasive pulmonary sponse at end of therapy. Successful outcome was achieved in aspergillosis and other forms of invasive aspergillosis is also 53% of patients in the voriconazole arm and 32% of patients demonstrated in several large, open-label, compassionate-re- in the D-AMB arm, resulting in an absolute difference of 21%. lease studies with a response rate of ∼40% [124–126]. For those Survival rate at 12 weeks was 71% among voriconazole-treated patients with underlying hepatotoxicity or other contraindi- patients and 58% among D-AMB–treated patients. Recipients cations to voriconazole, an LFAB is less toxic than is D-AMB of voriconazole had fewer severe drug-related adverse events. and is likely to be at least as effective as D-AMB as an alternative However, transient visual disturbances occurred more fre- for primary therapy. quently with voriconazole, as discussed in the earlier section A study of caspofungin for patients who are intolerant of or on antifungal compounds in this article. The efficacy of vori- refractory to conventional therapy also demonstrated a favor- conazole was further demonstrated in pediatric and adult pa- able response rate of ∼40% [127]. Higher responses (50%) tients receiving voriconazole for treatment of invasive asper- occurred with invasive pulmonary aspergillosis than with dis- gillosis who were refractory to or intolerant of conventional seminated aspergillosis (23%). Drug-related nephrotoxicity and antifungal therapy [116–118]; the overall response rate was 43% hepatotoxicity occurred in !5% of patients. and 48% for pediatric and adult patients, respectively. Orally administered itraconazole has also been used to treat Two earlier and smaller randomized trials of the primary patients with invasive aspergillosis who are refractory to or treatment of invasive aspergillosis [119, 120] and another recent intolerant of D-AMB [24, 128]. In a study of 76 evaluable dose comparison study of L-AMB [92] have been reported. An patients, all of whom were able to take oral therapy, 30 patients earlier prospective, randomized trial of 2 dosages of L-AMB (39%) had a complete or partial response, with success rates (1.0 mg/kg/day vs. 4.0 mg/kg/day) for treatment of invasive varying widely according to site of disease and underlying dis- aspergillosis was conducted by the European Organization for ease group [128]. More recent studies of the parenteral for- Research in Treatment of Cancer [120]. Although this study mulation of b-hydroxy-propyl-cyclodextrin itraconazole in the found no difference in response rate or survival between the 2 treatment of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis that was refrac- 338 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
tory to various forms of AMB have been reported, with overall port combination therapy as routine primary treatment of in- response rates of 52% [129, 130]. Measurement of itraconazole vasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Although initial laboratory serum levels are generally recommended to document ab- studies, case reports, and retrospective case series indicate en- sorption of drug (B-II). Although evidence to support a cor- couraging findings, the efficacy of primary combination anti- relation between higher drug levels and efficacy is limited, levels fungal therapy requires a prospective, randomized clinical trial 1250 ng/mL have been associated with more-favorable out- to justify this approach. Additional questions of optimal dosing, comes. Salvage therapy of itraconazole for treatment of in- pharmacokinetic interactions, potential toxic interactions, and vasive pulmonary aspergillosis that is refractory to primary cost-benefit ratios of primary combination antifungal therapy therapy with voriconazole is not recommended because of also require further investigation. the same mechanism of action or possible resistance and Impact of Aspergillus species. Consideration should be because of the erratic bioavailability and toxicity (B-II). given to the infecting species of Aspergillus. Most isolates of A. Posaconazole was approved in Europe for salvage treatment fumigatus are susceptible in vitro and responsive in vivo to of patients with invasive aspergillosis who are refractory to AMB AMB, voriconazole, posaconazole, itraconazole, and caspofun- or itraconazole. The overall success rate in an externally con- gin. However, most isolates of A. terreus are resistant in vitro trolled, open-label trial using Data Review Committee–assessed and in vivo to AMB. The aggregate body of data thus far global response at end of treatment was 42% for the posacon- warrants that an antifungal triazole should be used instead azole group and 26% for the control group [103]. The differ- of AMB in the primary treatment of infection due to A. ences in response between the treatment groups were preserved terreus (A-II) [18]. Although uncommon, some isolates of A. across additional, prespecified subsets, including infection site fumigatus that are resistant to itraconazole have been reported. (pulmonary or disseminated), hematological malignancy, Other species of Aspergillus may also be resistant to AMB, in- HSCT, baseline neutropenia, and enrollment reason (refractory cluding A. lentulus, A. nidulans, A. ustus, and Aspergillus ver- or intolerant). A difference in response was also seen in a con- sicolor. Known itraconazole-resistant isolates of A. fumigatus firmatory analysis subpopulation (patients who received prior were recovered from patients who were not profoundly im- antifungal therapy for 7–30 days before the start of salvage munosuppressed and otherwise should have responded to itra- therapy). As with other salvage trials, patients enrolled in this conazole [140]. Multiazole-resistant Aspergillus species have study were a selected population who had received prior ther- also been recently reported [82]. Antifungal susceptibility test- apy, and for posaconazole salvage studies, patients were also ing, especially in the context of prior azole therapy, may be selected on the basis of their ability to receive the oral for- warranted as a guide to therapy, although very limited clinical mulation of posaconazole. The salvage study also demonstrated data support this approach. Pending susceptibility data, the a direct relationship between serum concentration and response administration of a different class of agent (AMB formulation rate. One should note, however, that these serum concentra- or echinocandin) may be warranted. tions were achieved in patients receiving the highest adult dos- Use of colony-stimulating factors. Reversal of immuno- age (800 mg administered in divided doses over 24 h) at which suppression is an important factor in successful treatment of maximum absorption of compound is known to occur. Thus, invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Persistent neutropenia and further increases in the oral adult dosage are unlikely to yield chronic GVHD are 2 of the most important variables for poor higher plasma concentrations. outcome in invasive aspergillosis [6, 141]. Failure to recover Most of the prospective studies of second-line therapy have from neutropenia is often associated with a fatal outcome of been conducted by replacing the compound to which the pa- invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Although colony-stimulating tient is intolerant or against which the infection is progressing. factors are widely used to attempt to reduce the duration of Whether both drugs should be administered simultaneously neutropenia, there are limited data from randomized, con- has seldom been prospectively studied [111], nor are there trolled trials to demonstrate that granulocyte colony-stimulat- compelling prospective clinical data to support combination ing factor or granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating fac- antifungal therapy over single-agent therapy for primary ther- tor prevents the development of invasive pulmonary apy of invasive aspergillosis [131]. The addition of a second aspergillosis in patients with prolonged neutropenia (duration antifungal agent to a first agent that is failing or toxic is usually of neutropenia, 110 days) [142]. Although high-risk neutro- practiced out of understandable desperation. Nevertheless, lim- penic patients with invasive aspergillosis may already be re- ited in vitro, in vivo, and nonrandomized clinical trial data ceiving granulocyte colony-stimulating factor or granulocyte- suggest the benefit of some forms of combination therapy macrophage colony-stimulating factor as a component of against invasive aspergillosis [109, 131–137]. However, not all their cancer chemotherapy, those neutropenic patients who antifungal combinations are beneficial, and some may be del- are not receiving a colony-stimulating factor may benefit eterious [138, 139]. There are insufficient clinical data to sup- from the addition of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 339
or granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (B- resource should only be implemented for those patients with III). proven or probable infection who are anticipated to require Cytokines, such as granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, this bridge as a temporary measure until recovery from neu- granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and IFN-g, tropenia. Granulocyte transfusions have also been used in the also augment functional properties of phagocytic cells through treatment of refractory invasive aspergillosis and other infec- upregulation of chemotaxis, phagocytosis, oxidative metabo- tions in patients with CGD [17]. lism, and/or degranulation of neutrophils, and granulocyte col- Management of immunosuppressive therapies. With- ony-stimulating factor, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stim- drawal of corticosteroids or reduction of dosage is often crit- ulating factor, and IFN-g upregulate phagocytosis and the ical for successful outcome in invasive aspergillosis (A-III). respiratory burst of monocytes and macrophages [143, 144]. The failure to reduce an immunosuppressive dosage of systemic The clinical data suggest a potential role of IFN-g in selected corticosteroids usually results in relentless invasive fungal in- hosts for prevention or treatment of invasive aspergillosis [145]. fection. However, because control of underlying diseases, such Although clinical data supporting its use specifically for asper- as GVHD, may only be achieved by intense immunosuppres- gillosis are sparse, IFN-g is widely used for prevention of bac- sion, corticosteroid-sparing immunosuppressive strategies are terial and fungal infections in patients with chronic granulo- being used increasingly. TNF-a blockade with infliximab is one matous disease (CGD) [146]. Individual case reports suggest such strategy. However, because TNF-a is a key molecule in a role for IFN-g as adjunctive antifungal therapy for invasive the initial innate host defense against A. fumigatus, its inhibition aspergillosis in immunocompromised nonneutropenic pa- also may have deleterious immunological consequences leading tients, particularly those with CGD (B-III). to invasive aspergillosis [149–151]. Role of granulocyte transfusions. Granulocyte transfusions For patients with chronic immunosuppression, continu- may be another resource for the treatment of patients with ation of antifungal therapy throughout the duration of im- invasive pulmonary aspergillosis [147, 148]. Although use of munosuppression seems to be associated with a more fa- this modality for management of invasive pulmonary asper- vorable outcome (A-III). For patients with successfully treated gillosis has been controversial, the key element for improved invasive aspergillosis who will require subsequent immuno- outcome appears to be an adequate number of granulocytes suppression, resumption of antifungal therapy may prevent re- transfused to the profoundly neutropenic patient. The advent current infection from residual foci of infection that may or of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor mobilization of gran- may not be demonstrated by current imaging techniques [113]. ulocyte donors results in the strikingly (∼10-fold) increased Hemoptysis and surgical management. Hemoptysis is a number of granulocytes that can be recovered and subsequently serious complication of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis that administered to patients. In an open-label pilot study, Dignani may lead to exsanguination and respiratory arrest. Hemoptysis et al. [147] have reported the use of granulocyte colony-stim- in the course of invasive aspergillosis may occur during pro- ulating factor–mobilized granulocyte transfusions administered found pancytopenia or upon recovery from neutropenia [152, to patients with invasive aspergillosis and other mycoses due 153]. Early aggressive therapy and eradication of infection may to filamentous fungi. Stabilization of invasive pulmonary as- prevent this complication; however, there are no data to de- pergillosis was demonstrated in some of the patients who were finitively support this hypothesis. Because life-threatening he- otherwise experiencing refractory invasive fungal infection. Un- moptysis complicating invasive aspergillosis is reported most less patients recover from neutropenia, granulocyte transfusions often in patients already receiving antifungal chemotherapy, will not stabilize invasive aspergillosis indefinitely. surgical resection may be the only recourse to eradicate the Granulocyte transfusions can be accompanied by transfusion focus. reactions, including pulmonary dysfunction evidenced by hyp- Surgical resection of pulmonary lesions due to Aspergillus oxia and the acute onset of adult respiratory distress syndrome– species can provide a definitive diagnosis and can potentially like pulmonary infiltrates. Granulocyte transfusions are also completely eradicate a localized infection (table 3) [28, 154– associated with the transmission of cytomegalovirus infection. 158]. Surgical therapy may be useful in patients with lesions In cytomegalovirus-seronegative HSCT recipients, only cyto- that are contiguous with the great vessels or the pericardium, megalovirus-seronegative donors should be used for granulo- hemoptysis from a single cavitary lesion, or invasion of the cyte transfusions. Because there has been an association be- chest wall (B-II). Another relative indication for surgery is tween some of these reactions and simultaneous infusion of the resection of a single pulmonary lesion prior to intensive AMB, patients undergoing granulocyte transfusion with con- chemotherapy or HSCT (B-II). Although a successful course current use of AMB products usually have the AMB staggered of voriconazole may preclude the need for surgical resection by several hours from the granulocytes, with careful monitoring of pulmonary lesions, adjunctive surgical intervention is usually for this complication. Moreover, this limited blood product warranted for treatment of aspergillosis involving the heart, 340 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
Table 3. Relative indications for surgery in treatment of invasive aspergillosis. Condition Surgical procedure Comment Pulmonary lesion in proximity to Resection of pulmonary lesion May prevent erosion of pulmonary lesions great vessels or pericardium into great vessels and into pericardial space Pericardial infection Pericardiectomy Pericardiectomy reduces organism burden around heart and prevents tamponade Invasion of chest wall from con- Resection of pulmonary lesion Resection of lesion may relieve pain and tiguous pulmonary lesion prevent pleurocutaneous fistula Aspergillus empyema Placement of chest tube Reduces burden of organism in closed space Persistent hemoptysis from a Resection of cavity May prevent exsanguinating hemoptysis; single cavitary lesion other measures to reduce hemoptysis in- clude embolization of involved blood ves- sel and cauterization; however, recurrence of bleeding is possible Infection of skin and soft tissues Debridement, wide margin Surgical judgment used in extent of debride- surgical resection ment and resection, if indicated Infected vascular catheters and Removal of catheters and Removal of infected catheters and devices prosthetic devices devices provides definitive eradication Endocarditis Resection of vegetation and Vegetations may be valvular or mural; single infected valve mural lesions are resectable, particularly if pedunculated Osteomyelitis Debridement of infected bone Debridement of necrotic and infected bone reduces organism burden and allows bet- ter drug penetration; surgical judgment de- termines extent of debridement Sinusitis Resection of infected tissues Extent of debridement may vary from no in- tervention to wide resection, depending on surgical judgment Cerebral lesions Resection of infected tissue Extent of debridement may vary from no in- tervention to complete resection, depend- ing on location, neurological sequelae, ac- cessibility, and surgical judgment NOTE. Indications depend on multiple variables, severity of lesion, surgical judgment, and the ability of the patient to tolerate the operative procedure, as well as the potential role of alternative medical therapy. great vessels, pleural space, and bone. However, recent favorable impairment. The use of D-AMB in adult patients needs to be experience of using secondary antifungal prophylaxis after ini- assessed on an individual basis for the relative risks and con- tial successful primary therapy prior to HSCT in patients with sequences of renal impairment. In many resource-limited set- prior invasive aspergillosis suggests that antifungal therapy tings, D-AMB may be the only agent for primary treatment of alone may be effective [159, 160]. Early surgical evaluation and invasive aspergillosis and, as such, may be considered to be the close CT monitoring may be warranted during medical therapy, standard of care. to intervene if a lesion further encroaches upon a critical struc- ture. Decisions concerning surgical therapy should be individ- TRACHEOBRONCHIAL ASPERGILLOSIS ualized to account for a number of variables, including the degree of resection (e.g., wedge resection vs. pneumonectomy), Early treatment of tracheobronchial aspergillosis may result in potential impact of delays in chemotherapy, comorbidities, per- the prevention of anastomotic disruption and loss of the lung formance status, the goal of antineoplastic therapy (e.g., cu- graft, as well as resolution of ulcerative tracheobronchial lesions rative vs. palliative), and unilateral versus bilateral lesions. in lung transplant recipients. Pharmacoeconomics and costs. The complex issues of Key recommendations. Voriconazole is recommended as pharmacoeconomics and fiscal costs of antifungal therapy are initial therapy in the treatment of tracheobronchial asper- beyond the scope of these guidelines; however, these issues often gillosis (B-II). Little experience is available with caspofungin occur in the context of LFABs versus D-AMB. The poor out- or other echinocandins in treating this infection. Because the comes and fiscal costs of D-AMB–induced renal impairment use of D-AMB may result in increased nephrotoxicity in as- in compromised hosts are well documented. Whether there is sociation with calcineurin inhibitors, an LFAB is recom- a population for whom D-AMB can be used as first-line therapy mended if a polyene is considered in the patient (e.g., lung is an important question. Some pediatric patients, particularly transplant recipient) (B-III). Bronchoscopic evaluation is the neonates, may tolerate D-AMB with minimal or reversible renal most important aspect of initial diagnosis; CT will assess the IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 341
lack of progression to the remainder of the pulmonary tree. Evidence. CNPA is a distinct clinical and radiological form Reduction of immunosuppression, where possible, is an im- of pulmonary aspergillosis that most commonly causes a slowly portant element in improving therapeutic outcome. Aerosol- progressive inflammatory destruction of lung tissue in patients ized D-AMB or LFAB may have some benefit for delivering with underlying lung diseases and low grade immunosuppres- high concentrations of polyene therapy to the infected (often sion (e.g., prolonged use of systemic corticosteroids) [169, 170]. anastomotic) site; however, this approach has not been stan- The previous literature regarding CNPA included both subacute dardized and remains investigational (C-III). Cases of trach- invasive aspergillosis and other chronic forms of aspergillosis. eobronchial aspergillosis in immunocompromised patients who Because of their underlying primary chronic respiratory disease, have not received a transplant may be managed with a similar these patients are also at risk for succumbing to pulmonary approach. comorbidities. Evidence. Heart-lung and lung transplant recipients are at There are a limited number of small, nonrandomized, open- high risk for the development of invasive aspergillosis at the label studies that have been conducted for treatment of CNPA site of anastomosis between the recipient trachea and the donor [171–175]. Although variable responses have been reported in trachea or at the site of the junction of the main bronchus the small number of patients treated with itraconazole [171], [161, 162]. Tracheobronchial aspergillosis has also been de- itraconazole appears to be suppressive in CNPA [173]. Other scribed in the absence of an anastomotic site in other patient patients with CNPA have been treated with intracavitary in- populations, including patients who have undergone HSCT and stillation of AMB and, more recently, with voriconazole [172, patients with lymphoma, acute leukemia, or AIDS [163, 164]. 174, 175]. In general, the principles for treatment of CNPA are The spectrum of disease encompasses simple colonization, similar to those for invasive pulmonary aspergillosis described bronchitis, obstructing trachoebronchitis, ulcerative tracheo- above, with a greater emphasis on oral therapy. bronchitis, and pseudomembranous tracheobronchitis. Because this form of pulmonary aspergillosis is not usually associated SINGLE-ORGAN, EXTRAPULMONARY FORMS with pulmonary infiltrates in its initial stages, radiographic im- OF INVASIVE ASPERGILLOSIS ages may not identify the infection, which is otherwise easily Focal extrapulmonary invasive aspergillosis can develop as a seen during bronchoscopic examination. Bronchoscopic eval- single-organ infection or can occur in the context of dissem- uation is necessary for early diagnosis. Voriconazole and itra- inated infection. Because these are uncommon infections and conazole have been used successfully in the treatment of this occur in a wide spectrum of clinical conditions, no randomized form of pulmonary aspergillosis [116]. Parenteral AMB also clinical trials have been completed to assess therapeutic ap- has been used in this context. Direct instillation of AMB has proaches in patients with these infections. Thus, there are very been administered as an alternative approach to treatment of limited data on the treatment of these infections, and most this form of pulmonary aspergillosis, in association with sys- involve D-AMB as primary therapy simply because of its long- temic therapy [165, 166]. Inhalational AMB in the form of standing availability. However, based on the strength of the ABLC has also been used for the prevention of invasive as- randomized study comparing voriconazole to D-AMB [115], pergillosis in lung transplant recipients, in whom tracheobron- the panel recommends voriconazole for primary treatment chial aspergillosis is especially important [167, 168]. However, of these uncommon manifestations of invasive aspergillosis this modality remains investigational. (B-III). The use of voriconazole in these contexts is further supported by case series and anecdotal cases documenting the CHRONIC NECROTIZING PULMONARY efficacy of voriconazole in extrapulmonary infections, some of ASPERGILLOSIS (CNPA; SUBACUTE INVASIVE which have historically been associated with abysmal responses, PULMONARY ASPERGILLOSIS) including CNS infection [176], osteomyelitis [177], and en- Treatment of this infection may prevent progressive destruction docarditis [178, 179]. The use of alternative agents and salvage of lung tissue in patients who are already experiencing impaired therapy can be approached in a manner similar to that de- pulmonary function and who may have little pulmonary scribed for invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. reserve. ASPERGILLOSIS OF THE CNS Key recommendations. The greatest body of evidence re- garding effective therapy supports the use of orally admin- Treatment of CNS aspergillosis may reduce morbidity associ- istered itraconazole (B-III). Although voriconazole (and pre- ated with neurological deficits and improve survival. sumably posaconazole) is also likely to be effective, there is Key recommendations. Aggressive diagnostic and thera- less published information available for its use in CNPA (B- peutic intervention is important in patients with otherwise doc- III). Because long-term treatment is required, oral antifungal umented invasive pulmonary aspergillosis and signs of neu- therapy is preferred over parenteral therapy. rological deficits or unexplained abnormalities by CT or MRI. 342 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
The weight of evidence supports voriconazole as the primary vasive aspergillosis demonstrated a trend toward improvement recommendation for systemic antifungal therapy of CNS as- of CNS aspergillosis in patients who were treated with vori- pergillosis (A-II). Itraconazole, posaconazole, or LFAB are conazole [115]. The open-label studies of voriconazole in adult recommended for patients who are intolerant or refractory and pediatric patients also demonstrate activity of the triazole to voriconazole (B-III). There are few data supporting the use in treatment of CNS aspergillosis [116, 176]. Among patients of echinocandins as a single agent in salvage treatment of CNS with CNS aspergillosis who received voriconazole combined aspergillosis. Combination therapy with voriconazole and cas- with surgical intervention, responses were favorable in 35% pofungin is used for CNS aspergillosis but with minimal data (with long-term survival in 31%); thus, voriconazole is the to date. Surgical resection of lesions may be the definitive treat- recommended therapy for CNS aspergillosis [176]. Among the ment and may prevent serious neurological sequelae. Surgical LFABs, favorable responses have been achieved in case reports resection of lesions that would not result in worsening of neu- with L-AMB, ABLC, and ABCD [183–185]. Itraconazole and rological deficits also may improve outcome. Treatment of con- posaconazole have also been successfully used in treatment of tiguous infections of the paranasal sinuses or vertebral bodies CNS aspergillosis [103, 186–188]. The recent open-label, com- is a necessary part of management of this infection. Reversal passionate release study of caspofungin demonstrated response of any underlying immune deficits is paramount for successful of CNS aspergillosis that was refractory to AMB [127]. The outcome of CNS aspergillosis. Because there may be progression impact of these agents in the management of CNS aspergillosis of neurological deficits, there may be a tendency to use cor- appears to be beneficial. However, because of continued high ticosteroids. The role of corticosteroids in this context, however, rates of mortality, surgical resection of infected lesions may be is deleterious and should be avoided where possible (C-III). an important adjunct to improve antifungal therapy (A-II). The practice of intrathecal or intralesional antifungal chemo- Several reports underscore the role of surgical resection of CNS therapy is not recommended for treatment of CNS aspergillosis aspergillosis [176, 186, 189]. Other strategies for treatment of (B-III). Intrathecal administration of AMB does not allow pen- CNS aspergillosis have included higher doses of single agents, etration beyond the pia mater and may induce chemical ar- combinations of antifungal agents, and use of immunomo- achnoiditis, seizures, severe headache, and altered mental status. dulators [190]; however, there are no data from prospectively Instead, high-dose systemic antifungal therapy is recommended controlled clinical studies to suggest the superiority of these to achieve higher parenchymal concentrations. approaches, compared with standard single-agent therapy at Evidence. Aspergillus dissemination to the CNS is a dev- approved dosages. astating complication of invasive aspergillosis [2, 180, 181]. Epidural aspergillosis is an unusual manifestation of CNS This complication of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis has his- aspergillosis that most often arises from extension into the epidural space from vertebral abscess [191]. Systemic antifungal torically been associated with a mortality rate of 190%. Arising therapy and surgical drainage are considered to be standards most commonly as hematogenous dissemination from a pul- of practice for management of epidural aspergillosis; however, monary focus or from direct extension of paranasal sinus in- most of the experience in managing epidural aspergillosis is fection, CNS aspergillosis is the most lethal manifestation of based on individual case reports and brief case series. Aspergillus infection due to Aspergillus species [180]. Compared with can- osteomyelitis is discussed later in this article. didiasis or cryptococcosis of the CNS, focal neurological deficits or focal seizures are the most common clinical manifestation INVASIVE SINONASAL ASPERGILLOSIS of CNS aspergillosis [182]. Direct extension from the paranasal sinuses, particularly the ethmoid sinuses, may also cause in- Key recommendations. Early recognition and therapeutic in- volvement in frontal and temporal lobes or involvement of the tervention with systemic antifungal therapy and surgical resec- cavernous sinus and, potentially, the internal carotid artery. tion and/or debridement (where indicated) is important. The Focal neurological deficits may be irreversible once established. patient’s immune status, extent of surgery necessary, concom- Early recognition and treatment may limit neurological injury. itant coagulopathy, and morbidity associated with the surgical Definitive diagnosis of CNS aspergillosis is often presumptive procedure(s) should be carefully weighed. Although random- and based on the presence of documented invasive aspergillosis ized trials are lacking for this indication, AMB, itraconazole, in other sites, in association with the presence of compatible voriconazole, or presumably, posaconazole are reasonable clinical and radiological findings. Recent reports indicate that choices for initial therapy. If the infection is known to be due galactomannan antigen may be detected in CSF, thereby en- to Aspergillus species, voriconazole should be initiated (B- hancing diagnostic certainty and potentially sparing an invasive III). If one selects voriconazole or itraconazole as primary ther- neurological procedure for histological diagnosis [43–45]. apy, recognition of sinonasal zygomycosis is critical, because Most observations of treatment of CNS aspergillosis are these triazoles lack clinical activity against this group of fungal based on open-label studies. The one randomized trial for in- organisms. Thus, if the etiological organism is not known or IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 343
