B sc micro, biotech, biochem i es u 2 ecology

ECOLOGY
Environment Science
Unit-2
By:
Deepa Thomas

What is Ecology?
Origin of the word…”ecology”
Greek origin
OIKOS = household
LOGOS = study of…
Study of the
“house/environment” in which we live.

Ecology:
The study of the interactions of living things with
each other and their physical environment
1

WHAT IS ECOLOGY?
Ecology- the scientific study of
interactions between organisms
and their environments, focusing
on energy transfer
Ecology is a science of relationships

WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY ENVIRONMENT?
The environment is made up of
two factors:
 Biotic factors- all living
organisms inhabiting the
Earth
Abiotic factors- nonliving
parts of the environment
(i.e. temperature, soil,
light, moisture, air
currents)
2

Organism
Population
Community
Biosphere
Ecosystem

Organism - any unicellular or
multicellular form exhibiting all of the
characteristics of life, an individual.
•The lowest level of organization
3

POPULATION
 A group of organisms of
one species living in the
same place at the same
time that interbreed
Produce fertile offspring
Compete with each other
for resources (food,
mates, shelter, etc.)
4

Community - several interacting
populations that inhabit a common
environment and are interdependent.
5

Ecosystem - populations in a
community and the abiotic factors
with which they interact (ex.
marine, terrestrial)
6

Biosphere - life supporting portions
of Earth composed of air, land,
fresh water, and salt water.
•The highest level of organization
7

Ecology is study of interactions between
• non-living components in the
environment…
 light
 water
 wind
 nutrients in soil
 heat
 solar radiation
 atmosphere, etc.
AND…

Living organisms…
Plants
Animals
microorganisms in soil, etc.

To study Ecology involves…
For non-living (abiotic)
Climatology
Hydrology
Oceanography
Physics
Chemistry
Geology
soil analysis, etc.
 For living (biotic)
 animal
behavior
 Taxonomy
 Physiology
 mathematics
(population
studies)
 etc.

Ecology…
• views each locale as
an integrated whole of
interdependent parts
that function as a unit.
tundra
caribou
8

The interdependent parts are…
Nonliving
dead organic
matter
nutrients in the
soil and water.
Producers
green plants
Tundra
9

Consumers
herbivores and
carnivores
Decomposers
fungi and bacteria
Tundra
Caribou

Scope of Ecology and its relation to other
divisions of sciences
Ecology is an interdisciplinary field that
includes biology and Earth science.
Ecology is closely related to physiology, evolutionary
biology, genetics and ethology.
An understanding of how biodiversity affects
ecological function is an important focus area in
ecological studies.

Scope of Ecology and its relation to other
divisions of sciences
Ecology is a multi-disciplinary science, drawing on many other
branches of science.
Applied ecology is the practice of employing ecological
principles and understanding to solve real world problems. E.g.
calculating fish population, measuring environmental impact
from construction or logging, building a case for the
conservation of a species, and determining the most effective
way to protect a species.
In a broader sense, ecology can also mean:
Natural environment: using the principles and methods of
ecology.
Human Ecology: looks at humans and their interactions with
the natural environment.

Scope of Ecology
Ecology can be studied at several levels, from proteins
and nucleic acids (in biochemistry and molecular
biology), cells (in cellular biology), organisms (in
botany, zoology, and other similar disciplines), and
finally at the level of populations, communities, and
ecosystems — which are the subjects of ecology.
Because of its focus on the broadest level of life and
on the interrelations between living beings and their
environment, ecology draws heavily on other
branches of science, such as geology and geography,
meteorology, pedology, chemistry, and physics.

What are autecology and
synecology?
Autecology & Synecology are two main branches of
ecology.
Autecology refers to study of relationships between
individual species and environment, while
synecology refers to the study of relationships
between communities and environment.
Synecology means study of structure, nature,
organization and development of plant communities.