histopathologic examination is still pending, an AMB for- most cases of invasive sinus aspergillosis. Favorable responses mulation should be initiated in anticipation of possible sinus have been achieved with AMB [189, 195–197], voriconazole zygomycosis (A-III). Posaconazole demonstrates salvage ac- [198], itraconazole [189], and caspofungin [199, 200]. Al- tivity in extrapulmonary aspergillosis and offers the theo- though surgical debridement occupies an important role in retical advantage of activity against Zygomyetes in this con- management of invasive Aspergillus sinusitis and may be cu- text, although published clinical experience is limited (B-III). rative in some circumstances, extensive resections or repeated There are limited data supporting echinocandin use in Asper- surgical debridements may increase morbidity and mortality gillus sinusitis. among neutropenic patients. Recent advances in surgery for Evidence. Sinus aspergillosis is classified as invasive or non- maxillary and ethmoidal infection may be beneficial and may invasive. Noninvasive aspergillosis may be further classified as avoid more-disfiguring surgery. Local irrigations with AMB are saprophytic sinus aspergillosis or allergic sinus aspergillosis. often administered by the surgical teams as an adjunct to sys- This section will address the guidelines for treatment of invasive temic antifungal therapy after debridement. However, the use sinus aspergillosis. Subsequent sections will review the guide- of this strategy is unclear in the context of systemic antifungal lines for management of noninvasive sinus aspergillosis. therapy. As previously mentioned, the reversal of immunosup- Several studies involving immunocompromised patients in- pression is paramount to successful outcome of this infection dicate that this infection may be associated with invasive pul- and to prevention of extension and dissemination to the CNS. monary aspergillosis or complicated by CNS aspergillosis [192– Chronic invasive sinonasal aspergillosis and chronic granu- 194]. Infection of the maxillary sinus may be complicated by lomatous Aspergillus sinusitis have also been documented in direct invasion into the palate, with necrosis and perforation immunocompetent patients living in dry-air climates, such as into the oral cavity or perforation of the nasal septum. Asper- India, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan [201, 202]. Invasive aspergillosis gillosis of the ethmoid and frontal sinuses carries the ominous in Sudanese patients has been predominantly due to A. flavus implication of direct extension into the veins that drain these and has been treated with surgical drainage in most cases. In- structures into the cavernous sinuses, resulting in cranial nerve vasive sinonasal aspergillosis in such patients tends to progress deficits and internal carotid artery thrombosis. Aspergillosis of in a more indolent manner over the course of months to years the ethmoid sinuses also may result in periorbital infection and in relation to its granulomatous histological characteristics. Al- extension into the extraocular muscles and globe of the eye, though it is more indolent, this infection may progress to in- resulting in loss of vision. Infection of the sphenoid sinuses vasion of the orbit and other craniofacial structures and, ul- may result in direct extension into the cavernous sinuses. In- timately, to intracranial involvement. Aggressive therapy with fection of the mastoid sinus cells may occur as a result of a combined surgical debridement and chronic antifungal therapy is necessary. Because of the propensity for recurrent infections, chronic Aspergillus otitis media. Aspergillosis of the mastoid long-term antifungal therapy for 1 year may be warranted. sinus may subsequently extend into the transverse sinus, re- sulting in venous thrombosis and severe neurological sequelae. Although there are no randomized trials investigating sys- ASPERGILLUS ENDOCARDITIS, PERICARDITIS, temic antifungal therapy for treatment of invasive sinonasal AND MYOCARDITIS aspergillosis, general principles emerge from reports using a Key recommendations. Early recognition, followed by rapid, combination of medical and surgical interventions [194]. The aggressive medical and surgical intervention is critical to pre- role of surgical therapy, however, is tempered by the extent of venting embolic complications and valvular decompensation. resection necessary, the potential hemorrhagic diathesis of the Voriconazole has been successfully used in case reports and patient, the surgical candidacy of the patient, and the extent may be the preferred agent (B-III) [179, 180], based on data of infection. Diagnostic imaging using CT (including bone win- from a randomized trial data conducted mostly in pulmonary dows) will define the soft-tissue and bony extent of disease. infection. D-AMB historically has been recommended as the The presence of sinus air-fluid levels or sinus opacification in preferred initial treatment, and D-AMB therapy should be con- an immunocompromised host should prompt otolaryngolog- tinued for a minimum of 6 weeks after surgical intervention ical evaluation and sinus endoscopic examination. Brushings (B-III). Because of the potential for recurrent infections fol- and culture of necrotic or ulcerative lesions on the turbinates lowing replacement of an infected prosthetic valve, strong or in the paranasal mucosa may demonstrate Aspergillus species, consideration should be given to lifelong antifungal therapy but the differential diagnosis includes other filamentous fungi, with an antifungal triazole, such as oral voriconazole or po- such as the various Zygomycetes, which can appear distinctive saconazole (C-III). histopathologically. Tissue samples should be cultured without Evidence. Cardiac invasion by Aspergillus species may pre- homogenization to increase viability of Zygomycetes. sent as pericarditis, endocarditis, or myocarditis [203–208]. As- Systemic antifungal therapy is necessary for treatment of pergillus endocarditis may occur as a valvular or mural endo- 344 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
cardial infection. Valvular vegetations most commonly develop with voriconazole for treatment of Aspergillus osteomyelitis, on prosthetic valves; however, Aspergillus endocarditis is re- voriconazole appears to be effective for this indication (B- ported to occur on normal valves, particularly in injection drug II). Historically, AMB has been used and would be appro- users. Valvular vegetations and, occasionally, mural vegetations priate therapy in this context (B-II). Treatment for a minimum may be large and pedunculated, with a high-risk of embolic of 6–8 weeks is warranted in nonimmunocompromised pa- complications, particularly CNS-related complications. Indeed, tients. For immunocompromised patients, consideration for embolization to large arteries is a common hallmark of Asper- long-term suppressive therapy or treatment throughout the du- gillus endocarditis. When manifesting as mural endocarditis, ration of immunosuppression is appropriate. Aspergillus infection of the heart may be the result of dissem- Evidence. Aspergillus osteomyelitis may develop by he- ination or involvement of the mitral valve annulus. matogenous dissemination, traumatic inoculation, direct ex- Aspergillus myocarditis may manifest as myocardial infarc- tension from a visceral focus, or contamination at the time of tion, cardiac arrhythmias, or myoepicarditis [203]. This infec- surgery [213–215]. Hematogenous Aspergillus osteomyelitis tion generally occurs in the context of disseminated disease and may occur, especially in neutropenic patients, injection drug requires systemic antifungal therapy. users, and patients with inherited immunodeficiency, such as Aspergillus pericarditis arises as the result of direct extension CGD. The vertebral bodies and intervertebral disks are the most from a contiguous focus of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis, common site of Aspergillus osteomyelitis [216]. Successful out- extension from a myocardial lesion, or intraoperative contam- comes have been achieved with combined surgical debridement ination [203]. Pericardial tamponade may rapidly ensue, lead- and systemic antifungal therapy (B-III). Most cases of successful ing to hemodynamic deterioration and cardiac arrest. antifungal therapy have been achieved with AMB [215]. Med- The literature of reported cases consistently underscores the ical treatment alone (L-AMB, followed by oral itraconazole) poor prognosis of cardiac aspergillosis. The cornerstones of has rarely been successful in management of Aspergillus oste- management of Aspergillus endocarditis are antifungal che- omyelitis [217]. Although successful primary itraconazole ther- motherapy and surgical resection of the infected valve or mural apy of Aspergillus osteomyelitis has been reported [218], itra- lesion. Attempts to manage cases with medicine alone are rarely conazole has been more widely used subsequent to a course of successful [203, 209, 210]. As a general principle, in manage- AMB [217]. More recently, voriconazole has been successfully ment of fungal endocarditis, early and aggressive surgical re- used as salvage and primary therapy, either alone or in com- section is endorsed before the onset of valvular destruction, bination with surgical debridement [177, 219]. There is little potentially fatal embolic events, or rupture of chordae tendinae reported experience of the use of posaconazole [220] or echin- leading to acute mitral valvular decompensation [189]. Most ocandins in treatment of Aspergillus osteomyelitis. cases of Aspergillus endocarditis have been treated with AMB Aspergillus arthritis may develop from hematogenous dis- [209, 211, 212]. Because of the relative infrequency with which semination in immunocompromised patients and in illicit in- cardiac aspergillosis occurs, there are insufficient data on the jection drug users or by direct traumatic inoculation in im- use of antifungal triazoles or echinocandins for this infection, munocompetent hosts [221]. In many cases, Aspergillus arthritis although success of voriconazole in cases of tricuspid and pros- arises as an extension from a contiguous focus of Aspergillus thetic valve endocarditis has been reported [178, 179]. An ex- osteomyelitis [221]. Most of the successfully treated cases of tended course of antifungal therapy postoperatively is recom- Aspergillus arthritis have responded to combined medical ther- mended to eradicate residual cardiac foci and metastatic lesions. apy and drainage of the joint [215]. Most reported cases of D-AMB has been used for treatment of most cases of As- Aspergillus arthritis have used AMB as primary therapy; azoles pergillus pericarditis, often with fatal outcome [203]. Of par- have less commonly been used in this role [221]. amount importance to successful treatment of Aspergillus per- icarditis is aggressive surgical pericardial resection or drainage ASPERGILLUS ENDOPHTHALMITIS AND to treat the rapid development of pericardial tamponade. ASPERGILLUS KERATITIS Aspergillus endophthalmitis and Aspergillus keratitis are 2 sight- ASPERGILLUS OSTEOMYELITIS AND SEPTIC threatening infections that require rapid ophthalmologic and ARTHRITIS medical intervention to preserve and restore sight. Aspergillus Key recommendations. Combined medical and surgical in- keratitis is an excruciatingly painful process; treatment of this tervention is recommended, where feasible, for management process may also considerably alleviate pain. If not recognized of Aspergillus osteomyelitis and arthritis (B-III). Diagnostic and treated promptly, Aspergillus keratitis may require a corneal imaging with CT and/or MRI is essential for staging disease transplant or may be complicated by endophthalmitis. and for providing a guide for orthopedic and/or neurosurgical Key recommendations. Following a diagnostic vitreal tap, intervention. Although there is currently limited experience IV AMB and, where appropriate, intravitreal AMB plus pars IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 345
plana vitrectomy may be sight saving in Aspergillus endo- keratitis is commonly encountered in agricultural workers, who phthalmitis (B-III). Voriconazole administered intravitreally may suffer abrasions of the cornea from branches and leaves or systemically is an alterative regimen (B-III). Management during the course of their work in the fields [230]. of Aspergillus keratitis requires emergency ophthalmologic Aspergillus keratitis constitutes an ophthalmologic emergency intervention with ophthalmologic examination, topical an- requiring careful slit lamp examination, assessment of the depth tifungal therapy, and systemic antifungal therapy with AMB, of infection, and prompt initiation of topical antifungal therapy. voriconazole, or itraconazole (B-III). Ophthalmologic surgical Topical antifungal therapy with AMB drops or pimaricin is intervention has been warranted in cases with potential corneal most widely used, although there are no controlled data to perforation or progression despite medical therapy. support their use. Intracameral injection of AMB (i.e., into the Evidence. Aspergillus endophthalmitis is a devastating in- anterior chamber) has been reported to be a suitable alternative fection that may result in irreparable loss of vision and rapid in patients who are refractory to topical antifungal therapy destruction of the eye. Infection may occur by one of several [235]. Oral itraconazole has been successfully used in the treat- mechanisms: hematogenous dissemination, direct inoculation ment of Aspergillus keratitis, possibly because it penetrates into by trauma, and contamination by surgical procedure [222– the deeper corneal layer of the eyes, but itraconazole has also 224]. Hematogenous dissemination occurs most commonly in been used as a topical solution [236, 237]. Voriconazole, ad- injection drug users and immunocompromised patients with ministered topically, systemically, or via intracameral injection disseminated aspergillosis and endophthalmitis. Definitive clin- has also been successfully used in Aspergillus keratitis [238, 239] ical diagnosis requires direct ophthalmoscopic examination and Surgical intervention, which may include debridement, lamellar culture of vitreous humor or aqueous humor specimens. AMB keratectomy, or a conjunctival flap, is often required. Topical has been used most widely as the systemic agent in treatment therapy may be unsuccessful, and surgical resection of the in- of Aspergillus endophthalmitis. Concentrations of AMB-based fected cornea may be the only recourse. A corneal transplan- compounds in the aqueous and vitreous humor are relatively tation may be necessary in the context of progressive Aspergillus low; intravitreal administration of AMB is also used following keratitis despite medical therapy or if there is a threat of corneal pars plana vitrectomy as a standard of care in management of perforation. Aspergillus endophthalmitis and has resulted in successful out- comes [223, 225]. Voriconazole has recently been found to be CUTANEOUS ASPERGILLOSIS successful in isolated cases of Aspergillus endophthalmitis and Cutaneous aspergillosis may develop in the context of hema- has been administered intravitreally and systemically [226, 227]. togenous dissemination or can occur in the context of traumatic Panresistant organisms, such as A. ustus, have also been re- or nosocomial device-related infection ported [228]. Vitrectomy may be sight saving by removing the Key recommendations. Therapy for secondary cutaneous bulk of inflammatory debris and infectious organisms. More lesions reflects that of disseminated infection, with systemic conservative measures, such as subconjunctival injection, are voriconazole (A-I) recommended as primary therapy. Alter- seldom successful. Direct macular involvement is a poor prog- native agents include L-AMB (A-I), posaconazole, itracona- nostic indicator for recovery of visual acuity [225]. Itraconazole zole, or an echinocandin (B-II). Surgical intervention, partic- has been used as systemic therapy, in conjunction with pars ularly for primary cutaneous infection, may be useful; biopsy plana vitrectomy and AMB intravitreal injection, in a few re- for confirmation of mycological diagnosis is very important to ported cases. Systemic antifungal therapy with AMB and 5- distinguish other potential pathogens (e.g., Fusarium species flourocytosine has also been reported in several cases. Although and Zygomycetes). 5-flourocytosine penetrates well into the vitreous humor, its Evidence. Cutaneous aspergillosis may be a primary process role in enhancing the antifungal combination therapy against or, more frequently, may develop as a result of secondary he- aspergillosis is not established, and it has been noted to be matogenous dissemination in immunocompromised patients antagonistic in vitro against some Aspergillus strains [229]. [240–242]. Cutaneous aspergillosis rarely occurs as an infection Aspergillus keratitis is a locally invasive fungal infection of in immunocompetent patients. Nosocomial cutaneous aspergil- the cornea that is characterized by ocular pain, potentially rapid losis may also be a sentinel of environmental contamination, as loss of vision, and potential development of endophthalmitis exemplified by cutaneous infections occurring with arm boards, if not recognized and treated promptly [230–232]. The cornea direct contamination of vascular sites in the operating room, is the critical structure for visual acuity and integrity of the contamination of dressings used for burn wounds, and percu- anterior chamber. Aspergillus keratitis most commonly develops taneous infection in newborn infants [241–244]. Itraconazole is as a result of traumatic inoculation of Aspergillus into the cornea concentrated in skin and skin structures, which theoretically may through injury or surgical procedures [233, 234]. Aspergillus increase its use in treating cutaneous aspergillosis. 346 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
ASPERGILLUS PERITONITIS of cholangitis [252]. Reports of therapeutic interventions are limited. Medical therapy for hepatic abscesses may be effective Key recommendation. Removal of peritoneal dialysis cath- and preclude the need for surgical resection. eter and intraperitoneal dialysis with AMB, in addition to IV administration of AMB, are recommended (B-III). Itra- RENAL ASPERGILLOSIS conazole or an extended-spectrum azole (voriconazole or po- saconazole) may be used as a salvage therapy (C-III). Key recommendations. A combined approach of medical and Evidence. Aspergillus peritonitis may occur as a compli- urological management of renal aspergillosis allows flexibility cation of chronic ambulatory peritoneal dialysis [245]. Al- for the various patterns of renal aspergillosis. Nephrostomy may though Candida species are the most common cause of fungal reduce the complications of ureteral obstruction and allow for peritonitis complicating chronic ambulatory peritoneal dialysis, AMB lavage of the pelvicalyceal system. All of the available Aspergillus species are a well-established cause of this infection antifungal agents with activity against aspergillosis penetrate [246]. Removal of the dialysis catheter, combined with the ad- renal parenchyma. However, because none of these agents is ministration of intraperitoneal and IV AMB, has been associ- excreted primarily into the pelvis of the kidney or urine, the ated with successful outcome [245, 247]. Itraconazole has also management of pelvicalyceal and ureteral infection may re- been used for systemic antifungal therapy in the management quire nephrostomy with instillation of AMB (C-III). of Aspergillus peritonitis complicating chronic ambulatory peri- Evidence. Renal aspergillosis may develop as single or mul- toneal dialysis [248]. Evidence for other compounds is limited. tiple parenchymal abscesses, usually as a result of hematogenous dissemination or, less commonly, as the result of contamination ESOPHAGEAL AND GASTROINTESTINAL of a surgical procedure or as fungal balls in the pelvis of the ASPERGILLOSIS kidney [253–256]. This form of Aspergillus infection may cause hematuria, ureteral obstruction, perinephric abscess with ex- Key recommendation. Once a diagnosis is established, med- tension into surrounding tissues, or passing of 1 fungal ball ical and, where appropriate, surgical therapy is needed to pre- or fungal elements in the urine. Reports of management are vent the complications of potentially fatal hemorrhage, per- limited to individual cases. Medical management alone may be foration, obstruction, and infarction. Systemic antifungal successful if abscesses are relatively small. Management of larger therapy, as used for disseminated invasive aspergillosis, is abscesses may require surgical drainage. Nephrectomy is per- appropriate. formed only as a last option. Evidence. Aspergillosis of the esophagus and gastrointes- tinal tract has been found to be relatively common in advanced EMPIRICAL ANTIFUNGAL THERAPY OF cases of disseminated invasive aspergillosis [249, 250]. Young NEUTROPENIC PATIENTS WITH PROLONGED et al. [250] described the esophagus and gastrointestinal tract FEVER DESPITE ANTIBACTERIAL THERAPY as the third most common site of infection in autopsy-docu- AND PRESUMPTIVE THERAPY FOR INVASIVE mented invasive aspergillosis. The few well-documented cases ASPERGILLOSIS have been associated with high morbidity and mortality. There Key recommendation. Empirical antifungal therapy with is no clear indication of optimal therapy. Because of the paucity AMB, an LFAB, itraconazole, voriconazole, or caspofungin of data for esophageal and gastrointestinal aspergillosis, a ra- is recommended for high-risk patients with prolonged neu- tional approach is to combine medical and surgical therapy. tropenia who remain persistently febrile despite broad-spec- trum antibiotic therapy (A-I). Empirical antifungal therapy HEPATIC ASPERGILLOSIS is not recommended for patients who are anticipated to have Key recommendation. Medical therapy of hepatic aspergil- short durations of neutropenia (duration of neutropenia, !10 losis should be considered as initial therapy (C-III). For ex- days), unless other findings indicate the presence of an in- trahepatic or perihepatic biliary obstruction, surgical inter- vasive fungal infection (B-III). vention is warranted (C-III). For localized lesions that are Evidence. This area has been reviewed in a related 2002 refractory to medical therapy, surgical consultation is Guideline from the Infectious Diseases Society of America recommended. [257]. Early reports from the National Cancer Institute and the Evidence. Occurring as single or multiple parenchymal le- European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer sions, hepatic aspergillosis may occur as a process of dissem- underscored the importance of early initiation of D-AMB for ination from the gastrointestinal tract along the portal venous treatment of invasive aspergillosis and other invasive fungal system or as a component of general systemic dissemination infections [258, 259]. These randomized, nonplacebo, open- [17, 251]. Hepatic aspergillosis may also develop as a process label clinical trials demonstrated that neutropenic patients with IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 347
persistent fever despite broad-spectrum antibacterial therapy the use of empirical therapy and successfully treated cases of have an increased risk of developing an overt invasive fungal invasive aspergillosis diagnosed using surrogate markers. infection. In these studies, empirical antifungal therapy reduced For persistently febrile neutropenic patients who may be re- the frequency of the development of clinically overt invasive ceiving anti-Aspergillus prophylaxis, the causes of persistent fe- fungal infection and provided prophylaxis against subsequent ver are less likely to be of a fungal origin [264]. Careful eval- infections in high-risk neutropenic patients. L-AMB was found uation for nonfungal causes, as well as the possibility of to be as effective as but less nephrotoxic than D-AMB in a breakthrough invasive fungal infections that are resistant to the randomized, double-blind multicenter trial; a secondary anal- prophylactic regimen, should be considered in this patient pop- ysis demonstrated a significant reduction of invasive fungal ulation. Thus, routine initiation of empirical antifungal therapy infections in the L-AMB arm [260]. A randomized control in this context merits reevaluation. study of IV and oral formulations of itraconazole also found this agent to be as effective as but less nephrotoxic than D- PROPHYLAXIS AGAINST INVASIVE AMB in empirical antifungal therapy [261]. A randomized, ASPERGILLOSIS controlled trial of voriconazole versus L-AMB did not fulfill Key recommendation. Antifungal prophylaxis with posa- prespecified criteria for the overall population but was com- conazole can be recommended in HSCT recipients with parable to L-AMB in the high-risk neutropenic population, GVHD who are at high risk for invasive aspergillosis and in with a significant reduction in the rate of emergent invasive patients with acute myelogenous leukemia or myelodysplas- aspergillosis during neutropenia in prespecified secondary anal- tic syndrome who are at high risk for invasive aspergillosis yses [262]. Although not FDA approved for empirical use in (A-I). Itraconazole may be effective, but tolerability limits patients with fever and neutropenia, the use of voriconazole in its use (B-I). Further investigation of antifungal prophylaxis is treating both infection due to Aspergillus species and infection recommended in this population and other high-risk groups. due to Candida species—the leading fungal pathogens in most Evidence. Prophylactic strategies may be useful in patients patients with fever and neutropenia—provides evidence to sup- who are at high risk for invasive aspergillosis; selection of the port the recommendation for its use in patients at high risk patient population in whom this strategy may be applied re- for these infections while a diagnostic evaluation is conducted. mains a challenge. Selected high-risk patient groups may in- Most recently, caspofungin was compared with L-AMB in a clude patients with prolonged neutropenia and severe GVHD, randomized, double-blind, multinational trial for empirical an- lung transplant recipients, patients receiving long-term high- tifungal therapy. This trial found that caspofungin was as ef- dose corticosteroid therapy, some liver transplant recipients, fective as L-AMB in overall response; prespecified secondary and those with certain inherited immunodeficiency disorders analyses found that caspofungin was more active in prolon- (e.g., CGD). gation of survival and in primary treatment of baseline invasive A clinical trial of posaconazole therapy has recently been reported that demonstrated its superiority versus fluconazole fungal infections [263]. Empirical antifungal therapy appears or itraconazole in prevention of invasive aspergillosis in pa- to be most beneficial in patients with prolonged neutropenia tients with acute myeloid leukemia and myelodysplasia [105]. (duration of neutropenia, 110 days). The initiation of antifun- This study demonstrated higher survival in the posaconazole gal therapy still warrants an aggressive approach to establishing arm, but there was greater toxicity in recipients of posacon- a microbiological diagnosis where feasible. azole than in fluconazole recipients. Because of the hetero- Preemptive antifungal therapy is a logical extension of em- geneity of risk for invasive aspergillosis in published series of pirical antifungal therapy, in that it defines a high-risk patient acute myelogenous leukemia therapy, further study is needed population on the basis of more than persistent fever and neu- to determine which populations of patients with leukemia tropenia (i.e., with a surrogate marker of infection, such as and myelodysplasia might benefit most from this approach. abnormal CT findings or a positive result of assay for Aspergillus Risk factors for invasive aspergillosis during acute myeloid antigen). Because ∼40% of patients receiving empirical anti- leukemia therapy from published series include the need for fungal therapy have pulmonary infiltrates, there is considerable 11 treatment course to achieve remission or chemotherapy overlap between the approaches of empirical and preemptive for relapsed or refractory acute myeloid leukemia. A separate therapy. In an open-label feasibility study, Maertens et al. [55] study of posaconazole prophylaxis during GVHD in HSCT used serum galactomannan assay and CT to detect invasive recipients also found a significant reduction in proven and aspergillosis in a population of patients with leukemia who probable invasive fungal infections and similar toxicity in po- received fluconazole prophylaxis. This strategy, which used saconazole recipients, compared with those receiving flucon- more extensive serum galactomannan and radiographic mon- azole [104]. Because of the heterogeneity of risk for invasive itoring than is typically performed in routine practice, reduced fungal infection in patients receiving anti-GVHD therapy, fur- 348 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
ther study is needed to define which patients would benefit with CGD [288]. Voriconazole has not been studied in this most from this approach. Risk factors for invasive aspergillosis context, although clinical trials are in progress. in patients with GVHD include the need for prolonged high- dose steroid therapy (11 mg/kg/day of prednisone for 2–3 CHRONIC AND SAPROPHYTIC FORMS OF weeks) and the use of certain anti-GVHD therapies, such as ASPERGILLOSIS infliximab and antithymocyte globulin. Earlier studies of an- tifungal prophylaxis in hematological malignancies are sum- ASPERGILLOMA AND CHRONIC PULMONARY marized in a large meta-analyses [265–269]. ASPERGILLOSIS A key distinction should be made between primary and sec- Key recommendation. Antifungal chemotherapy with itra- ondary prophylaxis. Primary prophylaxis involves administra- conazole, voriconazole, or presumably, posaconazole pro- tion of antifungal chemotherapy to patients who have no evi- vides some potential for therapeutic benefit with compara- dence of infection but whose epidemiological risk profile tively minimal risk (B-III). Surgical resection or intracavitary indicates a high propensity for the development of invasive antifungal therapy may be appropriate in selected patients with aspergillosis. Secondary prophylaxis involves the administration a single aspergilloma who are carefully evaluated for the risks of antifungal therapy to a patient who is undergoing a period mentioned below. Long-term, perhaps lifelong, antifungal of immunosuppression and who has a history of invasive as- treatment is required for chronic cavitary pulmonary asper- pergillosis. This section focuses on primary prophylaxis. How- gillosis (CCPA; B-III). ever, several studies indicate that secondary prophylaxis against Evidence. One or more pulmonary cavities with detectable invasive aspergillosis can be successful when an anti-Aspergillus serum Aspergillus antibodies are characteristic of pulmonary azole (voriconazole, posaconazole, or itraconazole) or LFAB is aspergilloma or chronic pulmonary aspergillosis. Patients usu- given to patients receiving ongoing immunosuppressive therapy ally have underlying pulmonary disease, such as cavitary tu- following treatment of a documented episode of invasive as- berculosis or histoplasmosis, fibrocystic sarcoidosis, bullous pergillosis [113, 270–272]. emphysema, or fibrotic lung disease. Among the serious com- Among the studies that investigated parenterally adminis- plications of chronic pulmonary aspergillosis are potentially tered D-AMB or L-AMB for prophylaxis, most have been life-threatening hemoptysis, pulmonary fibrosis, and rarely lo- historically controlled, and some have suggested a reduction cally, invasive aspergillosis. Pulmonary aspergilloma is defined in invasive aspergillosis. Several prospective, randomized trials as a conglomeration of intertwined Aspergillus hyphae, fibrin, using polyene therapies have demonstrated a reduction in the mucus, and cellular debris within a pulmonary cavity or an number of invasive fungal infections, but none have dem- ectatic bronchus [289]. The diagnosis of aspergilloma is usually onstrated a significant reduction of invasive aspergillosis in a made clinically and radiographically without a lung biopsy. prospective, randomized study [273–276]. Studies of aero- Pulmonary aspergilloma radiographically appears as a solid solized AMB have revealed conflicting results, in part because rounded mass, sometimes mobile, of water density, within a of limitations of study design and selection of patients at risk spherical or ovoid cavity, and separated from the wall of the [277–279]. cavity by an airspace of variable size and shape. Local pleural Itraconazole has been evaluated in several prospective trials, thickening is highly characteristic. CCPA is defined as the oc- but conclusions regarding efficacy have been limited, because currence of multiple cavities, which may or may not contain study designs have not included patients at significant risk for an aspergilloma, in association with pulmonary and systemic aspergillosis [269, 280–284]. Although itraconazole oral cap- symptoms and raised inflammatory markers. Over years, un- sules are ineffective for prophylaxis because of erratic bioa- treated, these cavities enlarge and coalesce, and aspergillomas vailability and dose-limiting toxicity, itraconazole oral solution may appear or disappear. A distinction between CNPA (pre- or IV itraconazole in neutropenic patients with hematological viously known as subacute invasive pulmonary aspergillosis) dysfunction is partially effective in reducing the incidence of and CCPA is the prolonged time frame and genetic predis- invasive aspergillosis, with a mean hazard ratio of 0.52 (range, position described in the latter; defects in innate immunity are 0.3–0.91) [265]. However, the use of itraconazole solution for described in CCPA [290]. Apparent aspergillomas (which is prophylaxis against Aspergillus is also reduced by dose-limiting better termed mycotic lung sequestrum) also may develop in toxicity [285, 286]. Although micafungin showed a trend to- consolidated lesions during recovery from neutropenia, but wards a decreased incidence of Aspergillus infection (compared preexisting cavities are not present in these cases. with fluconazole) in HSCT, there were small numbers of break- The data guiding management of single aspergillomas are through infections in the patients studied, and the requirement based on uncontrolled trials and case reports. Therapeutic de- for daily IV therapy further limited widespread use [287]. Itra- cisions that involve aspergilloma are predicated on preventing conazole has been successfully used as prophylaxis in patients or treating life-threatening hemoptysis. The first major decision IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 349
in the management of aspergilloma is whether therapy is ASPERGILLUS OTOMYCOSIS (OTIC required. ASPERGILLOSIS) Surgical resection is a definitive treatment for aspergilloma Key recommendations. Topical therapy with irrigating so- [156, 291]. However, pulmonary resection for aspergilloma is lutions of boric acid, acetic acid, or azole cream may be a difficult surgical procedure. Attempts to resect CCPA (referred effective in eradicating Aspergillus otomycosis (C-III). For to in the surgical literature as complex aspergilloma) have been refractory cases and in contexts of perforated tympanic mem- associated with high morbidity and mortality. Postoperative branes, use of voriconazole, posaconazole, or itraconazole complications include hemorrhage, bronchopleural fistulae, may be appropriate (C-III). and Aspergillus infection of the pleural space. Further contrib- Evidence. Aspergillus otomycosis is a saprophytic process uting to the high risk of surgical resection of an aspergilloma that usually involves the external auditory canal [297]. Symp- is the often preexisting poor pulmonary function that may toms include pruritus, pain, hypoacusis, and otic discharge. preclude thoracotomy. The optimal candidates for surgical re- Aspergillus otomycosis may involve the middle ear if the tym- section are those with a single aspergilloma. panic membrane has been perforated. Perforation of the tym- Bronchial artery embolization has been used to occlude the panic membrane does not usually occur as a result of Aspergillus putative vessel that supplies the bleeding site in patients ex- otomycosis but more often ensues as the result of recurrent periencing hemoptysis caused by chronic pulmonary aspergil- bacterial otitis media. Patients with impaired mucosal or cu- losis [292]. Unfortunately, bronchial artery embolization is usu- taneous immunity, such as those with hypogammaglobuline- ally unsuccessful or only temporarily effective because of mia, diabetes mellitus, chronic eczema, or HIV infection and complex collateral vascular channels. Thus, bronchial artery those who receive corticosteroids, are susceptible to recurrent embolization should be considered as a temporizing procedure bacterial otitis media, otitis externa, and Aspergillus otomycosis. in a patient with life-threatening hemoptysis who might be If the otomycotic process is not successfully treated and the eligible for more medical therapy or surgical resection (single underlying predisposing immune impairment and anatomic aspergilloma) if the hemoptysis were stabilized (B-III). Endob- defects are not corrected, Aspergillus hyphae and conidia may ronchial or transthoracic intracavitary resection instillation of extend into the mastoid sinus, creating a chronic fungal mas- antifungal agents, particularly AMB, has been attempted with toiditis. Aspergillus otomycosis is most commonly attributable some success [156, 293]. However, this modality may be dif- to A. niger and A. fumigatus [297, 298]. A. niger, which is a ficult in patients with compromised pulmonary function. known cause of in vivo production of oxalic acid, may locally Medical therapy has limited activity in treatment of asper- elaborate this toxic metabolite in the necrotic debris of the gilloma [156]; in some cases, however, it may be of some use external auditory canal [299]. Erosion and disruption of the [289]. Medical therapy is the standard of care for CCPA [174, epidermis may serve as a portal of entry for superinfection by 175, 294, 295]. IV administered D-AMB appears to have min- opportunistic bacterial infections in immunocompromised pa- imal activity in treatment of aspergilloma. Response in CCPA tients. Data describing treatment outcomes are anecdotal or to systemically administered itraconazole or voriconazole is fa- uncontrolled. Topical therapy using irrigations with acetic acid vorable, with improvement in symptoms and stabilization or or boric acid are described as being beneficial. Topical anti- improvement in Aspergillus antibody titers and radiologic find- fungal creams and ointments are not well studied but may be ings [170, 175]. Terbinafine has been suggested to have activity useful for this condition. Orally administered itraconazole, vor- in one report, but lack of clinical data limits recommendation iconazole, or posaconazole may be effective; however, there are for its use [296]. The benefits of surgical resection of asper- no published studies that support their use. gilloma may offer definitive treatment; however, the risks of compromised pulmonary function, bronchopleural fistula, and ALLERGIC FORMS OF ASPERGILLOSIS infection of the pleural space may outweigh the benefits, de- pending on the individual patient. Bronchial artery emboli- ALLERGIC BRONCHOPULMONARY zation carries modest risk and only transient benefit. Trans- ASPERGILLOSIS thoracic, intracavitary instillation of AMB may be effective, but it carries a risk of pneumothorax, hemoptysis, and pleural seed- Key recommendation. Treatment of allergic bronchopul- ing. Oral systemic antifungal therapy is unnecessary for single monary aspergillosis (APBA) should consist of a combina- aspergilloma but important for CCPA. Adverse events associ- tion of corticosteroids and itraconazole (A-I). ated with azole antifungal drugs are infrequent but are prob- Evidence. APBA is a hypersensitivity disease of the lungs lematic for those who develop them. If the drug is tolerated, that is associated with inflammatory destruction of airways in no additional long-term risks of azole therapy have been response to Aspergillus species [300]. ABPA is defined through identified. 7 primary diagnostic criteria: episodic bronchial obstruction 350 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
(asthma), peripheral eosinophilia, immediate scratch test reac- ALLERGIC ASPERGILLUS SINUSITIS tivity to Aspergillus antigen, precipitating antibodies to Asper- Key recommendations. Endoscopic drainage may be useful gillus antigen, elevated serum IgE concentrations, history of in patients with obstructive symptoms (C-III). Itraconazole pulmonary infiltrates (transient or fixed), and central bron- is recommended for consideration in allergic Aspergillus si- chiectasis. Secondary diagnostic criteria include repeated de- nusitis (AAS; C-III). Nasal or systemic corticosteroids may tection of Aspergillus species in sputum samples using stain be useful in some patients (C-III). The benefits of endoscopic and/or culture, a history of expectoration of brown plugs or surgical sinus drainage outweigh the risks of surgery in cases flecks, elevated specific IgE concentration directed against As- pergillus antigen, and Arthus reaction (late skin reactivity) to of AAS that present with complications of sinus obstruction. Aspergillus antigen. ABPA may progress through clinical stages Systemic corticosteroids are beneficial but may be fraught with of acute corticosteroid-responsive asthma to corticosteroid-de- serious systemic complications with long-term use. Nasal cor- pendent asthma to fibrotic end-stage lung disease with hon- ticosteroids are partially effective and well absorbed but, when eycombed lung. used continuously in high doses, can damage or atrophy the Corticosteroid therapy is the mainstay of therapy for ABPA nasal mucosa. The benefits of itraconazole in AAS outweigh [301–303]. However, the few studies of corticosteroid therapy the potential for toxicity (C-III). Because patients with either for ABPA have involved small numbers of patients and have AAS and ABPA may be receiving nonsedating antihistamines, been neither double-blind nor controlled [304]. Nevertheless, caution is required to assess the potential for adverse drug the current findings support the usefulness of corticosteroids interactions with some of those agents associated with pro- in the management of acute ABPA, with improved pulmonary longed QT interval and torsades de pointe. function and fewer episodes of recurrent consolidation. How- Evidence. Katzenstein et al. [308] first described the clinical ever, because chronic administration of corticosteroids causes and pathologic features of AAS in 1983 in 7 cases presenting severe immune impairment and multiple metabolic abnor- as chronic sinusitis. Most patients were young adults with a malities, alternative approaches to management of ABPA have history of asthma; all had chronic nasal polyps and opacification been developed. of multiple sinuses. Recurrent sinusitis was common. Several An example of such an approach is to eradicate Aspergillus patients underwent repeated surgical drainage procedures. A species from the airways using itraconazole as a corticosteroid- distinct mucinous material containing eosinophils, Charcot- sparing agent. The mechanism of this effect is to diminish the Leyden crystals, and hyphal elements morphologically com- antigenic stimulus for bronchial inflammation. Two double- patible with Aspergillus species was found histologically in tissue blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials for ABPA dem- resected from the sinuses. The condition of AAS shares similar onstrated that itraconazole (200 mg twice daily orally for 16 histopathological features with ABPA but affects the paranasal weeks) resulted in significant differences in ability to ameliorate sinuses instead of the lung. Waxman et al. [309] later described disease, as assessed by the reduction in corticosteroid dose, the immunologic features of AAS to include an immediate increased interval between corticosteroid courses, eosinophilic cutaneous reactivity to Aspergillus species in 60% of patients, inflammatory parameters, and IgE concentration, as well as elevation of total serum IgE concentration in 85%, and serum improvement in exercise tolerance and pulmonary function precipitins to Aspergillus species in 85%. The conditions of AAS [305, 306]. Similar benefits of itraconazole were observed in and ABPA may coexist in some patients. These investigators patients with cystic fibrosis and ABPA [307]. Other azoles (vor- and others have reported beneficial responses to variable iconazole and posaconazole) have not been studied in this con- courses and doses of prednisone in nonrandomized, noncon- text. The benefits of short-term corticosteroid treatment of trolled, observational studies [309]. Because of the obstruction ABPA include reduced frequency of acute exacerbations, pres- caused by inspissated mucinous secretions, surgical drainage ervation of pulmonary function, and improved quality of life. and aeration is considered to be an essential component of However, the long-term adverse effects of corticosteroid ther- management, in conjunction with intranasal or systemic cor- apy may result in profound immunosuppression and debili- ticosteroid therapy. Advanced forms of AAS may present with tating metabolic abnormalities, including diabetes mellitus, proptosis and optic neuropathy, necessitating prompt surgical hyperlipidemia, and osteoporosis. Corticosteroid-induced im- intervention [309]. Fang [310] more recently introduced the munosuppression may very rarely result in progression of ABPA use of endoscopic sinus surgery in the management of AAS, to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Itraconazole spares the ef- thus affording reduced risk, compared with that associated with fect of corticosteroids but may interact with inhaled cortico- more-invasive drainage procedures. Recent case reports suggest steroids, leading to iatrogenic Cushing syndrome in rare cases. a benefit of itraconazole in the management of AAS and may The benefits of the addition of itraconazole outweigh the risks spare the use of steroids [311, 312]. Other azoles have not been of long-term administration of high-dose prednisone. evaluated. IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 351
FUTURE DIRECTIONS AND GAPS IN for Merck. J.R.W. has received speaker’s honoraria from Pfizer and Merck, has received grants from Merck and Pfizer, and has served as an advisor KNOWLEDGE IN INVASIVE ASPERGILLOSIS for Pfizer, Merck, and Schering-Plough. There are many unanswered and unresolved epidemiological, laboratory, and clinical questions that need to be addressed and References understood in the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of as- 1. Stevens DA, Kan VL, Judson MA, et al. Practice guidelines for diseases pergillosis. Better diagnostic tests are needed, both to facilitate caused by Aspergillus. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 30:696–709 2. Patterson TF, Kirkpatrick WR, White M, et al. Invasive aspergillosis: more accurate identification of patients with invasive aspergil- disease spectrum, treatment practices, and outcomes. I3 Aspergillus losis and to permit earlier initiation of therapy. The availability Study Group. 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Aspergillosis 2008 guideline

  • 1.
    IDSA GUIDELINES Treatment ofAspergillosis: Clinical Practice Guidelines of the Infectious Diseases Society of America Thomas J. Walsh,1,a Elias J. Anaissie,2 David W. Denning,13 Raoul Herbrecht,14 Dimitrios P. Kontoyiannis,3 Kieren A. Marr,5 Vicki A. Morrison,6,7 Brahm H Segal,8 William J. Steinbach,9 David A. Stevens,10,11 Jo-Anne van Burik,7 John R. Wingard,12 and Thomas F. Patterson4,a 1 Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland; 2University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock; 3 The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, and 4The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio; 5Oregon Health and Sciences University, Portland; 6Veterans Affairs Medical Center and 7University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota; 8Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York; 9Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina; 10Santa Clara Valley Medical Center, San Jose, and 11Stanford University, Palo Alto, California; 12University of Florida, College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida; 13 University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom; and 14University Hospital of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France EXECUTIVE SUMMARY guidelines is to summarize the current evidence for treatment of different forms of aspergillosis. The quality Aspergillus species have emerged as an important cause of evidence for treatment is scored according to a stan- of life-threatening infections in immunocompromised dard system used in other Infectious Diseases Society patients. This expanding population is composed of of America guidelines. This document reviews guide- patients with prolonged neutropenia, advanced HIV in- lines for management of the 3 major forms of asper- fection, and inherited immunodeficiency and patients gillosis: invasive aspergillosis, chronic (and saprophytic) who have undergone allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell forms of aspergillosis, and allergic forms of aspergillosis. transplantation (HSCT) and/or lung transplantation. Given the public health importance of invasive asper- This document constitutes the guidelines of the Infec- gillosis, emphasis is placed on the diagnosis, treatment, tious Diseases Society of America for treatment of as- and prevention of the different forms of invasive as- pergillosis and replaces the practice guidelines for As- pergillosis, including invasive pulmonary aspergillosis, pergillus published in 2000 [1]. The objective of these sinus aspergillosis, disseminated aspergillosis, and sev- eral types of single-organ invasive aspergillosis. There are few randomized trials on the treatment of Received 23 October 2007; accepted 24 October 2007; electronically published 4 January 2008. invasive aspergillosis. The largest randomized con- These guidelines were developed and issued on behalf of the Infectious trolled trial demonstrates that voriconazole is superior Diseases Society of America. It is important to realize that guidelines cannot always account for individual to deoxycholate amphotericin B (D-AMB) as primary variation among patients. They are not intended to supplant physician judgment treatment for invasive aspergillosis. Voriconazole is rec- with respect to particular patients or special clinical situations and cannot be considered inclusive of all proper methods of care or exclusive of other treatments ommended for the primary treatment of invasive as- reasonably directed at obtaining the same results. Accordingly, the Infectious pergillosis in most patients (A-I). Although invasive Diseases Society of America considers adherence to these guidelines to be voluntary, with the ultimate determination regarding their application to be made pulmonary aspergillosis accounts for the preponder- by the physician in light of each patient’s individual circumstances. ance of cases treated with voriconazole, voriconazole a T.J.W. and T.F.P. served as co-chairs for the Infectious Diseases Society of has been used in enough cases of extrapulmonary and America Aspergillus Guidelines Committee. Reprints or correspondence: Dr. Thomas F. Patterson, The University of Texas disseminated infection to allow one to infer that vor- Health Science Center at San Antonio, Dept. of Medicine/Infectious Diseases, iconazole is effective in these cases. A randomized trial 7703 Floyd Curl Dr., MSC 7881, San Antonio, TX 78229-3900 (patterson @uthscsa.edu). comparing 2 doses of liposomal amphotericin B (L- Clinical Infectious Diseases 2008; 46:327–60 AMB) showed similar efficacy in both arms, suggesting 2008 by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. All rights reserved. 1058-4838/2008/4603-0001$15.00 that liposomal therapy could be considered as alter- DOI: 10.1086/525258 native primary therapy in some patients (A-I). For sal- IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 327
  • 2.
    vage therapy, agentsinclude lipid formulations of amphotericin strength of the randomized study, the panel recommends vor- (LFAB; A-II), posaconazole (B-II), itraconazole (B-II), caspo- iconazole for primary treatment of these very uncommon man- fungin (B-II), or micafungin (B-II). Salvage therapy for invasive ifestations of invasive aspergillosis (B-III). aspergillosis poses important challenges with significant gaps Management of the chronic or saprophytic forms of asper- in knowledge. In patients whose aspergillosis is refractory to gillosis varies depending on the condition. Single pulmonary voriconazole, a paucity of data exist to guide management. aspergillomas may be best managed by surgical resection (B- Therapeutic options include a change of class using an am- III), whereas chronic cavitary and chronic necrotizing pul- photericin B (AMB) formulation or an echinocandin, such as monary aspergillosis require long-term medical therapy (B-III). caspofungin (B-II); further use of azoles should take into ac- The management of allergic forms of aspergillosis involves count host factors and pharmacokinetic considerations. Re- a combination of medical and anti-inflammatory therapy. For fractory infection may respond to a change to another drug example, management of allergic bronchopulmonary aspergil- class (B-II) or to a combination of agents (B-II). The role of losis (ABPA) involves the administration of itraconazole and combination therapy in the treatment of invasive aspergillosis corticosteroids (A-I). as primary or salvage therapy is uncertain and warrants a pro- spective, controlled clinical trial. INTRODUCTION Assessment of patients with refractory aspergillosis may be Heretofore considered to be an unusual cause of infection, difficult. In evaluating such patients, the diagnosis of invasive Aspergillus species have emerged as important causes of mor- aspergillosis should be established if it was previously uncertain bidity and mortality in immunocompromised patients [2–4]. and should be confirmed if it was previously known. The drug Invasive aspergillosis currently constitutes the most common dosage should be considered. Management options include a cause of infectious pneumonic mortality in patients under- change to intravenous (IV) therapy, therapeutic monitoring of going HSCT and is an important cause of opportunistic re- drug levels, change of drug class, and/or combination therapy. spiratory and disseminated infection in other immunocom- Antifungal prophylaxis with posaconazole can be recom- promised patients [5–11]. Furthermore, Aspergillus species mended in the subgroup of HSCT recipients with graft-versus- also produce a wide range of chronic, saprophytic, and allergic host disease (GVHD) who are at high risk for invasive asper- conditions. Although other forms of aspergillosis, such as gillosis and in neutropenic patients with acute myelogenous ABPA, allergic sinusitis, and saprophytic infection, are also leukemia or myelodysplastic syndrome who are at high risk for causes of morbidity, they are seldom life-threatening. invasive aspergillosis (A-I). Management of breakthrough in- Throughout this document, treatment recommendations are vasive aspergillosis in the context of mould-active azole pro- rated according to the standard scoring system of the Infec- phylaxis is not defined by clinical trial data. The approach to tious Diseases Society of America and United Stated Public such patients should be individualized on the basis of clinical Health Service for rating recommendations in clinical guide- criteria, including host immunosuppression, underlying dis- lines, as summarized in table 1. ease, and site of infection, as well as consideration of antifungal dosing, therapeutic monitoring of drug levels, a switch to IV MICROBIOLOGY AND EPIDEMIOLOGY OF therapy, and/or a switch to another drug class (B-III). ASPERGILLOSIS Certain conditions of invasive aspergillosis warrant consid- Organisms. Aspergillus fumigatus is the most common species eration for surgical resection of the infected focus. These in- recovered from cases of invasive aspergillosis [12]. The next clude but are not limited to pulmonary lesions contiguous with most commonly recovered species are Aspergillus flavus, As- the heart or great vessels, invasion of the chest wall, osteo- pergillus niger, and Aspergillus terreus [13]. Some institutions myelitis, pericardial infection, and endocarditis (B-III). Res- may have a predominance of A. flavus or A. terreus as the most toration of impaired host defenses is critical for improved out- frequently recovered species of Aspergillus [14]. A. terreus is come of invasive aspergillosis (A-III). Recovery from clinically resistant to AMB, but species, including A. flavus, neutropenia in a persistently neutropenic host or reduction of Aspergillus lentulus, Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus ustus, As- corticosteroids in a patient receiving high-dose glucocortico- pergillus glaucus, and others, can also demonstrate resistance steroids is paramount for improved outcome in invasive [15–20]. aspergillosis. Classification and definitions. Aspergillosis causes patient A special consideration is made concerning recommenda- afflictions that are classically defined as invasive, saprophytic, tions for therapy of aspergillosis in uncommon sites, such as or allergic [21]. Invasive diseases caused by Aspergillus species osteomyelitis and endocarditis. There are very limited data on include infections of the lower respiratory tract, sinuses, and these infections, and most involve D-AMB as primary therapy skin as portals of entry. The CNS, cardiovascular system, and simply because of its long-standing availability. Based on the other tissues may be infected as a result of hematogenous dis- 328 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
  • 3.