ECOLOGY:
Levels of Organization
- a hierarchy of organization
in the environment

Levels of Organization - Terms
Biosphere
Surface of the earth
Composed of many ecosystems
Ecosystem
Large or small as we decide
Backyard, O’Melveney Park, Hedge along
Room 110, etc.

Population – one species live in one place at
one time
Community – All populations (diff. species) that
live in a particular area.

Habitat – physical location of community
Organism –simplest level of organization

• Very complex
• Can contain 100’s to 1000’s of interacting
species. 11

THEN…
Ecology is an integrated and dynamic study
of the environment which primarily focused
on :
. Biodiversity;
. Climate Change; and
. Endangered Animals

BIODIVERSITY
It is the
variety of all
the different
living things
and their
homes on
the planet
What is biodiversity?

Why do we need
Biodiversity?
.The natural world is very complex,
with many intricate relationships
between species and habitats.
.We refer to them as food webs and
food chains or eco systems.
.The plants and animals rely in many
ways on those on either side of them.

Biological diversity is important
because of the way these relationships
can combine to provide yet more
variation in the living world.
Any human activity that diminishes this
'bio - diversity' could therefore
impoverish our own quality of life,
reduce the resources available to us
and ultimately jeopardise the survival of
our descendants.

WHY IS BIODIVERSITY
IMPORTANT?
. An
Earth
rich in
wildlife
is a
sign
that it
is a
healthy
planet
for us
to live
on too..When we pollute the air, water
and soil, we risk destroying
biodiversity
12

Trees make oxygen for us to breath.
Plants need insects for pollination.
Animals and birds need to eat plants.
Some animals need to eat the animals
that eat the plants!
But most importantly
everything we use comes from
nature!

Importance of Ecology
1. Since all of us live in a natural or partly natural ecosystem,
then considerable pleasure can be derived by studying the
environment around us.
2. Human economies are based on the exploitation and
management of nature. Applied ecology is used every day
in forestry, fisheries, range management, agriculture, and
so on to provide us with the food and fiber we need.
3. Human societies can often be understood very clearly
from an ecological perspectives as we study, for example,
the population dynamics (demography) of our own
species, the food and fossil energy flowing through our
society.

4. Humans appear to be changing aspects of the global
environment in many ways. Thus, ecology can be very
useful to help us understand what these changes are,
what the implications might be for various
ecosystems, and how we might intervene in either
human economies or in nature to try to mitigate or
otherwise alter these changes. There are many
professional ecologists, who believe that these
apparent changes from human activities have the
potential to generate enormous harm to both natural
ecosystems and human economies. Understanding,
predicting and adapting to these issues could be the
most important of all possible issue for humans to
deal with. In this case ecology and environmentalism
can be the same

Function of Ecosystem
1. It balances the rate of biological energy flow.
2. It balances the nutrients cycle.
Sun Producer Consumer Decomposers→ → →
(Animals) (Microorganisms)
13

Types of Ecosystems
There are many types of ecosystems on earth.
Major classes of relatively contained ecosystems are
called Biomes.
There are 3 Major classes of ecosystems
Terrestrial Ecosystems
Freshwater Ecosystems
Ocean Ecosystems
Aquatic ecosystems

Terrestrial Ecosystems:
Many & diverse types of ecosystems. There are seven
major types.
Location usually dependent on the latitude of the
area, and amount of precipitation
14

Tropical Rain Forest
The Rain forest is made up of three layers.
The first layer is called the canopy.
The second layer is called the undestory
The third layer is called the floor.

Savannah
Warm, hot climates
Major vegetation is grass
Dry and rainy seasons
Seasonal fires help maintain balance
The Savannah is home to various reptiles,
rodents, birds, and large mammals such as
elephants, and zebras

Desert
Super-dry air
Little rain – less than 10 inches a year
High daytime temperatures
Lots of wind
Typical animals include insects, reptiles,
birds, and various mammals

Temperate Grasslands
Precipitation: 10-60cm/year
Rich soil; tall dense grasses
Central North America; Central Asia

Deciduous forests
75-250cm/year
Warm summers, cool winters
Europe; NE United States;Eastern
Canada