    Table 1. InfectiousDiseases Society of America–United States Public Health Service grading system for ranking recommendations in clinical guidelines. Category, grade Definition Strength of recommendation A Good evidence to support a recommendation for use B Moderate evidence to support a recommendation for use C Poor evidence to support a recommendation Quality of evidence I Evidence from 1 properly randomized, controlled trial II Evidence from 1 well-designed clinical trial, without randomization; from co- hort or case-controlled analytic studies (preferably from 11 center); from multiple time-series; or from dramatic results from uncontrolled experiments III Evidence from opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience, descriptive studies, or reports of expert committees semination or direct extension from contiguous foci of infec- for probable invasive aspergillosis with a surrogate non–culture- tion. Saprophytic involvement includes Aspergillus otomycosis based method (i.e., a positive galactomannan assay or b-glucan and pulmonary aspergilloma. Allergic conditions encompass assay result and radiologically compatible CT findings) in an allergic Aspergillus sinusitis and allergic bronchopulmonary as- immunocompromised host with clinical findings of infection pergillosis [22]. Although other classifications have been pro- that constitute the definition of probable invasive aspergillosis. posed, reference to the above clinical conditions will be made Several other points bear note concerning these definitions throughout these guidelines. of aspergillosis. First, the term “probable” denotes a relatively Members of the European Organization for Research in high degree of certainty that the signs and symptoms of infec- Treatment of Cancer–Invasive Fungal Infection Cooperative tion in the immunocompromised host are truly due to an Group and National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Aspergillus species. A study by Stevens and Lee [24] that ex- Mycoses Study Group formed a Consensus Committee to de- amined response of invasive aspergillosis to itraconazole using velop standard definitions for invasive fungal infections for Mycoses Study Group definitions found similar outcomes for clinical research [23]. Based on a review of the literature and proven and probable invasive aspergillosis, suggesting that com- an international consensus, a set of research-oriented defini- bining these 2 categories is appropriate for outcomes analyses. tions for invasive fungal infections (including invasive asper- Second, the European Organization for Research in Treatment gillosis), as observed in immunocompromised patients with of Cancer–Mycoses Study Group document clearly articulates cancer, was developed. Three levels of certainty of invasive as- that the consensus definitions are not intended to be a direct pergillosis were defined: proven, probable, and possible. Al- guide to practice [23]. Third, the definitions are principally though the definitions are intended for use in the context of applicable to immunocompromised patients with cancer and clinical and/or epidemiological research, they provide a stan- HSCT recipients. These definitions are currently being refined dard set of criteria by which guidelines can be developed for to reflect increasing understanding of the patterns of invasive the treatment of invasive aspergillosis. aspergillosis in an expanded population of immunocompro- The definition for proven aspergillosis requires histopatho- mised patients. logical documentation of infection and a positive result of cul- Diagnosis. Aspergillus species grow well on standard media ture of a specimen from a normally sterile site. The definition and can be identified to species level in most laboratories. Cul- of probable aspergillosis requires the fulfillment of criteria ture confirmation, where possible, is important to differentiate within 3 categories: host factors, clinical manifestations (symp- aspergillosis from other filamentous fungal infections, such as toms, signs, and radiological features), and microbiological evi- fusariosis and scedosporiosis. Blood cultures are of limited util- dence. Throughout these guidelines, the term “invasive asper- ity, because the results are often not positive even in dissem- gillosis” will assume a diagnostic certainty of proven or inated infection. Bronchoalveolar lavage, transthoracic percu- probable invasive aspergillosis. With 2 important exceptions, taneous needle aspiration, or video assisted thoracoscopic proven or probable infection requires the recovery of an or- biopsy are standard procedures for establishing a diagnosis of ganism. The first exception includes the fairly frequent occur- invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Fluid and tissue specimens rence of histopathological demonstration of hyphae consistent from these procedures may reveal characteristic angular di- with Aspergillus species in patients with negative culture results. chotomously branching septate hyphae on direct microscopic The other exception consists of fulfilling the diagnostic criteria examination and/or Aspergillus species on culture. Where fea- IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 329
  • 4.
    sible, specimens obtainedfrom these procedures are cultured gillosis in patients with hematological malignancy [33, 35, 50– on fungal media for optimal growth of Aspergillus species [25, 52]. However, the sensitivity in nonneutropenic patients may 26]. However, results of cytologic examination, pathologic ex- be lower, possibly because of a lower residual fungal burden amination, direct smears, and culture may be falsely negative or anti-Aspergillus antibodies [53, 54]. The combined use of for clinical specimens from patients who are already receiving serum galactomannan antigen measurement and detection of systemic antifungal therapy and in cases in which the diagnostic pulmonary infiltrates by early use of CT should improve de- procedure could not be performed directly in the affected area tection of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis and permit earlier (e.g., when the bronchoscopic examination or washing could initiation of antifungal therapy [55]. Several variables, including not be performed directly in the affected area or when the antifungal therapy or prophylaxis, significantly reduce levels of bronchoscope or biopsy needle could not reach the infected circulating galactomannan [35, 52]. False-positive results have tissues). Thus, lack of a positive culture or direct smear result been reported in several contexts, including in patients who does not rule out the diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis. More- have received certain antibiotics (pipercillin-tazobactam and over, recovery of Aspergillus species from clinical specimens by amoxicillin-clavulanate), in cases of neonatal colonization with invasive procedures may be impractical in patients who are Bifidobacterium, the in cases in which plasmalyte is used in hemodynamically unstable, are severely hypoxic, have low bronchioalveolar lavage fluids, and in patients with other in- platelet counts, or have advanced coagulation deficits. Thus, vasive mycoses (including Penicillium, histoplasmosis, and blas- other markers of infection are often used in the assessment of tomycosis) [36, 56–61]. Despite these limitations, this assay is patients at risk for invasive aspergillosis. a useful adjunctive test to establish an early diagnosis, partic- Increasing recognition of the halo sign and air-crescent sign ularly when used in serial screening of patients at high risk of by improved CT technology in immunocompromised patients infection. has greatly facilitated the diagnosis of invasive pulmonary as- Other potential circulating markers for detection of asper- pergillosis in patients with hematologic conditions [27–31]. gillosis include (1r3)-b-D-glucans detected by the Tachypleus Although these radiological features are characteristic, they are or Limulus assay [62–66]. The Tachypleus or Limulus assay not diagnostic of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Infections used to detect the presence of (1r3)-b-D-glucans is a variation due to other angioinvasive filamentous fungi, such as Zygo- of the limulus assay used to detect endotoxin. The presence of mycetes, Fusarium species, and Scedosporium species, as well as (1r3)-b-D-glucans in serum signifies the presence of fungal to Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Nocardia species, may cause a invasion but is not specific for Aspergillus species [67]. False- halo sign and other radiological features described for asper- positive results can occur in a variety of contexts, such as gillosis. Although these more characteristic radiological patterns through glucan contaminated blood collection tubes, gauze, of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis have been well described depth-type membrane filters for blood processing, and in vitro in neutropenic hosts, less is known about the features of these tests using various antibiotics (e.g., some cephalosporins, car- lesions in other immunocompromised patients [27, 29]. bapenems, and ampicillin-sulbactam) [68]. The Fungitell assay The availability of the galactomannan EIA also may con- (Associates of Cape Cod) for detection of (1r3)-b-D-glucans tribute substantially toward a non–culture-based diagnosis of is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) invasive aspergillosis. EIA for galactomannan has been validated for the diagnosis of invasive mycoses, including aspergillosis in animal models and in patients as a surrogate marker for [66, 69]. One study reported that, among 283 patients with detection of invasive aspergillosis [32–42]. Galactomannan an- acute myeloid leukemia and myelodysplastic syndrome who tigen has also been detected in CSF samples from patients with were receiving antifungal prophylaxis, the (1r3)-b-D-glucan CNS aspergillosis [43–45] and in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid assay was sensitive and specific in early detection of 20 proven specimens from patients with invasive pulmonary aspergillosis, or probable invasive fungal infections, including candidiasis, although the use of EIA for galactomannan in such contexts fusariosis, trichosporonosis, and aspergillosis [66, 69]. The da- is investigational [46, 47]. In addition to facilitating early de- tabase for this assay in other populations at high risk for in- tection, serial assessment of galactomannan antigenemia may vasive aspergillosis is limited, and more research is required in facilitate therapeutic monitoring [48, 49]. However, the use of these populations [66, 69]. PCR-based diagnosis, which am- serial galactomannan for therapeutic monitoring remains in- plifies Aspergillus-specific fungal genes (usually ribosomal DNA vestigational. Thus, duration of therapy should be determined, genes), has shown considerable promise for invasive aspergil- not solely by normalization of antigenemia, but also by reso- losis [70–79]. However, these systems have not been standard- lution of clinical and radiological findings. ized, are not commercially available, and remain investigational Several well-conducted studies of this EIA system have dem- [80]. Combining non–culture-based diagnostics (e.g., PCR and onstrated good sensitivity in the detection of invasive asper- GM and GM and [1r3]-b-D-glucan) is an important research 330 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
  • 5.
    direction that mayimprove the overall predictive value of these experience of administration of these agents is predominantly systems. in adults, specific notice is given to the need for adjustment of The development of standardized methodology for antifun- dosages in pediatric patients, to obtain plasma exposures com- gal susceptibility testing is another recent advance in the lab- parable to those of adults. These pharmacological differences oratory evaluation of Aspergillus species. Interpretive break- in pediatric and adult dosing are discussed in more detail else- points have not been established for any of the antifungal agents where [87, 88]. against filamentous fungi. However, new developments through the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute provide repro- AMB ducible methods for antifungal susceptibility testing. Further AMB is a natural polyene macrolide antibiotic that consists of studies using these in vitro methods may lead to improved 7 conjugated double bonds, an internal ester, a free carboxyl rationale for selection of antifungal compounds in the treat- group, and a glycoside side chain with a primary amino group. ment of invasive aspergillosis. Although azole resistance by As- It is not orally absorbed. For IV use, AMB has been solubilized pergillus species is unusual, patients exposed chronically to an- with deoxycholate as micellar suspension (D-AMB). AMB pri- tifungal triazoles have been reported to have refractory infection marily acts by binding to ergosterol (the principal sterol in the caused by isolates with elevated MICs [81, 82]. cell membrane of most medically important fungi), leading to Recognizing that other filamentous fungi, such as Fusarium species, Scedosporium species, various dematiaceous (pig- the formation of ion channels and fungal cell death. AMB also mented) moulds, and Zygomycetes, may cause similar patterns binds to cholesterol (the main sterol of mammalian cell mem- of infection, a definitive microbiological diagnosis should be branes), although with less avidity than for ergosterol, resulting established where possible. Non-Aspergillus filamentous fungi in cellular injury and end organ dysfunction. A second mech- may require different antifungal agents and may carry a prog- anism of action of AMB may involve oxidative damage of the nosis that is distinct from those of Aspergillus species. cell through a cascade of oxidative reactions linked to lipo- peroxidation of the cell membrane. AMB has in vitro and in ANTIFUNGAL COMPOUNDS USED FOR vivo activity against most Aspergillus species. Most isolates of TREATMENT OF INVASIVE ASPERGILLOSIS A. terreus are resistant to AMB in vitro, in vivo, and in patients. Following IV administration, AMB becomes highly protein Over the past decade, a considerable expansion in antifungal bound before distributing predominantly into the reticuloen- drug research and the clinical development of several new com- dothelial tissues (liver, spleen, bone marrow, and lung) and the pounds and strategies targeted against invasive aspergillosis kidney. Peak plasma concentrations of 2–4 mg/mL are achieved have occurred [83]. The following FDA-approved compounds following IV infusion of 1 mg/kg of D-AMB. Clearance from have in vitro, in vivo, and clinical activity against Aspergillus plasma is slow, with a b half-life of 24–48 h and a terminal species and are licensed for treatment of invasive aspergillosis: half-life of 15 days. Despite mostly undetectable concentra- D-AMB and its lipid formulations (AMB lipid complex tions in the CSF, D-AMB is active in the treatment of some [ABLC], L-AMB, and AMB colloidal dispersion [ABCD]), itra- fungal infections of the CNS because of its penetration into conazole, voriconazole, posaconazole, and caspofungin. infected brain tissue via a disrupted blood-brain barrier. Voriconazole and D-AMB are the only compounds licensed D-AMB causes acute infusion-related reactions and dose- in the United States for primary treatment of invasive asper- limiting nephrotoxicity. Infusion-related reactions include fe- gillosis. The LFABs, itraconazole, and caspofungin are approved ver, rigors, chills, myalgias, arthralgias, nausea, vomiting, head- for salvage therapy of invasive aspergillosis. Posaconazole is licensed for prophylaxis of invasive aspergillosis in neutropenic aches, and bronchospasm. D-AMB–induced nephrotoxicity is patients with leukemia and myelodysplasia and in allogeneic characterized by azotemia, urinary wasting of potassium and HSCT recipients with GVHD. Posaconazole also was approved magnesium, renal tubular acidosis, and impaired urinary con- in the European Union for treatment of invasive aspergillosis centration ability. Azotemia attributable to D-AMB is partic- that is refractory to an AMB formulation or to itraconazole. ularly common in the doses required for treatment of invasive Micafungin and anidulafungin, which are also members of the aspergillosis. D-AMB–related azotemia is exacerbated by con- class of echinocandins, have in vitro, in vivo, and clinical ac- comitant nephrotoxic agents, particularly cyclosporine and tac- tivity against aspergillosis but are not licensed in the United rolimus. Renal toxicity associated with the use of D-AMB has States for this indication. Antifungal management of invasive the potential to lead to renal failure and dialysis, particularly aspergillosis is summarized in table 2. A comprehensive review in HSCT recipients and in patients with diabetes mellitus, pa- of antifungal compounds is beyond the scope of these guide- tients with underlying renal impairment, and patients receiving lines and is covered in detail elsewhere [84–86]. Because the concomitant nephrotoxic agents. Hospitalized patients receiv- IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 331
  • 6.
    Table 2. Summary of recommendations for the treatment of aspergillosis. a Therapy b Condition Primary Alternative Comments Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Voriconazole (6 mg/kg IV every 12 h for 1 L-AMB (3–5 mg/kg/day IV), ABLC (5 mg/ Primary combination ther- day, followed by 4 mg/kg IV every 12 kg/day IV), caspofungin (70 mg day 1 IV apy is not routinely rec- h; oral dosage is 200 mg every 12 h) and 50 mg/day IV thereafter), micafun- ommended based on gin (IV 100–150 mg/day; dose not esta- lack of clinical data; ad- c blished ), posaconazole (200 mg QID dition of another agent initially, then 400 mg BID PO after sta- or switch to another d bilization of disease ), itraconazole (dos- drug class for salvage e age depends upon formulation) therapy may be consid- ered in individual pa- tients; dosage in pediat- ric patients for voriconazole is 5–7 mg/ kg IV every 12 h and for caspofungin is 50 mg/ m2/day; limited clinical experience is reported with anidulafungin; dos- age of posaconazole in pediatric patients has not been defined; indi- cations for surgical in- tervention are outlined in table 3 Invasive sinus aspergillosis Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Similar to invasive pulmo- nary aspergillosis Tracheobronchial aspergillosis Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Similar to invasive pulmo- nary aspergillosis Chronic necrotizing pulmonary Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Because chronic necrotiz- aspergillosis (subacute inva- ing pulmonary aspergil- sive pulmonary aspergillosis) losis requires a pro- tracted course of therapy measured in months, an orally ad- ministered triazole, such as voriconazole or itra- conazole, would be pre- ferred over a parenter- ally administered agent Aspergillosis of the CNS Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis This infection is associ- ated with the highest mortality among all of the different patterns of invasive aspergillosis; drug interactions with anticonvulsant therapy f Aspergillus infections of the … Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Endocardial lesions heart (endocarditis, pericardi- caused by Aspergillus tis, and myocarditis) species require surgical resection; aspergillus pericarditis usually re- quires pericardiectomy f Aspergillus osteomyelitis and … Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Surgical resection of devi- septic arthritis talized bone and carti- lage is important for cu- rative intent Aspergillus infections of the Intraocular AMB indicated with partial Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillo- Systemic therapy may be f eye (endophthalmitis and vitrectomy sis; limited data with echinocandins beneficial in manage- keratitis) ment of aspergillus en- dophthalmitis; ophthal- mologic intervention and management is rec- ommended for all forms of ocular infection; topi- cal therapy for keratitis is indicated (continued) 332
  • 7.
    Table 2. (Continued.) a Therapy b Condition Primary Alternative Comments f Cutaneous aspergillosis … Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Surgical resection is indi- cated where feasible f Aspergillus peritonitis … Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis … Empirical and preemptive anti- For empirical antifungal therapy, L-AMB (3 … Preemptive therapy is a fungal therapy mg/kg/day IV), caspofungin (70 mg day logical extension of em- 1 IV and 50 mg/day IV thereafter), itra- pirical antifungal therapy conazole (200 mg every day IV or 200 in defining a high-risk mg BID), voriconazole (6 mg/kg IV ev- population with evi- ery 12h for 1 day, followed by 3 mg/kg dence of invasive fungal IV every 12 h; oral dosage is 200 mg infection (e.g., pulmo- every 12 h) nary infiltrate or positive galactomannan assay result) Prophylaxis against invasive Posaconazole (200 mg every 8h) Itraconazole (200 mg every 12 h IV for 2 Efficacy of posaconazole aspergillosis days, then 200 mg every 24 h IV) or prophylaxis demon- itraconazole (200 mg PO every 12 h); strated in high-risk pa- micafungin (50 mg/day) tients (patients with GVHD and neutropenic patients with AML and MDS) g Aspergilloma No therapy or surgical resection Itraconazole or voriconazole; similar to in- The role of medical ther- vasive pulmonary aspergillosis apy in treatment of as- pergilloma is uncertain; penetration into preex- isting cavities may be minimal for AMB but is excellent for itraconazole Chronic cavitary pulmonary Itraconazole or voriconazole Similar to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis Innate immune defects g aspergillosis demonstrated in most of these patients; long- term therapy may be needed; surgical resec- tion may lead to signifi- cant complications; an- ecdotal responses to IFN-g Allergic bronchopulmonary Itraconazole Oral voriconazole (200 mg PO every 12 h) Corticosteroids are a cor- aspergillosis or posaconazole (400 mg PO BID) nerstone of therapy; itraconazole has a de- monstrable corticoste- roid-sparing effect Allergic aspergillus sinusitis None or itraconazole Few data on other agents … NOTE. ABLC, AMB lipid complex; AMB, amphotericin B; AML, acute myelogenous leukemia; BID, twice daily; GVHD, graft-versus-host disease; IV, intravenous; L-AMB, liposomal AMB; MDS, myelodysplastic syndrome; PO, orally; QID, 4 times daily. a Duration of therapy for most conditions for aspergillosis has not been optimally defined. Most experts attempt to treat pulmonary infection until resolution or stabilization of all clinical and radiographic manifestations. Other factors include site of infection (e.g., osteomyelitis), level of immunosuppression, and extent of disease. Reversal of immunosuppression, if feasible, is important for a favorable outcome for invasive aspergillosis. b Alternative (salvage) therapy for patients refractory to or intolerant of primary antifungal therapy. c Micafungin has been evaluated as salvage therapy for invasive aspergillosis but remains investigational for this indication, and the dosage has not been established. d Posaconazole has been approved for the salvage treatment of invasive aspergillosis in the European Union but has not been evaluated as primary therapy for invasive aspergillosis. e Dosage of itraconazole in treatment of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis depends on formulation. The dosage for tablets is 600 mg/day for 3 days, followed by 400 mg/day. Although used in some case reports, oral solution is not licensed for treatment of invasive aspergillosis. Parenteral formulation has been studied in a limited series using a dosage of 200 mg every 12h IV for 2 days, followed by 200 mg daily thereafter (whether this is an optimal dosage has not been defined). f Most of these cases have been treated primarily with deoxycholate AMB in individual case reports. Although the preponderance of cases treated with voriconazole in the randomized trial consisted of pulmonary invasive aspergillosis, successful treatment of other cases of extrapulmonary and disseminated infection allows one to infer that voriconazole would also be effective in these cases, so that voriconazole is recommended as primary therapy for most of these patients. g A more recent classification divides aspergilloma into 2 categories: chronic cavitary and single aspergilloma. The latter does not require antifungal therapy but does require surgical therapy under some circumstances, and the former requires long-term antifungal therapy. 333
  • 8.
    ing D-AMB havebeen reported to sustain a high frequency of relationships for ABLC and ABCD have not been well studied. renal insufficiency and an excess mortality [89, 90]. Whether higher dosages of LFABs are beneficial in the treatment of CNS aspergillosis, in other sites of infection, or in certain LFAB conditions is also not well defined. Dosages of LFABs in pe- Three LFABs have been approved in the United States and the diatric and adult patients achieve similar plasma exposures of European Union: ABCD (Amphocil or Amphotec), ABLC AMB. (Abelcet), and a small unilamellar vesicle L-AMB (AmBisome). Because of their reduced nephrotoxicity in comparison with Antifungal Triazoles D-AMB, these compounds allow for the infusion of higher The antifungal triazoles are synthetic compounds that have 1 dosages of AMB. Higher dosages are required for equivalent triazole ring attached to an isobutyl core (e.g., voriconazole, antifungal efficacy, because amphotericin has to be released ravuconazole, and isavuconazole) or to an asymmetric carbon from the synthetic phospholipids when in close proximity to atom with a lipophilic complex mixed functional aromatic ergosterol, allowing for delivery of enough AMB to the site of chain (e.g., itraconazole and posaconazole). These 2 classes of infection. anti-Aspergillus triazoles vary in their pharmacology and mech- Each of the lipid formulations has plasma pharmacokinetic anisms of resistance. Fluconazole, which also is an antifungal properties that are distinct from those of AMB. All 3 LFABs triazole, is not active against invasive aspergillosis. Voriconazole preferentially distribute to reticulo endothelial system tissues is FDA approved for the primary treatment of invasive asper- and functionally spare the kidney. In the kidney, less AMB is gillosis. Itraconazole is licensed for treatment of invasive as- released from the lipid carrier, because the synthetic phospho- pergillosis in patients who are refractory to or intolerant of lipids have a greater affinity for AMB than does cholesterol in standard antifungal therapy. Posaconazole is FDA approved for renal epithelial cell membranes. prevention of invasive aspergillosis in neutropenic patients re- Infusion-related adverse effects of fever, chills, and rigor are ceiving remission induction chemotherapy for acute myelo- less frequent with L-AMB, compared with D-AMB. However, genous leukemia or myelodysplastic syndrome and for HSCT individual cases of substernal chest discomfort, respiratory dis- recipients with GVHD. The antifungal triazoles target ergosterol tress, and sharp flank pain have been noted during infusion of biosynthesis by inhibiting the fungal cytochrome P450–depen- L-AMB, and in a comparative study, hypoxic episodes asso- dent enzyme lanosterol 14-a-demethylase, resulting in altered ciated with fever and chills were more frequent in ABCD re- cell membrane function and cell death or inhibition of cell cipients than in D-AMB recipients. Mild increases in serum growth and replication. The triazoles also inhibit cytochrome bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase levels have been observed P450–dependent enzymes of the fungal respiration chain. The with all 3 formulations. Idiosyncratic reactions to one LFAB anti-Aspergillus triazoles are active in vitro and in vivo against do not preclude the use of another LFAB. all common species of Aspergillus. Although some isolates of ABLC and ABCD are approved at dosages of 5 mg/kg/day A. fumigatus have been found to be resistant to itraconazole, and 3–4 mg/kg/day, respectively, and L-AMB is approved at a resistance to the anti-Aspergillus triazoles has been unusual thus dosage of 3–5 mg/kg/day for salvage therapy of invasive as- far; however, recent studies suggest that the rate may be in- pergillosis. A dosage of 3 mg/kg/day of L-AMB is used initially creasing [82, 93]. for empirical antifungal therapy in persistently febrile neutro- Voriconazole. Voriconazole is formulated as tablets or as a penic patients. The optimal dosage for treatment of invasive sulfobutyl-ether cyclodextrin solution for IV administration. aspergillosis has not been defined for any of the LFABs. Al- Sulfobutyl-ether cyclodextrin and voriconazole dissociate in though many experts would use the higher dosage range for plasma and follow their own disposition. As the cyclodextrin treatment of documented infection, there are no data from molecule is renally cleared, accumulation of the vehicle occurs controlled trials supporting higher dosages. Although L-AMB in individuals with renal insufficiency. The consequences of has been safely administered at dosages as high as 15 mg/kg/ plasma accumulation of sulfobutyl-ether cyclodextrin are un- day, one study did not demonstrate a trend to a dose-response certain at this time, and caution is advised when using the IV relationship [91]. That higher dosages of L-AMB are not nec- formulation in patients with renal impairment (C-III). The essarily equivalent to greater response rate was recently dem- relative benefits and uncertain risks of the sulfobutyl-ether cy- onstrated by Cornely et al. [92]. This recent prospective, ran- clodextrin parenteral solution of voriconazole in the context domized trial of L-AMB, which compared a dosage of 3 mg/ of invasive aspergillosis and renal failure should be determined kg/day with a dosage of 10 mg/kg/day for primary treatment on an individual patient basis. This concern does not apply to of proven and probable invasive aspergillosis in 201 patients, orally administered voriconazole. The oral formulation has found similar survival rates and overall response rates; greater good bioavailability in the fed or fasted state. Voriconazole is toxicity was seen in the higher-dosage group. The dose-response widely distributed in mammalian tissues, with CSF levels of 334 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
  • 9.
    ∼50% in plasmalevels. The elimination half-life of ∼6 h war- Absorption is improved when the capsules are taken with food rants twice-daily dosing. Voriconazole is hepatically metabo- or an acidic cola beverage. HPCD solution of itraconazole pro- lized, with only 5% of the drug appearing unchanged in the vides more-uniform oral bioavailability that is further enhanced urine. This agent exhibits nonlinear pharmacokinetics, with in the fasting state. Systemic absorption of the cyclodextrin maximum concentration in plasma and area under the curve carrier is negligible. increasing disproportionally with increasing dose. Voriconazole Itraconazole is extensively metabolized in the liver and is is both a substrate and an inhibitor of CYP2C19, CYP2C9, and excreted in metabolized form into bile and urine. The major CYP3A4. The patient’s current medications should be reviewed metabolite, hydroxy-itraconazole, possesses antifungal activity for potentially deleterious drug interactions. Allelic polymor- that is similar to that of itraconazole [96–98]. Most observed phisms in CYP2C19 may result phenotypically in rapid or slow reactions to itraconazole are transient and include nausea and metabolism of voriconazole, possible resulting in significant vomiting, hypertriglyceridemia, hypokalemia, and elevated he- variation in plasma concentrations. Single-nucleotide poly- patic aminotransferase enzyme levels. Gastrointestinal intol- morphisms contributing to slow metabolism are represented erance appears to be more frequent with oral HPCD itracon- in higher frequencies among non-Indian Asian populations azole solution. Because itraconazole use may infrequently cause than among other populations. negative inotropic effects, it should be administered with cau- Treatment of invasive aspergillosis with voriconazole is ini- tion to patients with ventricular dysfunction. Itraconazole is a tiated with a loading dose of 6 mg/kg IV every 12 h for 2 doses, substrate of CYP3A4 but also interacts with the heme moiety followed by 4 mg/kg every 12 h. These dosages are greater than of CYP3A4, resulting in noncompetitive inhibition of oxidative those routinely administered for oral therapy (200 mg every metabolism of many CYP3A4 substrates. Serious interactions 12 h). Oral therapy can be approximated to the standard IV with some chemotherapeutic agents (e.g., cyclophosphamide) dosage by using 4 mg/kg/dose rounded up to convenient pill further limit its use [99]. sizes (B-III), although use of oral voriconazole in these doses The recommended dosage range of oral itraconazole in adults is investigational and has not been carefully studied. Because is 400 mg/day (capsules) and 2.5 mg/kg twice daily (HPCD patients initially received IV therapy in the original randomized solution). In pediatric patients aged 15 years, a dosage of oral clinical trial of voriconazole, parenteral therapy, where feasible, itraconazole HPCD solution of 2.5 mg/kg twice daily has been is recommended to approximate the results of that study. Be- recommended [100]. The approved adult dosages of IV HPCD cause of the more accelerated metabolic clearance in pediatric itraconazole are 200 mg twice daily for 2 days, followed by 200 patients, the doses of voriconazole may be higher [94]. A main- mg once daily for a maximum of 12 days. Because of the erratic tenance dosage of 7 mg/kg twice daily in pediatric patients is bioavailability of itraconazole, measurements of plasma con- recommended by the European Medicines Agency for the at- centrations of itraconazole by bioassay or by HPLC are rec- tainment of plasma levels comparable to those of adults. Load- ommended during oral therapy of invasive aspergillosis (A-III). ing regimens in pediatric populations have not been adequately Posaconazole. Posaconazole is structurally similar to itra- studied. Measurement of serum levels, especially in patients conazole but has been studied in the treatment of invasive receiving oral therapy, may be useful in some patients, either aspergillosis only in the oral formulation. Posaconazole exhibits to evaluate for potential toxicity or to document adequate drug exposure, especially in progressive infection (B-III) [95]. not only linear kinetics but also saturable absorption; thus, oral Voriconazole’s profile of adverse reactions includes transient loading doses are not possible. Steady-state levels may not be visual disturbances (characterized principally by photopsia); achieved for up to a week with posaconazole therapy, which hepatotoxicity, which may be dose limiting (manifested by el- may impact its use in primary therapy. Posaconazole undergoes evated serum bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase, and hepatic ami- hepatic metabolism via glucuronidation and also has the ca- notransferase enzyme levels); skin rash (usually in sunlight- pacity for drug-drug interactions through inhibition of CYP450 exposed areas), visual hallucinations; and others [85]. 3A4 isoenzymes. Significantly more toxicity was observed in Itraconazole. Itraconazole is a high molecular weight, patients with acute leukemia or myelodysplasia who were re- highly lipophilic compound that is formulated as capsules, oral ceiving posaconazole for prophylaxis than in such patients re- solution in hydroxypropyl-b-cyclodextrin (HPCD), and par- ceiving prophylactic fluconazole or itraconazole [92]. enteral solution that also uses HPCD as solubilizer. Absorption Laboratory animal studies demonstrate activity of the oral from the capsular formulation, which is enhanced by low gastric formulation in the prevention and treatment of experimental pH and dietary lipids, may be erratic or negligible in the fasting pulmonary and disseminated aspergillosis [101, 102]. Recently state, particularly in granulocytopenic patients with cancer and completed clinical trials are consistent with these laboratory in patients with hypochlorhydria, and its use in seriously ill findings, demonstrating activity in the prevention of invasive patients with life-threatening infection is not recommended. aspergillosis in neutropenic patients with acute myelogenous IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 335
  • 10.
    leukemia and inHSCT recipients with GVHD, as well as in istration. They exhibit dose-proportional plasma pharmaco- salvage therapy for refractory invasive aspergillosis [103–105]. kinetics with a b half-life of 10–15 h that allows for once-daily The dosage of the oral suspension of prophylaxis is 200 mg dosing. All echinocandins are highly (195%) protein bound 3 times per day, and the dosage for salvage treatment is 800 and distribute into all major organ sites, including the brain; mg administered in 2 or 4 divided doses. The dosage in pe- however, concentrations in uninfected CSF are low. Caspofun- diatric patients is not established. Limited data are available on gin and micafungin are metabolized by the liver and slowly the use of therapeutic drug monitoring, but in one study, im- excreted into the urine and feces. Anidulafungin is slowly de- proved efficacy occurred with higher posaconazole drug levels graded nonenzymatically in plasma and then hepatically [103]. excreted. Therapeutic drug monitoring. A growing body of evidence At the currently investigated dosages, all echinocandins are suggests patient-to-patient variability in the pharmacokinetics generally well tolerated, and only a small fraction of patients of triazoles used for treatment or prophylaxis in invasive as- enrolled in the various clinical trials have discontinued therapy pergillosis [95, 103, 106, 107]. Absorption issues (for itracon- because of drug-related adverse events. The most frequently azole and posaconazole), drug-drug interactions (for all tria- reported adverse effects include increased liver aminotransfer- zoles), and pharmacogenetic differences (for voriconazole) all ase enzyme levels, gastrointestinal upset, and headaches. As with contribute in various degrees to this variability [84]. Although other basic polypeptides, the echinocandins have the potential the available data do not allow consensus and specific rec- to cause histamine release; however, histamine-like symptoms ommendations for therapeutic drug monitoring, accumulating have been observed only in isolated cases, which may be related reports suggest that plasma drug level monitoring may play an to infusion rates that are more rapid than recommended. The important role in optimizing the safety (for voriconazole and current echinocandins appear to have no significant potential flucytosine) and efficacy (for itraconazole, posaconazole, and for drug interactions mediated by the CYP450 enzyme system. possibly, voriconazole) of antifungals with significant interpa- Caspofungin can reduce the area under the curve of tacrolimus tient pharmacokinetic variability among a complex patient by ∼20% but has no effect on cyclosporine levels. However, population, such as patients at risk for or who have invasive cyclosporine increases the area under the curve of caspofungin aspergillosis. The necessity of documenting or continuing ther- by ∼35%; because of transient elevations of hepatic amino- apeutic drug monitoring (once therapeutic concentrations are transferase enzyme levels in single-dose interaction studies, the documented) should be individualized as determined by the concomitant use of both drugs should be done with caution clinical status of the host (e.g., specific organ function, co- (B-III). Finally, inducers of drug clearance and/or mixed in- morbidities, and receipt of concomitant medications) and the ducer/inhibitors, namely efavirenz, nelfinavir, nevirapine, phen- overall treatment plans. Although further work is needed to ytoin, rifampin, dexamethasone, and carbamazepine, may re- validate therapeutic drug monitoring approaches for antifun- duce caspofungin concentrations. gals, the committee recommends that determination of a Caspofungin is indicated in patients with probable or proven plasma drug level, in conjunction with other measures of clin- invasive aspergillosis that is refractory to or intolerant of other ical assessment, may be another factor in evaluating reasons approved therapies. The currently recommended dosage regi- for therapeutic failure attributable to suboptimal drug expo- men of caspofungin in adults consists of a single 70-mg loading sures or for toxicity attributable to the drug (B-III). dose on day 1, followed by 50 mg/day thereafter, administered by slow IV infusion of ∼1 h. Maertens et al. [109] reported Echinocandins: Caspofungin, Micafungin, and Anidulafungin the use of higher doses of caspofungin (70 mg/day) for use in The echinocandins are a novel class of semisynthetic amphi- salvage combination therapy of invasive aspergillosis. In cases philic lipopeptides composed of a cyclic hexapeptide core of markedly reduced hepatic function, adult patients should linked to a variably configured N-acyl side chain [108]. The receive a daily dose of 35 mg. Caspofungin administration at echinocandins act by noncompetitive inhibition of the synthesis 50 mg/m2/day in children provides exposure that is comparable of 1,3-b-glucan, a polysaccharide in the cell wall of many path- to that obtained at a dosage of 50 mg/day in adults [110]. ogenic fungi. Together with chitin, the rope-like glucan fibrils Micafungin and anidulafungin have activity against Aspergillus are responsible for the cell wall’s strength and shape. They are species but are not approved for that indication, and optimal important in maintaining the osmotic integrity of the fungal doses for aspergillosis have not been established. Micafungin cell and play a key role in cell division and cell growth. Because at a mean daily dose of 111 mg was used in one open-label of their distinct mechanism of action, the echinocandins have trial. However, on a mg/kg basis, higher doses may be needed the potential for use in combination regimens with currently in young children and infants to achieve a plasma exposure available standard antifungal agents. that is comparable to that in adults [111, 112]. Although an- All current echinocandins are only available for IV admin- idulafungin is active in experimental pulmonary aspergillosis, 336 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
  • 11.
    there is relativelylittle reported experience describing its use day) and showed similar efficacy in both arms but greater tox- in the treatment of invasive aspergillosis. icity in the higher-dose arm. These results suggest that L-AMB may be considered as alternative primary therapy in some TREATMENT GUIDELINE OVERVIEW patients (A-I). For salvage therapy, agents include LFABs (A- II), posaconazole (B-II), itraconazole (B-II), caspofungin (B- The following practice guidelines provide recommendations for II), or micafungin (B-II). In that context, the diagnosis should treatment of the different forms of aspergillosis. For each form be confirmed. Therapeutic options include a change of class of aspergillosis, the objective, treatment options, outcome of using an AMB formulation or an echinocandin (B-II); ad- treatment, evidence, values, benefits and harms, and key rec- ditional use of an azole should take into account prior therapy, ommendations are specified, where appropriate. The panel per- host factors, and pharmacokinetic considerations. formed extensive review of all the randomized, controlled, and In the absence of a well-controlled, prospective clinical observational trials published in the English-language literature. trial, routine administration of combination therapy for pri- Final recommendations were discussed by the panel and de- mary therapy is not routinely recommended (B-II). The com- termined by consensus. Because invasive pulmonary aspergil- mittee recognizes, however, that in the context of salvage losis is the most common life-threatening form of invasive aspergillosis, more emphasis is placed on its management than therapy, an additional antifungal agent might be added to on other aspects of clinical infection. Many of the statements current therapy, or combination antifungal drugs from dif- concerning treatment of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis are ferent classes other than those in the initial regimen may be also applicable to other forms of invasive aspergillosis. used (B-II). In addition, management of breakthrough in- vasive aspergillosis in the context of mould-active azole pro- INVASIVE ASPERGILLOSIS phylaxis or suppressive therapy is not defined by clinical trial data but would suggest a switch to another drug class (B- III). Paramount to the successful treatment of invasive pul- INVASIVE PULMONARY ASPERGILLOSIS monary aspergillosis is the reversal of immunosuppression (e.g., Without adequate therapy, invasive pulmonary aspergillosis will reduction in the dosage of corticosteroids) or recovery from almost always progress to relentless fatal pneumonia. In neu- neutropenia. Surgical resection of Aspergillus-infected tissue tropenic patients, this pneumonia may be characterized by dev- may be useful in patients with lesions that are contiguous astating hemorrhagic infarction or progressive necrotizing with the great vessels or pericardium, lesions causing he- pneumonia. Without adequate therapy, invasive pulmonary as- moptysis from a single focus, and lesions causing erosion pergillosis is further complicated by dissemination to the CNS into the pleural space or ribs (B-III). or by extension to contiguous intrathoracic structures, includ- Duration of antifungal therapy for invasive pulmonary as- ing the great vessels and the heart. Because of the potential pergillosis is not well defined. We generally recommend that progression of this infection, the early administration of an- treatment of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis be continued for tifungal therapy while diagnostic evaluation is undertaken is a minimum of 6–12 weeks; in immunosuppressed patients, critical. therapy should be continued throughout the period of im- munosuppression and until lesions have resolved. Long-term Key Recommendations therapy of invasive aspergillosis is facilitated by the availability Early initiation of antifungal therapy in patients with of oral voriconazole in stable patients. For patients with suc- strongly suspected invasive aspergillosis is warranted while cessfully treated invasive aspergillosis who will require sub- a diagnostic evaluation is conducted (A-I) [29, 92]. The de- sequent immunosuppression, resumption of antifungal ther- cision of medical therapy for treatment of invasive pulmonary apy can prevent recurrent infection (A-III) [113, 114]. aspergillosis has been greatly facilitated by a randomized, con- Therapeutic monitoring of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis trolled trial of voriconazole versus D-AMB. includes serial clinical evaluation of all symptoms and signs, as Because of better survival and improved responses of initial well as performance of radiographic imaging, usually with CT, therapy with voriconazole, primary therapy with D-AMB is not at regular intervals. The frequency with which CT should be recommended (A-I). For primary treatment of invasive pul- performed cannot be universally defined and should be indi- monary aspergillosis, IV or oral voriconazole is recom- vidualized on the basis of the rapidity of evolution of pul- mended for most patients (A-I). Oral therapy can be maxi- monary infiltrates and the acuity of the individual patient. The mized by using a dose of 4 mg/kg rounded up to convenient volume of pulmonary infiltrates may increase for the first 7– pill sizes (B-111). For seriously ill patients, the parenteral 10 days of therapy—especially in the context of granulocyte formulation is recommended (A-III). A randomized trial com- recovery [27]. The use of serial serum galactomannan assays pared 2 initial dosages of L-AMB (3 mg/kg/day and 10 mg/kg/ for therapeutic monitoring is promising but remains investi- IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 337
  • 12.
    gational [48, 49].Progressive increase in Aspergillus antigen treatment groups, the patient population included those with levels over time signifies a poor prognosis. However, resolution possible aspergillosis. When those patients with possible as- of galactomannan antigenemia to a normal level is not suf- pergillosis are excluded from the analysis, the data reveal a trend ficient as a sole criterion for discontinuation of antifungal toward improved response in patients with proven and prob- therapy (B-III). Further data elucidating the prognostic and able aspergillosis who were treated with the higher dosage, therapeutic value of serial galactomannan levels in patients with which is consistent with the data from animal models dem- invasive pulmonary aspergillosis are needed. onstrating a dose-response relationship [32, 121]. Another study randomized patients with documented invasive asper- Evidence gillosis to receive ABCD (6 mg/kg/day) versus D-AMB (1 mg/ Data on antifungal therapy. There are few randomized clin- kg/day) for primary treatment of invasive aspergillosis [119]. ical trials on the treatment of invasive aspergillosis. Invasive This study found that patients randomized to either arm had pulmonary aspergillosis is a life-threatening infection associated similar outcomes but poor overall responses (patients with with severe morbidity and mortality. Invasive pulmonary as- complete and partial responses, 17% in the ABCD group vs. pergillosis may be the source for dissemination to the CNS and 23% in the D-AMB group), and those receiving ABCD had less other critical organs. This infection has been extremely difficult nephrotoxicity (25% vs. 49%). More recently, Cornely et al. to study in prospective, randomized trials. The largest pro- [92] compared an initial dosage of L-AMB of 10 mg/kg/day spective, randomized trial for the treatment of invasive pul- for 2 weeks with a dosage of 3 mg/kg/day. In that study, among monary aspergillosis demonstrated that voriconazole was su- 201 patients, overall outcomes in the 2 arms were similar (46% perior to D-AMB, followed by other licensed antifungal therapy in the high-dose arm vs. 50% in the low-dose arm), but there [115]. All patients had proven or probable invasive aspergillosis, was more toxicity (32% vs. 20%) in the high-dose arm, sug- and most of them had pneumonia. Voriconazole was admin- gesting that higher doses were not beneficial in these patients, istered at a dosage of 6 mg/kg every 12 h for 2 doses as a the majority of whom had early invasive pulmonary aspergil- loading dose, followed by 4 mg/kg every 12 h IV for the first losis diagnosed by CT. 7 days, followed by 200 mg twice daily thereafter. D-AMB was For patients who are intolerant of or refractory to voricon- administered at 1.0–1.5 mg/kg/day IV; other licensed antifungal azole, a formulation of AMB is an appropriate alternative. D- therapy was permitted if the initial therapy failed or if the AMB historically has been used in the treatment of invasive patient had intolerance to the first drug. This study demon- aspergillosis. However, the available data indicate that the strated significantly improved survival, improved overall re- LFABs are as effective as D-AMB but less nephrotoxic [119, sponse rate at 12 weeks of therapy, and improved overall re- 122–125]. That LFABs are effective against invasive pulmonary sponse at end of therapy. Successful outcome was achieved in aspergillosis and other forms of invasive aspergillosis is also 53% of patients in the voriconazole arm and 32% of patients demonstrated in several large, open-label, compassionate-re- in the D-AMB arm, resulting in an absolute difference of 21%. lease studies with a response rate of ∼40% [124–126]. For those Survival rate at 12 weeks was 71% among voriconazole-treated patients with underlying hepatotoxicity or other contraindi- patients and 58% among D-AMB–treated patients. Recipients cations to voriconazole, an LFAB is less toxic than is D-AMB of voriconazole had fewer severe drug-related adverse events. and is likely to be at least as effective as D-AMB as an alternative However, transient visual disturbances occurred more fre- for primary therapy. quently with voriconazole, as discussed in the earlier section A study of caspofungin for patients who are intolerant of or on antifungal compounds in this article. The efficacy of vori- refractory to conventional therapy also demonstrated a favor- conazole was further demonstrated in pediatric and adult pa- able response rate of ∼40% [127]. Higher responses (50%) tients receiving voriconazole for treatment of invasive asper- occurred with invasive pulmonary aspergillosis than with dis- gillosis who were refractory to or intolerant of conventional seminated aspergillosis (23%). Drug-related nephrotoxicity and antifungal therapy [116–118]; the overall response rate was 43% hepatotoxicity occurred in !5% of patients. and 48% for pediatric and adult patients, respectively. Orally administered itraconazole has also been used to treat Two earlier and smaller randomized trials of the primary patients with invasive aspergillosis who are refractory to or treatment of invasive aspergillosis [119, 120] and another recent intolerant of D-AMB [24, 128]. In a study of 76 evaluable dose comparison study of L-AMB [92] have been reported. An patients, all of whom were able to take oral therapy, 30 patients earlier prospective, randomized trial of 2 dosages of L-AMB (39%) had a complete or partial response, with success rates (1.0 mg/kg/day vs. 4.0 mg/kg/day) for treatment of invasive varying widely according to site of disease and underlying dis- aspergillosis was conducted by the European Organization for ease group [128]. More recent studies of the parenteral for- Research in Treatment of Cancer [120]. Although this study mulation of b-hydroxy-propyl-cyclodextrin itraconazole in the found no difference in response rate or survival between the 2 treatment of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis that was refrac- 338 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
  • 13.
    tory to variousforms of AMB have been reported, with overall port combination therapy as routine primary treatment of in- response rates of 52% [129, 130]. Measurement of itraconazole vasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Although initial laboratory serum levels are generally recommended to document ab- studies, case reports, and retrospective case series indicate en- sorption of drug (B-II). Although evidence to support a cor- couraging findings, the efficacy of primary combination anti- relation between higher drug levels and efficacy is limited, levels fungal therapy requires a prospective, randomized clinical trial 1250 ng/mL have been associated with more-favorable out- to justify this approach. Additional questions of optimal dosing, comes. Salvage therapy of itraconazole for treatment of in- pharmacokinetic interactions, potential toxic interactions, and vasive pulmonary aspergillosis that is refractory to primary cost-benefit ratios of primary combination antifungal therapy therapy with voriconazole is not recommended because of also require further investigation. the same mechanism of action or possible resistance and Impact of Aspergillus species. Consideration should be because of the erratic bioavailability and toxicity (B-II). given to the infecting species of Aspergillus. Most isolates of A. Posaconazole was approved in Europe for salvage treatment fumigatus are susceptible in vitro and responsive in vivo to of patients with invasive aspergillosis who are refractory to AMB AMB, voriconazole, posaconazole, itraconazole, and caspofun- or itraconazole. The overall success rate in an externally con- gin. However, most isolates of A. terreus are resistant in vitro trolled, open-label trial using Data Review Committee–assessed and in vivo to AMB. The aggregate body of data thus far global response at end of treatment was 42% for the posacon- warrants that an antifungal triazole should be used instead azole group and 26% for the control group [103]. The differ- of AMB in the primary treatment of infection due to A. ences in response between the treatment groups were preserved terreus (A-II) [18]. Although uncommon, some isolates of A. across additional, prespecified subsets, including infection site fumigatus that are resistant to itraconazole have been reported. (pulmonary or disseminated), hematological malignancy, Other species of Aspergillus may also be resistant to AMB, in- HSCT, baseline neutropenia, and enrollment reason (refractory cluding A. lentulus, A. nidulans, A. ustus, and Aspergillus ver- or intolerant). A difference in response was also seen in a con- sicolor. Known itraconazole-resistant isolates of A. fumigatus firmatory analysis subpopulation (patients who received prior were recovered from patients who were not profoundly im- antifungal therapy for 7–30 days before the start of salvage munosuppressed and otherwise should have responded to itra- therapy). As with other salvage trials, patients enrolled in this conazole [140]. Multiazole-resistant Aspergillus species have study were a selected population who had received prior ther- also been recently reported [82]. Antifungal susceptibility test- apy, and for posaconazole salvage studies, patients were also ing, especially in the context of prior azole therapy, may be selected on the basis of their ability to receive the oral for- warranted as a guide to therapy, although very limited clinical mulation of posaconazole. The salvage study also demonstrated data support this approach. Pending susceptibility data, the a direct relationship between serum concentration and response administration of a different class of agent (AMB formulation rate. One should note, however, that these serum concentra- or echinocandin) may be warranted. tions were achieved in patients receiving the highest adult dos- Use of colony-stimulating factors. Reversal of immuno- age (800 mg administered in divided doses over 24 h) at which suppression is an important factor in successful treatment of maximum absorption of compound is known to occur. Thus, invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Persistent neutropenia and further increases in the oral adult dosage are unlikely to yield chronic GVHD are 2 of the most important variables for poor higher plasma concentrations. outcome in invasive aspergillosis [6, 141]. Failure to recover Most of the prospective studies of second-line therapy have from neutropenia is often associated with a fatal outcome of been conducted by replacing the compound to which the pa- invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Although colony-stimulating tient is intolerant or against which the infection is progressing. factors are widely used to attempt to reduce the duration of Whether both drugs should be administered simultaneously neutropenia, there are limited data from randomized, con- has seldom been prospectively studied [111], nor are there trolled trials to demonstrate that granulocyte colony-stimulat- compelling prospective clinical data to support combination ing factor or granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating fac- antifungal therapy over single-agent therapy for primary ther- tor prevents the development of invasive pulmonary apy of invasive aspergillosis [131]. The addition of a second aspergillosis in patients with prolonged neutropenia (duration antifungal agent to a first agent that is failing or toxic is usually of neutropenia, 110 days) [142]. Although high-risk neutro- practiced out of understandable desperation. Nevertheless, lim- penic patients with invasive aspergillosis may already be re- ited in vitro, in vivo, and nonrandomized clinical trial data ceiving granulocyte colony-stimulating factor or granulocyte- suggest the benefit of some forms of combination therapy macrophage colony-stimulating factor as a component of against invasive aspergillosis [109, 131–137]. However, not all their cancer chemotherapy, those neutropenic patients who antifungal combinations are beneficial, and some may be del- are not receiving a colony-stimulating factor may benefit eterious [138, 139]. There are insufficient clinical data to sup- from the addition of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 339
  • 14.
    or granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulatingfactor (B- resource should only be implemented for those patients with III). proven or probable infection who are anticipated to require Cytokines, such as granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, this bridge as a temporary measure until recovery from neu- granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and IFN-g, tropenia. Granulocyte transfusions have also been used in the also augment functional properties of phagocytic cells through treatment of refractory invasive aspergillosis and other infec- upregulation of chemotaxis, phagocytosis, oxidative metabo- tions in patients with CGD [17]. lism, and/or degranulation of neutrophils, and granulocyte col- Management of immunosuppressive therapies. With- ony-stimulating factor, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stim- drawal of corticosteroids or reduction of dosage is often crit- ulating factor, and IFN-g upregulate phagocytosis and the ical for successful outcome in invasive aspergillosis (A-III). respiratory burst of monocytes and macrophages [143, 144]. The failure to reduce an immunosuppressive dosage of systemic The clinical data suggest a potential role of IFN-g in selected corticosteroids usually results in relentless invasive fungal in- hosts for prevention or treatment of invasive aspergillosis [145]. fection. However, because control of underlying diseases, such Although clinical data supporting its use specifically for asper- as GVHD, may only be achieved by intense immunosuppres- gillosis are sparse, IFN-g is widely used for prevention of bac- sion, corticosteroid-sparing immunosuppressive strategies are terial and fungal infections in patients with chronic granulo- being used increasingly. TNF-a blockade with infliximab is one matous disease (CGD) [146]. Individual case reports suggest such strategy. However, because TNF-a is a key molecule in a role for IFN-g as adjunctive antifungal therapy for invasive the initial innate host defense against A. fumigatus, its inhibition aspergillosis in immunocompromised nonneutropenic pa- also may have deleterious immunological consequences leading tients, particularly those with CGD (B-III). to invasive aspergillosis [149–151]. Role of granulocyte transfusions. Granulocyte transfusions For patients with chronic immunosuppression, continu- may be another resource for the treatment of patients with ation of antifungal therapy throughout the duration of im- invasive pulmonary aspergillosis [147, 148]. Although use of munosuppression seems to be associated with a more fa- this modality for management of invasive pulmonary asper- vorable outcome (A-III). For patients with successfully treated gillosis has been controversial, the key element for improved invasive aspergillosis who will require subsequent immuno- outcome appears to be an adequate number of granulocytes suppression, resumption of antifungal therapy may prevent re- transfused to the profoundly neutropenic patient. The advent current infection from residual foci of infection that may or of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor mobilization of gran- may not be demonstrated by current imaging techniques [113]. ulocyte donors results in the strikingly (∼10-fold) increased Hemoptysis and surgical management. Hemoptysis is a number of granulocytes that can be recovered and subsequently serious complication of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis that administered to patients. In an open-label pilot study, Dignani may lead to exsanguination and respiratory arrest. Hemoptysis et al. [147] have reported the use of granulocyte colony-stim- in the course of invasive aspergillosis may occur during pro- ulating factor–mobilized granulocyte transfusions administered found pancytopenia or upon recovery from neutropenia [152, to patients with invasive aspergillosis and other mycoses due 153]. Early aggressive therapy and eradication of infection may to filamentous fungi. Stabilization of invasive pulmonary as- prevent this complication; however, there are no data to de- pergillosis was demonstrated in some of the patients who were finitively support this hypothesis. Because life-threatening he- otherwise experiencing refractory invasive fungal infection. Un- moptysis complicating invasive aspergillosis is reported most less patients recover from neutropenia, granulocyte transfusions often in patients already receiving antifungal chemotherapy, will not stabilize invasive aspergillosis indefinitely. surgical resection may be the only recourse to eradicate the Granulocyte transfusions can be accompanied by transfusion focus. reactions, including pulmonary dysfunction evidenced by hyp- Surgical resection of pulmonary lesions due to Aspergillus oxia and the acute onset of adult respiratory distress syndrome– species can provide a definitive diagnosis and can potentially like pulmonary infiltrates. Granulocyte transfusions are also completely eradicate a localized infection (table 3) [28, 154– associated with the transmission of cytomegalovirus infection. 158]. Surgical therapy may be useful in patients with lesions In cytomegalovirus-seronegative HSCT recipients, only cyto- that are contiguous with the great vessels or the pericardium, megalovirus-seronegative donors should be used for granulo- hemoptysis from a single cavitary lesion, or invasion of the cyte transfusions. Because there has been an association be- chest wall (B-II). Another relative indication for surgery is tween some of these reactions and simultaneous infusion of the resection of a single pulmonary lesion prior to intensive AMB, patients undergoing granulocyte transfusion with con- chemotherapy or HSCT (B-II). Although a successful course current use of AMB products usually have the AMB staggered of voriconazole may preclude the need for surgical resection by several hours from the granulocytes, with careful monitoring of pulmonary lesions, adjunctive surgical intervention is usually for this complication. Moreover, this limited blood product warranted for treatment of aspergillosis involving the heart, 340 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
  • 15.
    Table 3. Relative indications for surgery in treatment of invasive aspergillosis. Condition Surgical procedure Comment Pulmonary lesion in proximity to Resection of pulmonary lesion May prevent erosion of pulmonary lesions great vessels or pericardium into great vessels and into pericardial space Pericardial infection Pericardiectomy Pericardiectomy reduces organism burden around heart and prevents tamponade Invasion of chest wall from con- Resection of pulmonary lesion Resection of lesion may relieve pain and tiguous pulmonary lesion prevent pleurocutaneous fistula Aspergillus empyema Placement of chest tube Reduces burden of organism in closed space Persistent hemoptysis from a Resection of cavity May prevent exsanguinating hemoptysis; single cavitary lesion other measures to reduce hemoptysis in- clude embolization of involved blood ves- sel and cauterization; however, recurrence of bleeding is possible Infection of skin and soft tissues Debridement, wide margin Surgical judgment used in extent of debride- surgical resection ment and resection, if indicated Infected vascular catheters and Removal of catheters and Removal of infected catheters and devices prosthetic devices devices provides definitive eradication Endocarditis Resection of vegetation and Vegetations may be valvular or mural; single infected valve mural lesions are resectable, particularly if pedunculated Osteomyelitis Debridement of infected bone Debridement of necrotic and infected bone reduces organism burden and allows bet- ter drug penetration; surgical judgment de- termines extent of debridement Sinusitis Resection of infected tissues Extent of debridement may vary from no in- tervention to wide resection, depending on surgical judgment Cerebral lesions Resection of infected tissue Extent of debridement may vary from no in- tervention to complete resection, depend- ing on location, neurological sequelae, ac- cessibility, and surgical judgment NOTE. Indications depend on multiple variables, severity of lesion, surgical judgment, and the ability of the patient to tolerate the operative procedure, as well as the potential role of alternative medical therapy. great vessels, pleural space, and bone. However, recent favorable impairment. The use of D-AMB in adult patients needs to be experience of using secondary antifungal prophylaxis after ini- assessed on an individual basis for the relative risks and con- tial successful primary therapy prior to HSCT in patients with sequences of renal impairment. In many resource-limited set- prior invasive aspergillosis suggests that antifungal therapy tings, D-AMB may be the only agent for primary treatment of alone may be effective [159, 160]. Early surgical evaluation and invasive aspergillosis and, as such, may be considered to be the close CT monitoring may be warranted during medical therapy, standard of care. to intervene if a lesion further encroaches upon a critical struc- ture. Decisions concerning surgical therapy should be individ- TRACHEOBRONCHIAL ASPERGILLOSIS ualized to account for a number of variables, including the degree of resection (e.g., wedge resection vs. pneumonectomy), Early treatment of tracheobronchial aspergillosis may result in potential impact of delays in chemotherapy, comorbidities, per- the prevention of anastomotic disruption and loss of the lung formance status, the goal of antineoplastic therapy (e.g., cu- graft, as well as resolution of ulcerative tracheobronchial lesions rative vs. palliative), and unilateral versus bilateral lesions. in lung transplant recipients. Pharmacoeconomics and costs. The complex issues of Key recommendations. Voriconazole is recommended as pharmacoeconomics and fiscal costs of antifungal therapy are initial therapy in the treatment of tracheobronchial asper- beyond the scope of these guidelines; however, these issues often gillosis (B-II). Little experience is available with caspofungin occur in the context of LFABs versus D-AMB. The poor out- or other echinocandins in treating this infection. Because the comes and fiscal costs of D-AMB–induced renal impairment use of D-AMB may result in increased nephrotoxicity in as- in compromised hosts are well documented. Whether there is sociation with calcineurin inhibitors, an LFAB is recom- a population for whom D-AMB can be used as first-line therapy mended if a polyene is considered in the patient (e.g., lung is an important question. Some pediatric patients, particularly transplant recipient) (B-III). Bronchoscopic evaluation is the neonates, may tolerate D-AMB with minimal or reversible renal most important aspect of initial diagnosis; CT will assess the IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 341
  • 16.
    lack of progressionto the remainder of the pulmonary tree. Evidence. CNPA is a distinct clinical and radiological form Reduction of immunosuppression, where possible, is an im- of pulmonary aspergillosis that most commonly causes a slowly portant element in improving therapeutic outcome. Aerosol- progressive inflammatory destruction of lung tissue in patients ized D-AMB or LFAB may have some benefit for delivering with underlying lung diseases and low grade immunosuppres- high concentrations of polyene therapy to the infected (often sion (e.g., prolonged use of systemic corticosteroids) [169, 170]. anastomotic) site; however, this approach has not been stan- The previous literature regarding CNPA included both subacute dardized and remains investigational (C-III). Cases of trach- invasive aspergillosis and other chronic forms of aspergillosis. eobronchial aspergillosis in immunocompromised patients who Because of their underlying primary chronic respiratory disease, have not received a transplant may be managed with a similar these patients are also at risk for succumbing to pulmonary approach. comorbidities. Evidence. Heart-lung and lung transplant recipients are at There are a limited number of small, nonrandomized, open- high risk for the development of invasive aspergillosis at the label studies that have been conducted for treatment of CNPA site of anastomosis between the recipient trachea and the donor [171–175]. Although variable responses have been reported in trachea or at the site of the junction of the main bronchus the small number of patients treated with itraconazole [171], [161, 162]. Tracheobronchial aspergillosis has also been de- itraconazole appears to be suppressive in CNPA [173]. Other scribed in the absence of an anastomotic site in other patient patients with CNPA have been treated with intracavitary in- populations, including patients who have undergone HSCT and stillation of AMB and, more recently, with voriconazole [172, patients with lymphoma, acute leukemia, or AIDS [163, 164]. 174, 175]. In general, the principles for treatment of CNPA are The spectrum of disease encompasses simple colonization, similar to those for invasive pulmonary aspergillosis described bronchitis, obstructing trachoebronchitis, ulcerative tracheo- above, with a greater emphasis on oral therapy. bronchitis, and pseudomembranous tracheobronchitis. Because this form of pulmonary aspergillosis is not usually associated SINGLE-ORGAN, EXTRAPULMONARY FORMS with pulmonary infiltrates in its initial stages, radiographic im- OF INVASIVE ASPERGILLOSIS ages may not identify the infection, which is otherwise easily Focal extrapulmonary invasive aspergillosis can develop as a seen during bronchoscopic examination. Bronchoscopic eval- single-organ infection or can occur in the context of dissem- uation is necessary for early diagnosis. Voriconazole and itra- inated infection. Because these are uncommon infections and conazole have been used successfully in the treatment of this occur in a wide spectrum of clinical conditions, no randomized form of pulmonary aspergillosis [116]. Parenteral AMB also clinical trials have been completed to assess therapeutic ap- has been used in this context. Direct instillation of AMB has proaches in patients with these infections. Thus, there are very been administered as an alternative approach to treatment of limited data on the treatment of these infections, and most this form of pulmonary aspergillosis, in association with sys- involve D-AMB as primary therapy simply because of its long- temic therapy [165, 166]. Inhalational AMB in the form of standing availability. However, based on the strength of the ABLC has also been used for the prevention of invasive as- randomized study comparing voriconazole to D-AMB [115], pergillosis in lung transplant recipients, in whom tracheobron- the panel recommends voriconazole for primary treatment chial aspergillosis is especially important [167, 168]. However, of these uncommon manifestations of invasive aspergillosis this modality remains investigational. (B-III). The use of voriconazole in these contexts is further supported by case series and anecdotal cases documenting the CHRONIC NECROTIZING PULMONARY efficacy of voriconazole in extrapulmonary infections, some of ASPERGILLOSIS (CNPA; SUBACUTE INVASIVE which have historically been associated with abysmal responses, PULMONARY ASPERGILLOSIS) including CNS infection [176], osteomyelitis [177], and en- Treatment of this infection may prevent progressive destruction docarditis [178, 179]. The use of alternative agents and salvage of lung tissue in patients who are already experiencing impaired therapy can be approached in a manner similar to that de- pulmonary function and who may have little pulmonary scribed for invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. reserve. ASPERGILLOSIS OF THE CNS Key recommendations. The greatest body of evidence re- garding effective therapy supports the use of orally admin- Treatment of CNS aspergillosis may reduce morbidity associ- istered itraconazole (B-III). Although voriconazole (and pre- ated with neurological deficits and improve survival. sumably posaconazole) is also likely to be effective, there is Key recommendations. Aggressive diagnostic and thera- less published information available for its use in CNPA (B- peutic intervention is important in patients with otherwise doc- III). Because long-term treatment is required, oral antifungal umented invasive pulmonary aspergillosis and signs of neu- therapy is preferred over parenteral therapy. rological deficits or unexplained abnormalities by CT or MRI. 342 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
  • 17.
    The weight ofevidence supports voriconazole as the primary vasive aspergillosis demonstrated a trend toward improvement recommendation for systemic antifungal therapy of CNS as- of CNS aspergillosis in patients who were treated with vori- pergillosis (A-II). Itraconazole, posaconazole, or LFAB are conazole [115]. The open-label studies of voriconazole in adult recommended for patients who are intolerant or refractory and pediatric patients also demonstrate activity of the triazole to voriconazole (B-III). There are few data supporting the use in treatment of CNS aspergillosis [116, 176]. Among patients of echinocandins as a single agent in salvage treatment of CNS with CNS aspergillosis who received voriconazole combined aspergillosis. Combination therapy with voriconazole and cas- with surgical intervention, responses were favorable in 35% pofungin is used for CNS aspergillosis but with minimal data (with long-term survival in 31%); thus, voriconazole is the to date. Surgical resection of lesions may be the definitive treat- recommended therapy for CNS aspergillosis [176]. Among the ment and may prevent serious neurological sequelae. Surgical LFABs, favorable responses have been achieved in case reports resection of lesions that would not result in worsening of neu- with L-AMB, ABLC, and ABCD [183–185]. Itraconazole and rological deficits also may improve outcome. Treatment of con- posaconazole have also been successfully used in treatment of tiguous infections of the paranasal sinuses or vertebral bodies CNS aspergillosis [103, 186–188]. The recent open-label, com- is a necessary part of management of this infection. Reversal passionate release study of caspofungin demonstrated response of any underlying immune deficits is paramount for successful of CNS aspergillosis that was refractory to AMB [127]. The outcome of CNS aspergillosis. Because there may be progression impact of these agents in the management of CNS aspergillosis of neurological deficits, there may be a tendency to use cor- appears to be beneficial. However, because of continued high ticosteroids. The role of corticosteroids in this context, however, rates of mortality, surgical resection of infected lesions may be is deleterious and should be avoided where possible (C-III). an important adjunct to improve antifungal therapy (A-II). The practice of intrathecal or intralesional antifungal chemo- Several reports underscore the role of surgical resection of CNS therapy is not recommended for treatment of CNS aspergillosis aspergillosis [176, 186, 189]. Other strategies for treatment of (B-III). Intrathecal administration of AMB does not allow pen- CNS aspergillosis have included higher doses of single agents, etration beyond the pia mater and may induce chemical ar- combinations of antifungal agents, and use of immunomo- achnoiditis, seizures, severe headache, and altered mental status. dulators [190]; however, there are no data from prospectively Instead, high-dose systemic antifungal therapy is recommended controlled clinical studies to suggest the superiority of these to achieve higher parenchymal concentrations. approaches, compared with standard single-agent therapy at Evidence. Aspergillus dissemination to the CNS is a dev- approved dosages. astating complication of invasive aspergillosis [2, 180, 181]. Epidural aspergillosis is an unusual manifestation of CNS This complication of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis has his- aspergillosis that most often arises from extension into the epidural space from vertebral abscess [191]. Systemic antifungal torically been associated with a mortality rate of 190%. Arising therapy and surgical drainage are considered to be standards most commonly as hematogenous dissemination from a pul- of practice for management of epidural aspergillosis; however, monary focus or from direct extension of paranasal sinus in- most of the experience in managing epidural aspergillosis is fection, CNS aspergillosis is the most lethal manifestation of based on individual case reports and brief case series. Aspergillus infection due to Aspergillus species [180]. Compared with can- osteomyelitis is discussed later in this article. didiasis or cryptococcosis of the CNS, focal neurological deficits or focal seizures are the most common clinical manifestation INVASIVE SINONASAL ASPERGILLOSIS of CNS aspergillosis [182]. Direct extension from the paranasal sinuses, particularly the ethmoid sinuses, may also cause in- Key recommendations. Early recognition and therapeutic in- volvement in frontal and temporal lobes or involvement of the tervention with systemic antifungal therapy and surgical resec- cavernous sinus and, potentially, the internal carotid artery. tion and/or debridement (where indicated) is important. The Focal neurological deficits may be irreversible once established. patient’s immune status, extent of surgery necessary, concom- Early recognition and treatment may limit neurological injury. itant coagulopathy, and morbidity associated with the surgical Definitive diagnosis of CNS aspergillosis is often presumptive procedure(s) should be carefully weighed. Although random- and based on the presence of documented invasive aspergillosis ized trials are lacking for this indication, AMB, itraconazole, in other sites, in association with the presence of compatible voriconazole, or presumably, posaconazole are reasonable clinical and radiological findings. Recent reports indicate that choices for initial therapy. If the infection is known to be due galactomannan antigen may be detected in CSF, thereby en- to Aspergillus species, voriconazole should be initiated (B- hancing diagnostic certainty and potentially sparing an invasive III). If one selects voriconazole or itraconazole as primary ther- neurological procedure for histological diagnosis [43–45]. apy, recognition of sinonasal zygomycosis is critical, because Most observations of treatment of CNS aspergillosis are these triazoles lack clinical activity against this group of fungal based on open-label studies. The one randomized trial for in- organisms. Thus, if the etiological organism is not known or IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 343
  • 18.
    histopathologic examination isstill pending, an AMB for- most cases of invasive sinus aspergillosis. Favorable responses mulation should be initiated in anticipation of possible sinus have been achieved with AMB [189, 195–197], voriconazole zygomycosis (A-III). Posaconazole demonstrates salvage ac- [198], itraconazole [189], and caspofungin [199, 200]. Al- tivity in extrapulmonary aspergillosis and offers the theo- though surgical debridement occupies an important role in retical advantage of activity against Zygomyetes in this con- management of invasive Aspergillus sinusitis and may be cu- text, although published clinical experience is limited (B-III). rative in some circumstances, extensive resections or repeated There are limited data supporting echinocandin use in Asper- surgical debridements may increase morbidity and mortality gillus sinusitis. among neutropenic patients. Recent advances in surgery for Evidence. Sinus aspergillosis is classified as invasive or non- maxillary and ethmoidal infection may be beneficial and may invasive. Noninvasive aspergillosis may be further classified as avoid more-disfiguring surgery. Local irrigations with AMB are saprophytic sinus aspergillosis or allergic sinus aspergillosis. often administered by the surgical teams as an adjunct to sys- This section will address the guidelines for treatment of invasive temic antifungal therapy after debridement. However, the use sinus aspergillosis. Subsequent sections will review the guide- of this strategy is unclear in the context of systemic antifungal lines for management of noninvasive sinus aspergillosis. therapy. As previously mentioned, the reversal of immunosup- Several studies involving immunocompromised patients in- pression is paramount to successful outcome of this infection dicate that this infection may be associated with invasive pul- and to prevention of extension and dissemination to the CNS. monary aspergillosis or complicated by CNS aspergillosis [192– Chronic invasive sinonasal aspergillosis and chronic granu- 194]. Infection of the maxillary sinus may be complicated by lomatous Aspergillus sinusitis have also been documented in direct invasion into the palate, with necrosis and perforation immunocompetent patients living in dry-air climates, such as into the oral cavity or perforation of the nasal septum. Asper- India, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan [201, 202]. Invasive aspergillosis gillosis of the ethmoid and frontal sinuses carries the ominous in Sudanese patients has been predominantly due to A. flavus implication of direct extension into the veins that drain these and has been treated with surgical drainage in most cases. In- structures into the cavernous sinuses, resulting in cranial nerve vasive sinonasal aspergillosis in such patients tends to progress deficits and internal carotid artery thrombosis. Aspergillosis of in a more indolent manner over the course of months to years the ethmoid sinuses also may result in periorbital infection and in relation to its granulomatous histological characteristics. Al- extension into the extraocular muscles and globe of the eye, though it is more indolent, this infection may progress to in- resulting in loss of vision. Infection of the sphenoid sinuses vasion of the orbit and other craniofacial structures and, ul- may result in direct extension into the cavernous sinuses. In- timately, to intracranial involvement. Aggressive therapy with fection of the mastoid sinus cells may occur as a result of a combined surgical debridement and chronic antifungal therapy is necessary. Because of the propensity for recurrent infections, chronic Aspergillus otitis media. Aspergillosis of the mastoid long-term antifungal therapy for 1 year may be warranted. sinus may subsequently extend into the transverse sinus, re- sulting in venous thrombosis and severe neurological sequelae. Although there are no randomized trials investigating sys- ASPERGILLUS ENDOCARDITIS, PERICARDITIS, temic antifungal therapy for treatment of invasive sinonasal AND MYOCARDITIS aspergillosis, general principles emerge from reports using a Key recommendations. Early recognition, followed by rapid, combination of medical and surgical interventions [194]. The aggressive medical and surgical intervention is critical to pre- role of surgical therapy, however, is tempered by the extent of venting embolic complications and valvular decompensation. resection necessary, the potential hemorrhagic diathesis of the Voriconazole has been successfully used in case reports and patient, the surgical candidacy of the patient, and the extent may be the preferred agent (B-III) [179, 180], based on data of infection. Diagnostic imaging using CT (including bone win- from a randomized trial data conducted mostly in pulmonary dows) will define the soft-tissue and bony extent of disease. infection. D-AMB historically has been recommended as the The presence of sinus air-fluid levels or sinus opacification in preferred initial treatment, and D-AMB therapy should be con- an immunocompromised host should prompt otolaryngolog- tinued for a minimum of 6 weeks after surgical intervention ical evaluation and sinus endoscopic examination. Brushings (B-III). Because of the potential for recurrent infections fol- and culture of necrotic or ulcerative lesions on the turbinates lowing replacement of an infected prosthetic valve, strong or in the paranasal mucosa may demonstrate Aspergillus species, consideration should be given to lifelong antifungal therapy but the differential diagnosis includes other filamentous fungi, with an antifungal triazole, such as oral voriconazole or po- such as the various Zygomycetes, which can appear distinctive saconazole (C-III). histopathologically. Tissue samples should be cultured without Evidence. Cardiac invasion by Aspergillus species may pre- homogenization to increase viability of Zygomycetes. sent as pericarditis, endocarditis, or myocarditis [203–208]. As- Systemic antifungal therapy is necessary for treatment of pergillus endocarditis may occur as a valvular or mural endo- 344 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
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    cardial infection. Valvularvegetations most commonly develop with voriconazole for treatment of Aspergillus osteomyelitis, on prosthetic valves; however, Aspergillus endocarditis is re- voriconazole appears to be effective for this indication (B- ported to occur on normal valves, particularly in injection drug II). Historically, AMB has been used and would be appro- users. Valvular vegetations and, occasionally, mural vegetations priate therapy in this context (B-II). Treatment for a minimum may be large and pedunculated, with a high-risk of embolic of 6–8 weeks is warranted in nonimmunocompromised pa- complications, particularly CNS-related complications. Indeed, tients. For immunocompromised patients, consideration for embolization to large arteries is a common hallmark of Asper- long-term suppressive therapy or treatment throughout the du- gillus endocarditis. When manifesting as mural endocarditis, ration of immunosuppression is appropriate. Aspergillus infection of the heart may be the result of dissem- Evidence. Aspergillus osteomyelitis may develop by he- ination or involvement of the mitral valve annulus. matogenous dissemination, traumatic inoculation, direct ex- Aspergillus myocarditis may manifest as myocardial infarc- tension from a visceral focus, or contamination at the time of tion, cardiac arrhythmias, or myoepicarditis [203]. This infec- surgery [213–215]. Hematogenous Aspergillus osteomyelitis tion generally occurs in the context of disseminated disease and may occur, especially in neutropenic patients, injection drug requires systemic antifungal therapy. users, and patients with inherited immunodeficiency, such as Aspergillus pericarditis arises as the result of direct extension CGD. The vertebral bodies and intervertebral disks are the most from a contiguous focus of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis, common site of Aspergillus osteomyelitis [216]. Successful out- extension from a myocardial lesion, or intraoperative contam- comes have been achieved with combined surgical debridement ination [203]. Pericardial tamponade may rapidly ensue, lead- and systemic antifungal therapy (B-III). Most cases of successful ing to hemodynamic deterioration and cardiac arrest. antifungal therapy have been achieved with AMB [215]. Med- The literature of reported cases consistently underscores the ical treatment alone (L-AMB, followed by oral itraconazole) poor prognosis of cardiac aspergillosis. The cornerstones of has rarely been successful in management of Aspergillus oste- management of Aspergillus endocarditis are antifungal che- omyelitis [217]. Although successful primary itraconazole ther- motherapy and surgical resection of the infected valve or mural apy of Aspergillus osteomyelitis has been reported [218], itra- lesion. Attempts to manage cases with medicine alone are rarely conazole has been more widely used subsequent to a course of successful [203, 209, 210]. As a general principle, in manage- AMB [217]. More recently, voriconazole has been successfully ment of fungal endocarditis, early and aggressive surgical re- used as salvage and primary therapy, either alone or in com- section is endorsed before the onset of valvular destruction, bination with surgical debridement [177, 219]. There is little potentially fatal embolic events, or rupture of chordae tendinae reported experience of the use of posaconazole [220] or echin- leading to acute mitral valvular decompensation [189]. Most ocandins in treatment of Aspergillus osteomyelitis. cases of Aspergillus endocarditis have been treated with AMB Aspergillus arthritis may develop from hematogenous dis- [209, 211, 212]. Because of the relative infrequency with which semination in immunocompromised patients and in illicit in- cardiac aspergillosis occurs, there are insufficient data on the jection drug users or by direct traumatic inoculation in im- use of antifungal triazoles or echinocandins for this infection, munocompetent hosts [221]. In many cases, Aspergillus arthritis although success of voriconazole in cases of tricuspid and pros- arises as an extension from a contiguous focus of Aspergillus thetic valve endocarditis has been reported [178, 179]. An ex- osteomyelitis [221]. Most of the successfully treated cases of tended course of antifungal therapy postoperatively is recom- Aspergillus arthritis have responded to combined medical ther- mended to eradicate residual cardiac foci and metastatic lesions. apy and drainage of the joint [215]. Most reported cases of D-AMB has been used for treatment of most cases of As- Aspergillus arthritis have used AMB as primary therapy; azoles pergillus pericarditis, often with fatal outcome [203]. Of par- have less commonly been used in this role [221]. amount importance to successful treatment of Aspergillus per- icarditis is aggressive surgical pericardial resection or drainage ASPERGILLUS ENDOPHTHALMITIS AND to treat the rapid development of pericardial tamponade. ASPERGILLUS KERATITIS Aspergillus endophthalmitis and Aspergillus keratitis are 2 sight- ASPERGILLUS OSTEOMYELITIS AND SEPTIC threatening infections that require rapid ophthalmologic and ARTHRITIS medical intervention to preserve and restore sight. Aspergillus Key recommendations. Combined medical and surgical in- keratitis is an excruciatingly painful process; treatment of this tervention is recommended, where feasible, for management process may also considerably alleviate pain. If not recognized of Aspergillus osteomyelitis and arthritis (B-III). Diagnostic and treated promptly, Aspergillus keratitis may require a corneal imaging with CT and/or MRI is essential for staging disease transplant or may be complicated by endophthalmitis. and for providing a guide for orthopedic and/or neurosurgical Key recommendations. Following a diagnostic vitreal tap, intervention. Although there is currently limited experience IV AMB and, where appropriate, intravitreal AMB plus pars IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 345
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    plana vitrectomy maybe sight saving in Aspergillus endo- keratitis is commonly encountered in agricultural workers, who phthalmitis (B-III). Voriconazole administered intravitreally may suffer abrasions of the cornea from branches and leaves or systemically is an alterative regimen (B-III). Management during the course of their work in the fields [230]. of Aspergillus keratitis requires emergency ophthalmologic Aspergillus keratitis constitutes an ophthalmologic emergency intervention with ophthalmologic examination, topical an- requiring careful slit lamp examination, assessment of the depth tifungal therapy, and systemic antifungal therapy with AMB, of infection, and prompt initiation of topical antifungal therapy. voriconazole, or itraconazole (B-III). Ophthalmologic surgical Topical antifungal therapy with AMB drops or pimaricin is intervention has been warranted in cases with potential corneal most widely used, although there are no controlled data to perforation or progression despite medical therapy. support their use. Intracameral injection of AMB (i.e., into the Evidence. Aspergillus endophthalmitis is a devastating in- anterior chamber) has been reported to be a suitable alternative fection that may result in irreparable loss of vision and rapid in patients who are refractory to topical antifungal therapy destruction of the eye. Infection may occur by one of several [235]. Oral itraconazole has been successfully used in the treat- mechanisms: hematogenous dissemination, direct inoculation ment of Aspergillus keratitis, possibly because it penetrates into by trauma, and contamination by surgical procedure [222– the deeper corneal layer of the eyes, but itraconazole has also 224]. Hematogenous dissemination occurs most commonly in been used as a topical solution [236, 237]. Voriconazole, ad- injection drug users and immunocompromised patients with ministered topically, systemically, or via intracameral injection disseminated aspergillosis and endophthalmitis. Definitive clin- has also been successfully used in Aspergillus keratitis [238, 239] ical diagnosis requires direct ophthalmoscopic examination and Surgical intervention, which may include debridement, lamellar culture of vitreous humor or aqueous humor specimens. AMB keratectomy, or a conjunctival flap, is often required. Topical has been used most widely as the systemic agent in treatment therapy may be unsuccessful, and surgical resection of the in- of Aspergillus endophthalmitis. Concentrations of AMB-based fected cornea may be the only recourse. A corneal transplan- compounds in the aqueous and vitreous humor are relatively tation may be necessary in the context of progressive Aspergillus low; intravitreal administration of AMB is also used following keratitis despite medical therapy or if there is a threat of corneal pars plana vitrectomy as a standard of care in management of perforation. Aspergillus endophthalmitis and has resulted in successful out- comes [223, 225]. Voriconazole has recently been found to be CUTANEOUS ASPERGILLOSIS successful in isolated cases of Aspergillus endophthalmitis and Cutaneous aspergillosis may develop in the context of hema- has been administered intravitreally and systemically [226, 227]. togenous dissemination or can occur in the context of traumatic Panresistant organisms, such as A. ustus, have also been re- or nosocomial device-related infection ported [228]. Vitrectomy may be sight saving by removing the Key recommendations. Therapy for secondary cutaneous bulk of inflammatory debris and infectious organisms. More lesions reflects that of disseminated infection, with systemic conservative measures, such as subconjunctival injection, are voriconazole (A-I) recommended as primary therapy. Alter- seldom successful. Direct macular involvement is a poor prog- native agents include L-AMB (A-I), posaconazole, itracona- nostic indicator for recovery of visual acuity [225]. Itraconazole zole, or an echinocandin (B-II). Surgical intervention, partic- has been used as systemic therapy, in conjunction with pars ularly for primary cutaneous infection, may be useful; biopsy plana vitrectomy and AMB intravitreal injection, in a few re- for confirmation of mycological diagnosis is very important to ported cases. Systemic antifungal therapy with AMB and 5- distinguish other potential pathogens (e.g., Fusarium species flourocytosine has also been reported in several cases. Although and Zygomycetes). 5-flourocytosine penetrates well into the vitreous humor, its Evidence. Cutaneous aspergillosis may be a primary process role in enhancing the antifungal combination therapy against or, more frequently, may develop as a result of secondary he- aspergillosis is not established, and it has been noted to be matogenous dissemination in immunocompromised patients antagonistic in vitro against some Aspergillus strains [229]. [240–242]. Cutaneous aspergillosis rarely occurs as an infection Aspergillus keratitis is a locally invasive fungal infection of in immunocompetent patients. Nosocomial cutaneous aspergil- the cornea that is characterized by ocular pain, potentially rapid losis may also be a sentinel of environmental contamination, as loss of vision, and potential development of endophthalmitis exemplified by cutaneous infections occurring with arm boards, if not recognized and treated promptly [230–232]. The cornea direct contamination of vascular sites in the operating room, is the critical structure for visual acuity and integrity of the contamination of dressings used for burn wounds, and percu- anterior chamber. Aspergillus keratitis most commonly develops taneous infection in newborn infants [241–244]. Itraconazole is as a result of traumatic inoculation of Aspergillus into the cornea concentrated in skin and skin structures, which theoretically may through injury or surgical procedures [233, 234]. Aspergillus increase its use in treating cutaneous aspergillosis. 346 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
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    ASPERGILLUS PERITONITIS of cholangitis [252]. Reports of therapeutic interventions are limited. Medical therapy for hepatic abscesses may be effective Key recommendation. Removal of peritoneal dialysis cath- and preclude the need for surgical resection. eter and intraperitoneal dialysis with AMB, in addition to IV administration of AMB, are recommended (B-III). Itra- RENAL ASPERGILLOSIS conazole or an extended-spectrum azole (voriconazole or po- saconazole) may be used as a salvage therapy (C-III). Key recommendations. A combined approach of medical and Evidence. Aspergillus peritonitis may occur as a compli- urological management of renal aspergillosis allows flexibility cation of chronic ambulatory peritoneal dialysis [245]. Al- for the various patterns of renal aspergillosis. Nephrostomy may though Candida species are the most common cause of fungal reduce the complications of ureteral obstruction and allow for peritonitis complicating chronic ambulatory peritoneal dialysis, AMB lavage of the pelvicalyceal system. All of the available Aspergillus species are a well-established cause of this infection antifungal agents with activity against aspergillosis penetrate [246]. Removal of the dialysis catheter, combined with the ad- renal parenchyma. However, because none of these agents is ministration of intraperitoneal and IV AMB, has been associ- excreted primarily into the pelvis of the kidney or urine, the ated with successful outcome [245, 247]. Itraconazole has also management of pelvicalyceal and ureteral infection may re- been used for systemic antifungal therapy in the management quire nephrostomy with instillation of AMB (C-III). of Aspergillus peritonitis complicating chronic ambulatory peri- Evidence. Renal aspergillosis may develop as single or mul- toneal dialysis [248]. Evidence for other compounds is limited. tiple parenchymal abscesses, usually as a result of hematogenous dissemination or, less commonly, as the result of contamination ESOPHAGEAL AND GASTROINTESTINAL of a surgical procedure or as fungal balls in the pelvis of the ASPERGILLOSIS kidney [253–256]. This form of Aspergillus infection may cause hematuria, ureteral obstruction, perinephric abscess with ex- Key recommendation. Once a diagnosis is established, med- tension into surrounding tissues, or passing of 1 fungal ball ical and, where appropriate, surgical therapy is needed to pre- or fungal elements in the urine. Reports of management are vent the complications of potentially fatal hemorrhage, per- limited to individual cases. Medical management alone may be foration, obstruction, and infarction. Systemic antifungal successful if abscesses are relatively small. Management of larger therapy, as used for disseminated invasive aspergillosis, is abscesses may require surgical drainage. Nephrectomy is per- appropriate. formed only as a last option. Evidence. Aspergillosis of the esophagus and gastrointes- tinal tract has been found to be relatively common in advanced EMPIRICAL ANTIFUNGAL THERAPY OF cases of disseminated invasive aspergillosis [249, 250]. Young NEUTROPENIC PATIENTS WITH PROLONGED et al. [250] described the esophagus and gastrointestinal tract FEVER DESPITE ANTIBACTERIAL THERAPY as the third most common site of infection in autopsy-docu- AND PRESUMPTIVE THERAPY FOR INVASIVE mented invasive aspergillosis. The few well-documented cases ASPERGILLOSIS have been associated with high morbidity and mortality. There Key recommendation. Empirical antifungal therapy with is no clear indication of optimal therapy. Because of the paucity AMB, an LFAB, itraconazole, voriconazole, or caspofungin of data for esophageal and gastrointestinal aspergillosis, a ra- is recommended for high-risk patients with prolonged neu- tional approach is to combine medical and surgical therapy. tropenia who remain persistently febrile despite broad-spec- trum antibiotic therapy (A-I). Empirical antifungal therapy HEPATIC ASPERGILLOSIS is not recommended for patients who are anticipated to have Key recommendation. Medical therapy of hepatic aspergil- short durations of neutropenia (duration of neutropenia, !10 losis should be considered as initial therapy (C-III). For ex- days), unless other findings indicate the presence of an in- trahepatic or perihepatic biliary obstruction, surgical inter- vasive fungal infection (B-III). vention is warranted (C-III). For localized lesions that are Evidence. This area has been reviewed in a related 2002 refractory to medical therapy, surgical consultation is Guideline from the Infectious Diseases Society of America recommended. [257]. Early reports from the National Cancer Institute and the Evidence. Occurring as single or multiple parenchymal le- European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer sions, hepatic aspergillosis may occur as a process of dissem- underscored the importance of early initiation of D-AMB for ination from the gastrointestinal tract along the portal venous treatment of invasive aspergillosis and other invasive fungal system or as a component of general systemic dissemination infections [258, 259]. These randomized, nonplacebo, open- [17, 251]. Hepatic aspergillosis may also develop as a process label clinical trials demonstrated that neutropenic patients with IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 347
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    persistent fever despitebroad-spectrum antibacterial therapy the use of empirical therapy and successfully treated cases of have an increased risk of developing an overt invasive fungal invasive aspergillosis diagnosed using surrogate markers. infection. In these studies, empirical antifungal therapy reduced For persistently febrile neutropenic patients who may be re- the frequency of the development of clinically overt invasive ceiving anti-Aspergillus prophylaxis, the causes of persistent fe- fungal infection and provided prophylaxis against subsequent ver are less likely to be of a fungal origin [264]. Careful eval- infections in high-risk neutropenic patients. L-AMB was found uation for nonfungal causes, as well as the possibility of to be as effective as but less nephrotoxic than D-AMB in a breakthrough invasive fungal infections that are resistant to the randomized, double-blind multicenter trial; a secondary anal- prophylactic regimen, should be considered in this patient pop- ysis demonstrated a significant reduction of invasive fungal ulation. Thus, routine initiation of empirical antifungal therapy infections in the L-AMB arm [260]. A randomized control in this context merits reevaluation. study of IV and oral formulations of itraconazole also found this agent to be as effective as but less nephrotoxic than D- PROPHYLAXIS AGAINST INVASIVE AMB in empirical antifungal therapy [261]. A randomized, ASPERGILLOSIS controlled trial of voriconazole versus L-AMB did not fulfill Key recommendation. Antifungal prophylaxis with posa- prespecified criteria for the overall population but was com- conazole can be recommended in HSCT recipients with parable to L-AMB in the high-risk neutropenic population, GVHD who are at high risk for invasive aspergillosis and in with a significant reduction in the rate of emergent invasive patients with acute myelogenous leukemia or myelodysplas- aspergillosis during neutropenia in prespecified secondary anal- tic syndrome who are at high risk for invasive aspergillosis yses [262]. Although not FDA approved for empirical use in (A-I). Itraconazole may be effective, but tolerability limits patients with fever and neutropenia, the use of voriconazole in its use (B-I). Further investigation of antifungal prophylaxis is treating both infection due to Aspergillus species and infection recommended in this population and other high-risk groups. due to Candida species—the leading fungal pathogens in most Evidence. Prophylactic strategies may be useful in patients patients with fever and neutropenia—provides evidence to sup- who are at high risk for invasive aspergillosis; selection of the port the recommendation for its use in patients at high risk patient population in whom this strategy may be applied re- for these infections while a diagnostic evaluation is conducted. mains a challenge. Selected high-risk patient groups may in- Most recently, caspofungin was compared with L-AMB in a clude patients with prolonged neutropenia and severe GVHD, randomized, double-blind, multinational trial for empirical an- lung transplant recipients, patients receiving long-term high- tifungal therapy. This trial found that caspofungin was as ef- dose corticosteroid therapy, some liver transplant recipients, fective as L-AMB in overall response; prespecified secondary and those with certain inherited immunodeficiency disorders analyses found that caspofungin was more active in prolon- (e.g., CGD). gation of survival and in primary treatment of baseline invasive A clinical trial of posaconazole therapy has recently been reported that demonstrated its superiority versus fluconazole fungal infections [263]. Empirical antifungal therapy appears or itraconazole in prevention of invasive aspergillosis in pa- to be most beneficial in patients with prolonged neutropenia tients with acute myeloid leukemia and myelodysplasia [105]. (duration of neutropenia, 110 days). The initiation of antifun- This study demonstrated higher survival in the posaconazole gal therapy still warrants an aggressive approach to establishing arm, but there was greater toxicity in recipients of posacon- a microbiological diagnosis where feasible. azole than in fluconazole recipients. Because of the hetero- Preemptive antifungal therapy is a logical extension of em- geneity of risk for invasive aspergillosis in published series of pirical antifungal therapy, in that it defines a high-risk patient acute myelogenous leukemia therapy, further study is needed population on the basis of more than persistent fever and neu- to determine which populations of patients with leukemia tropenia (i.e., with a surrogate marker of infection, such as and myelodysplasia might benefit most from this approach. abnormal CT findings or a positive result of assay for Aspergillus Risk factors for invasive aspergillosis during acute myeloid antigen). Because ∼40% of patients receiving empirical anti- leukemia therapy from published series include the need for fungal therapy have pulmonary infiltrates, there is considerable 11 treatment course to achieve remission or chemotherapy overlap between the approaches of empirical and preemptive for relapsed or refractory acute myeloid leukemia. A separate therapy. In an open-label feasibility study, Maertens et al. [55] study of posaconazole prophylaxis during GVHD in HSCT used serum galactomannan assay and CT to detect invasive recipients also found a significant reduction in proven and aspergillosis in a population of patients with leukemia who probable invasive fungal infections and similar toxicity in po- received fluconazole prophylaxis. This strategy, which used saconazole recipients, compared with those receiving flucon- more extensive serum galactomannan and radiographic mon- azole [104]. Because of the heterogeneity of risk for invasive itoring than is typically performed in routine practice, reduced fungal infection in patients receiving anti-GVHD therapy, fur- 348 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
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    ther study isneeded to define which patients would benefit with CGD [288]. Voriconazole has not been studied in this most from this approach. Risk factors for invasive aspergillosis context, although clinical trials are in progress. in patients with GVHD include the need for prolonged high- dose steroid therapy (11 mg/kg/day of prednisone for 2–3 CHRONIC AND SAPROPHYTIC FORMS OF weeks) and the use of certain anti-GVHD therapies, such as ASPERGILLOSIS infliximab and antithymocyte globulin. Earlier studies of an- tifungal prophylaxis in hematological malignancies are sum- ASPERGILLOMA AND CHRONIC PULMONARY marized in a large meta-analyses [265–269]. ASPERGILLOSIS A key distinction should be made between primary and sec- Key recommendation. Antifungal chemotherapy with itra- ondary prophylaxis. Primary prophylaxis involves administra- conazole, voriconazole, or presumably, posaconazole pro- tion of antifungal chemotherapy to patients who have no evi- vides some potential for therapeutic benefit with compara- dence of infection but whose epidemiological risk profile tively minimal risk (B-III). Surgical resection or intracavitary indicates a high propensity for the development of invasive antifungal therapy may be appropriate in selected patients with aspergillosis. Secondary prophylaxis involves the administration a single aspergilloma who are carefully evaluated for the risks of antifungal therapy to a patient who is undergoing a period mentioned below. Long-term, perhaps lifelong, antifungal of immunosuppression and who has a history of invasive as- treatment is required for chronic cavitary pulmonary asper- pergillosis. This section focuses on primary prophylaxis. How- gillosis (CCPA; B-III). ever, several studies indicate that secondary prophylaxis against Evidence. One or more pulmonary cavities with detectable invasive aspergillosis can be successful when an anti-Aspergillus serum Aspergillus antibodies are characteristic of pulmonary azole (voriconazole, posaconazole, or itraconazole) or LFAB is aspergilloma or chronic pulmonary aspergillosis. Patients usu- given to patients receiving ongoing immunosuppressive therapy ally have underlying pulmonary disease, such as cavitary tu- following treatment of a documented episode of invasive as- berculosis or histoplasmosis, fibrocystic sarcoidosis, bullous pergillosis [113, 270–272]. emphysema, or fibrotic lung disease. Among the serious com- Among the studies that investigated parenterally adminis- plications of chronic pulmonary aspergillosis are potentially tered D-AMB or L-AMB for prophylaxis, most have been life-threatening hemoptysis, pulmonary fibrosis, and rarely lo- historically controlled, and some have suggested a reduction cally, invasive aspergillosis. Pulmonary aspergilloma is defined in invasive aspergillosis. Several prospective, randomized trials as a conglomeration of intertwined Aspergillus hyphae, fibrin, using polyene therapies have demonstrated a reduction in the mucus, and cellular debris within a pulmonary cavity or an number of invasive fungal infections, but none have dem- ectatic bronchus [289]. The diagnosis of aspergilloma is usually onstrated a significant reduction of invasive aspergillosis in a made clinically and radiographically without a lung biopsy. prospective, randomized study [273–276]. Studies of aero- Pulmonary aspergilloma radiographically appears as a solid solized AMB have revealed conflicting results, in part because rounded mass, sometimes mobile, of water density, within a of limitations of study design and selection of patients at risk spherical or ovoid cavity, and separated from the wall of the [277–279]. cavity by an airspace of variable size and shape. Local pleural Itraconazole has been evaluated in several prospective trials, thickening is highly characteristic. CCPA is defined as the oc- but conclusions regarding efficacy have been limited, because currence of multiple cavities, which may or may not contain study designs have not included patients at significant risk for an aspergilloma, in association with pulmonary and systemic aspergillosis [269, 280–284]. Although itraconazole oral cap- symptoms and raised inflammatory markers. Over years, un- sules are ineffective for prophylaxis because of erratic bioa- treated, these cavities enlarge and coalesce, and aspergillomas vailability and dose-limiting toxicity, itraconazole oral solution may appear or disappear. A distinction between CNPA (pre- or IV itraconazole in neutropenic patients with hematological viously known as subacute invasive pulmonary aspergillosis) dysfunction is partially effective in reducing the incidence of and CCPA is the prolonged time frame and genetic predis- invasive aspergillosis, with a mean hazard ratio of 0.52 (range, position described in the latter; defects in innate immunity are 0.3–0.91) [265]. However, the use of itraconazole solution for described in CCPA [290]. Apparent aspergillomas (which is prophylaxis against Aspergillus is also reduced by dose-limiting better termed mycotic lung sequestrum) also may develop in toxicity [285, 286]. Although micafungin showed a trend to- consolidated lesions during recovery from neutropenia, but wards a decreased incidence of Aspergillus infection (compared preexisting cavities are not present in these cases. with fluconazole) in HSCT, there were small numbers of break- The data guiding management of single aspergillomas are through infections in the patients studied, and the requirement based on uncontrolled trials and case reports. Therapeutic de- for daily IV therapy further limited widespread use [287]. Itra- cisions that involve aspergilloma are predicated on preventing conazole has been successfully used as prophylaxis in patients or treating life-threatening hemoptysis. The first major decision IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 349
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    in the managementof aspergilloma is whether therapy is ASPERGILLUS OTOMYCOSIS (OTIC required. ASPERGILLOSIS) Surgical resection is a definitive treatment for aspergilloma Key recommendations. Topical therapy with irrigating so- [156, 291]. However, pulmonary resection for aspergilloma is lutions of boric acid, acetic acid, or azole cream may be a difficult surgical procedure. Attempts to resect CCPA (referred effective in eradicating Aspergillus otomycosis (C-III). For to in the surgical literature as complex aspergilloma) have been refractory cases and in contexts of perforated tympanic mem- associated with high morbidity and mortality. Postoperative branes, use of voriconazole, posaconazole, or itraconazole complications include hemorrhage, bronchopleural fistulae, may be appropriate (C-III). and Aspergillus infection of the pleural space. Further contrib- Evidence. Aspergillus otomycosis is a saprophytic process uting to the high risk of surgical resection of an aspergilloma that usually involves the external auditory canal [297]. Symp- is the often preexisting poor pulmonary function that may toms include pruritus, pain, hypoacusis, and otic discharge. preclude thoracotomy. The optimal candidates for surgical re- Aspergillus otomycosis may involve the middle ear if the tym- section are those with a single aspergilloma. panic membrane has been perforated. Perforation of the tym- Bronchial artery embolization has been used to occlude the panic membrane does not usually occur as a result of Aspergillus putative vessel that supplies the bleeding site in patients ex- otomycosis but more often ensues as the result of recurrent periencing hemoptysis caused by chronic pulmonary aspergil- bacterial otitis media. Patients with impaired mucosal or cu- losis [292]. Unfortunately, bronchial artery embolization is usu- taneous immunity, such as those with hypogammaglobuline- ally unsuccessful or only temporarily effective because of mia, diabetes mellitus, chronic eczema, or HIV infection and complex collateral vascular channels. Thus, bronchial artery those who receive corticosteroids, are susceptible to recurrent embolization should be considered as a temporizing procedure bacterial otitis media, otitis externa, and Aspergillus otomycosis. in a patient with life-threatening hemoptysis who might be If the otomycotic process is not successfully treated and the eligible for more medical therapy or surgical resection (single underlying predisposing immune impairment and anatomic aspergilloma) if the hemoptysis were stabilized (B-III). Endob- defects are not corrected, Aspergillus hyphae and conidia may ronchial or transthoracic intracavitary resection instillation of extend into the mastoid sinus, creating a chronic fungal mas- antifungal agents, particularly AMB, has been attempted with toiditis. Aspergillus otomycosis is most commonly attributable some success [156, 293]. However, this modality may be dif- to A. niger and A. fumigatus [297, 298]. A. niger, which is a ficult in patients with compromised pulmonary function. known cause of in vivo production of oxalic acid, may locally Medical therapy has limited activity in treatment of asper- elaborate this toxic metabolite in the necrotic debris of the gilloma [156]; in some cases, however, it may be of some use external auditory canal [299]. Erosion and disruption of the [289]. Medical therapy is the standard of care for CCPA [174, epidermis may serve as a portal of entry for superinfection by 175, 294, 295]. IV administered D-AMB appears to have min- opportunistic bacterial infections in immunocompromised pa- imal activity in treatment of aspergilloma. Response in CCPA tients. Data describing treatment outcomes are anecdotal or to systemically administered itraconazole or voriconazole is fa- uncontrolled. Topical therapy using irrigations with acetic acid vorable, with improvement in symptoms and stabilization or or boric acid are described as being beneficial. Topical anti- improvement in Aspergillus antibody titers and radiologic find- fungal creams and ointments are not well studied but may be ings [170, 175]. Terbinafine has been suggested to have activity useful for this condition. Orally administered itraconazole, vor- in one report, but lack of clinical data limits recommendation iconazole, or posaconazole may be effective; however, there are for its use [296]. The benefits of surgical resection of asper- no published studies that support their use. gilloma may offer definitive treatment; however, the risks of compromised pulmonary function, bronchopleural fistula, and ALLERGIC FORMS OF ASPERGILLOSIS infection of the pleural space may outweigh the benefits, de- pending on the individual patient. Bronchial artery emboli- ALLERGIC BRONCHOPULMONARY zation carries modest risk and only transient benefit. Trans- ASPERGILLOSIS thoracic, intracavitary instillation of AMB may be effective, but it carries a risk of pneumothorax, hemoptysis, and pleural seed- Key recommendation. Treatment of allergic bronchopul- ing. Oral systemic antifungal therapy is unnecessary for single monary aspergillosis (APBA) should consist of a combina- aspergilloma but important for CCPA. Adverse events associ- tion of corticosteroids and itraconazole (A-I). ated with azole antifungal drugs are infrequent but are prob- Evidence. APBA is a hypersensitivity disease of the lungs lematic for those who develop them. If the drug is tolerated, that is associated with inflammatory destruction of airways in no additional long-term risks of azole therapy have been response to Aspergillus species [300]. ABPA is defined through identified. 7 primary diagnostic criteria: episodic bronchial obstruction 350 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
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    (asthma), peripheral eosinophilia,immediate scratch test reac- ALLERGIC ASPERGILLUS SINUSITIS tivity to Aspergillus antigen, precipitating antibodies to Asper- Key recommendations. Endoscopic drainage may be useful gillus antigen, elevated serum IgE concentrations, history of in patients with obstructive symptoms (C-III). Itraconazole pulmonary infiltrates (transient or fixed), and central bron- is recommended for consideration in allergic Aspergillus si- chiectasis. Secondary diagnostic criteria include repeated de- nusitis (AAS; C-III). Nasal or systemic corticosteroids may tection of Aspergillus species in sputum samples using stain be useful in some patients (C-III). The benefits of endoscopic and/or culture, a history of expectoration of brown plugs or surgical sinus drainage outweigh the risks of surgery in cases flecks, elevated specific IgE concentration directed against As- pergillus antigen, and Arthus reaction (late skin reactivity) to of AAS that present with complications of sinus obstruction. Aspergillus antigen. ABPA may progress through clinical stages Systemic corticosteroids are beneficial but may be fraught with of acute corticosteroid-responsive asthma to corticosteroid-de- serious systemic complications with long-term use. Nasal cor- pendent asthma to fibrotic end-stage lung disease with hon- ticosteroids are partially effective and well absorbed but, when eycombed lung. used continuously in high doses, can damage or atrophy the Corticosteroid therapy is the mainstay of therapy for ABPA nasal mucosa. The benefits of itraconazole in AAS outweigh [301–303]. However, the few studies of corticosteroid therapy the potential for toxicity (C-III). Because patients with either for ABPA have involved small numbers of patients and have AAS and ABPA may be receiving nonsedating antihistamines, been neither double-blind nor controlled [304]. Nevertheless, caution is required to assess the potential for adverse drug the current findings support the usefulness of corticosteroids interactions with some of those agents associated with pro- in the management of acute ABPA, with improved pulmonary longed QT interval and torsades de pointe. function and fewer episodes of recurrent consolidation. How- Evidence. Katzenstein et al. [308] first described the clinical ever, because chronic administration of corticosteroids causes and pathologic features of AAS in 1983 in 7 cases presenting severe immune impairment and multiple metabolic abnor- as chronic sinusitis. Most patients were young adults with a malities, alternative approaches to management of ABPA have history of asthma; all had chronic nasal polyps and opacification been developed. of multiple sinuses. Recurrent sinusitis was common. Several An example of such an approach is to eradicate Aspergillus patients underwent repeated surgical drainage procedures. A species from the airways using itraconazole as a corticosteroid- distinct mucinous material containing eosinophils, Charcot- sparing agent. The mechanism of this effect is to diminish the Leyden crystals, and hyphal elements morphologically com- antigenic stimulus for bronchial inflammation. Two double- patible with Aspergillus species was found histologically in tissue blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials for ABPA dem- resected from the sinuses. The condition of AAS shares similar onstrated that itraconazole (200 mg twice daily orally for 16 histopathological features with ABPA but affects the paranasal weeks) resulted in significant differences in ability to ameliorate sinuses instead of the lung. Waxman et al. [309] later described disease, as assessed by the reduction in corticosteroid dose, the immunologic features of AAS to include an immediate increased interval between corticosteroid courses, eosinophilic cutaneous reactivity to Aspergillus species in 60% of patients, inflammatory parameters, and IgE concentration, as well as elevation of total serum IgE concentration in 85%, and serum improvement in exercise tolerance and pulmonary function precipitins to Aspergillus species in 85%. The conditions of AAS [305, 306]. Similar benefits of itraconazole were observed in and ABPA may coexist in some patients. These investigators patients with cystic fibrosis and ABPA [307]. Other azoles (vor- and others have reported beneficial responses to variable iconazole and posaconazole) have not been studied in this con- courses and doses of prednisone in nonrandomized, noncon- text. The benefits of short-term corticosteroid treatment of trolled, observational studies [309]. Because of the obstruction ABPA include reduced frequency of acute exacerbations, pres- caused by inspissated mucinous secretions, surgical drainage ervation of pulmonary function, and improved quality of life. and aeration is considered to be an essential component of However, the long-term adverse effects of corticosteroid ther- management, in conjunction with intranasal or systemic cor- apy may result in profound immunosuppression and debili- ticosteroid therapy. Advanced forms of AAS may present with tating metabolic abnormalities, including diabetes mellitus, proptosis and optic neuropathy, necessitating prompt surgical hyperlipidemia, and osteoporosis. Corticosteroid-induced im- intervention [309]. Fang [310] more recently introduced the munosuppression may very rarely result in progression of ABPA use of endoscopic sinus surgery in the management of AAS, to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Itraconazole spares the ef- thus affording reduced risk, compared with that associated with fect of corticosteroids but may interact with inhaled cortico- more-invasive drainage procedures. Recent case reports suggest steroids, leading to iatrogenic Cushing syndrome in rare cases. a benefit of itraconazole in the management of AAS and may The benefits of the addition of itraconazole outweigh the risks spare the use of steroids [311, 312]. Other azoles have not been of long-term administration of high-dose prednisone. evaluated. IDSA Guidelines for Aspergillosis • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • 351
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    FUTURE DIRECTIONS ANDGAPS IN for Merck. J.R.W. has received speaker’s honoraria from Pfizer and Merck, has received grants from Merck and Pfizer, and has served as an advisor KNOWLEDGE IN INVASIVE ASPERGILLOSIS for Pfizer, Merck, and Schering-Plough. There are many unanswered and unresolved epidemiological, laboratory, and clinical questions that need to be addressed and References understood in the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of as- 1. Stevens DA, Kan VL, Judson MA, et al. Practice guidelines for diseases pergillosis. Better diagnostic tests are needed, both to facilitate caused by Aspergillus. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 30:696–709 2. Patterson TF, Kirkpatrick WR, White M, et al. Invasive aspergillosis: more accurate identification of patients with invasive aspergil- disease spectrum, treatment practices, and outcomes. I3 Aspergillus losis and to permit earlier initiation of therapy. The availability Study Group. Medicine (Baltimore) 2000; 79:250–60. of more-active and better-tolerated antifungal agents has sig- 3. Denning DW. Invasive aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 26:781–803. 4. Marr KA, Patterson T, Denning D. Aspergillosis: pathogenesis, clinical nificantly improved therapy of patients at risk for serious As- manifestations, and therapy. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2002; 16: pergillus infection. However, critical gaps in knowledge remain 875–94, vi. regarding management of these infections, including the use of 5. Benjamin DK Jr, Miller WC, Bayliff S, Martel L, Alexander KA, Martin combination therapy, tools for early detection of these infec- PL. Infections diagnosed in the first year after pediatric stem cell transplantation. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2002; 21:227–34. tions, evaluation of response, therapy for patients with break- 6. Cornet M, Fleury L, Maslo C, Bernard JF, Brucker G. Epidemiology through or refractory infection, and the patient population for of invasive aspergillosis in France: a six-year multicentric survey in whom prophylaxis would be most beneficial. the greater Paris area. J Hosp Infect 2002; 51:288–96. 7. Grow WB, Moreb JS, Roque D, et al. Late onset of invasive aspergillus infection in bone marrow transplant patients at a university hospital. Acknowledgments Bone Marrow Transplant 2002; 29:15–9. 8. Marr KA, Carter RA, Boeckh M, Martin P, Corey L. Invasive asper- We thank Drs. Mahmoud Ghannoum, John R. Graybill, John R. Perfect, gillosis in allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients: changes in epi- and Jack D. Sobel, for their thoughtful reviews of earlier drafts of the demiology and risk factors. Blood 2002; 100:4358–66. manuscript, and Dr. Tom M. File, for helpful suggestions and support in 9. Montoya JG, Chaparro SV, Celis D, et al. Invasive aspergillosis in the drafting this document. setting of cardiac transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 37(Suppl 3): Financial support. Infectious Diseases Society of America. S281–92. Potential conflicts of interest. T.J.W. has Cooperative Research & De- 10. Paterson DL, Singh N. Invasive aspergillosis in transplant recipients. velopment Agreements with Vicuron (subsequently acquired by Pfizer) and Medicine (Baltimore) 1999; 78:123–38. with Fujisawa (Astellas). T.F.P. has had grant support from Astellas Pharma 11. Wald A, Leisenring W, van Burik J-A, Bowden RA. Epidemiology of US, Enzon, Nektar Therapeutics, Merck, Pfizer, and Schering-Plough; has Aspergillus infections in a large cohort of patients undergoing bone been a consultant for Merck, Pfizer, Schering-Plough, Basilea, Nektar Ther- marrow transplantation. J Infect Dis 1997; 175:1459–66. apeutics, and Stiefel Laboratories; and has been on the speaker’s bureau 12. Perfect JR, Cox GM, Lee JY, et al. The impact of culture isolation of for Merck, Pfizer, and Schering-Plough. E.J.A. has received grant support Aspergillus species: A hospital-based survey of aspergillosis. Clin Infect from Astellas, Curagen, Enzon, Nuvelo, OrthoBiotech, and Pfizer; has been Dis 2001; 33:1824–33. a consultant for Astellas, Gilead Sciences, Merck, Pfizer, and Schering 13. Walsh TJ, Groll AH. Overview: non-fumigatus species of Aspergillus: Plough; and has been on the speaker’s bureau for Astellas, Gilead Sciences, perspectives on emerging pathogens in immunocompromised hosts. Merck, and Pfizer. D.W.D. has received grant support from Astellas, Merck, Curr Opin Investig Drugs 2001; 2:1366–7. Pfizer, F2G, OrthoBiotech, Sigma-Tau, Indevus, Basilea, Fungal Research 14. Anaissie E. Opportunistic mycoses in the immunocompromised host: Trust, Wellcome Trust, and Moulton Trust; has been an advisor/consultant experience at a cancer center and review. Clin Infect Dis 1992; for Merck, Basilea, Vicuron (now Pfizer), Schering-Plough, Indevus, F2G, 14(Suppl 1):S43–53. Nektar, Daiichi, Sigma Tau, Astellas, and York Pharma; has been paid for 15. Kontoyiannis DP, Lewis RE, May GS, Osherov N, Rinaldi MG. As- speaking on behalf of Astellas, Merck, GSK, Chiron, AstraZenca, and Pfizer; pergillus nidulans is frequently resistant to amphotericin B. Mycoses and holds founder shares in F2G and Myconostica. R.H. has been a member 2002; 45:406–7. of the advisory board for Astellas, Gilead, Merck, Pfizer, and Schering- 16. Lass-Florl C, Rath P, Niederwieser D, et al. Aspergillus terreus infec- Plough and has been a member of the speaker’s bureau of Gilead, Pfizer, tions in haematological malignancies: molecular epidemiology sug- Schering-Plough, and Zeneus. D.P.K. has received research support and gests association with in-hospital plants. J Hosp Infect 2000; 46:31–5. honoraria from Schering-Plough, Pfizer, Astellas Pharma, Enzon Phar- 17. Segal BH, DeCarlo ES, Kwon-Chung KJ, Malech HL, Gallin JI, Hol- maceuticals, and Merck. K.A.M. has served as a consultant for Astellas, land SM. Aspergillus nidulans infection in chronic granulomatous dis- Enzon, Basilea, Merck, Nektar Therapeutics, Pfizer, Schering-Plough, Bas- ease. Medicine (Baltimore) 1998; 77:345–54. ilea, Merck, and Nektar. V.A.M. is a consultant for Schering-Plough, Berlex, 18. Steinbach WJ, Benjamin DK Jr, Kontoyiannis DP, et al. Infections and BiogenIDEC and is on the speaker’s bureau for Amgen, Berlex, Celgene, due to Aspergillus terreus: a multicenter retrospective analysis of 83 Merck, Pfizer, and Schering-Plough. B.H.S. has received speaker honoraria cases. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39:192–8. from Merck and Pfizer; has served as a consultant/advisor for Pfizer, Sch- 19. Sutton DA, Sanche SE, Revankar SG, Fothergill AW, Rinaldi MG. In ering-Plough, Berlex, and Enzon; has been a compensated member of a vitro amphotericin B resistance in clinical isolates of Aspergillus terreus, data review committee for Schering-Plough; and has received laboratory with a head-to-head comparison to voriconazole. J Clin Microbiol support from Enzon and Pfizer. W.J.S. has served on the speaker’s bureau 1999; 37:2343–5. for Pfizer and Astellas and has served as a consultant for Astellas, Merck, 20. Walsh TJ, Petraitis V, Petraitiene R, et al. Experimental pulmonary and Enzon. D.A.S. has served on the advisory boards for Merck, Schering- aspergillosis due to Aspergillus terreus: pathogenesis and treatment of Plough, and Gilead; has served as a speaker for Janssen, Enzon, and Astellas; an emerging fungal pathogen resistant to amphotericin B. J Infect Dis and has received grant support from Merck, Pfizer, Gilead, Schering- 2003; 188:305–19. Plough, Enzon, and Astellas. J.-A.v.B. has served on the speaker’s bureau 21. Barnes PD, Marr KA. Aspergillosis: spectrum of disease, diagnosis, for Schering-Plough and Astellas; has served as a clinical trial investigator and treatment. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2006; 20:545–61. for Schering-Plough, Merck, and Astellas; and has served as a consultant 22. Stevens DA, Moss RB, Kurup VP, et al. Allergic bronchopulmonary 352 • CID 2008:46 (1 February) • Walsh et al.
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