Coniferous forest:
20-60cm/year
Short growing season, cold
winters.
Northern Asia; Northern North
America; Himalayas

Tundra
 Extremely short growing seasons (6 to 10 weeks)
Long, cold, dark winters (6 to 10 months)
Low Precipitation
Snow provides insulation
Wildlife includes birds, reindeer, foxes, bears, seals,
and walruses

Aquatic Ecosystems
Water covers nearly 75% of the Earth’s surface
There are numerous species of plans and animals
who live here.
 These range in size from microscopic organisms
to the size of a 100 ft whale.
An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem in a body
of water. Communities of organisms that are
dependent on each other and on their
environment live in aquatic ecosystems. The two
main types of aquatic ecosystems are marine
ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems

There are two types of Aquatic Biomes:
Marine Biomes-Oceans
 Salt water
 Composes 70% of the earths surface
 Contains many different organisms
 Provides most of the earths food nutrients
 Most oxygen is produced here
Freshwater Biomes - ponds, lakes, rivers
and streams

Freshwater ecosystems:
Relatively small in area ~ 1.8% of earth's surface
Support many species of life including fish,
amphibians, insects and plants.
Base of food-web is found in freshwater Plankton
(small microscopic organisms)
15

Types Of Freshwater Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem
1.Lentic
2.Lotic
3.Wetland

Marine Ecosystems:
Very large amount of Earth is covered by ocean
(~75%)
40% of all photosynthesis occurs in oceans.
3 types of oceanic ecosystems
Shallow ocean waters
Deep ocean water
Deep ocean surface.
Photosynthetic plankton is base of food chain.
Only occurs in Deep ocean surface & Shallow ocean
ecosystems
No photosynthesis can occur in deep ocean because

Habitat vs. Niche
Niche - the role a species plays in
a community; its total way of life
Habitat- the place in which an
organism lives out its life

Habitat vs. Niche
A niche is determined by the
tolerance limitations of an
organism, or a limiting factor.
Limiting factor- any biotic or
abiotic factor that restricts the
existence of organisms in a
specific environment.

Examples of limiting factors -
•Amount of water
•Amount of food
•Temperature
•Amount of space
•Availability of mates
Habitat vs. Niche

Niche (Job): the
organism's role in the
community, particularly its
role in relation to food with
other species.
Habitat - a place where a
plant or animal can get the
food, water, shelter and
space it needs to live.

Guild (ecology)
A guild (or ecological guild) is any group
of species that exploit the same resources, often in
related ways.
The name “guild” emphasizes the fact that these
groups are like associations of craftsmen who employ
similar techniques in plying their trade. They often
are composed of groups of closely related species that
all arose from a common ancestor, and they exploit
resources in similar ways as a result of their shared
ancestry.

Hence, several species within a single genus may
constitute a guild within a community; however,
guilds may be made up of unrelated species.
Guilds may consist of different insect species that
collect nectar in similar ways, various bird species
that employ corresponding insect-foraging
techniques, or diverse plant species that have evolved
comparable floral shapes with which they attract the
same group of pollinators.
16

What is a habitat?
Every animal has a
habitat.
The place where an
animal or plant lives and
grows is called its
habitat.
A habitat is where an
animal finds the food,
water, and shelter it
needs to live.
For example, a toucan’s
habitat is the rainforest.
17

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
All living things change to fit
their environment
ADAPTATIONS!!!!!!!!

What are adaptations?
Adaptations – an inherited characteristic that
helps an organism to survive long enough to
reproduce more successfully in its changing
environment and can either be structural or
behavioral.
18

Think about the way you dress in the
winter.
You don’t wear your shorts and bathing suit when
it’s snowing outside!
You wear warm clothes,
and maybe even a hat
and mittens to protect
yourself from the
weather.

And what if you are having a snowball fight?
You probably run away
from the person throwing
at you, and maybe even try
to sneak up on that person
and throw some
snowballs!

The way you dress in the winter, as well as the
way that you run and hide from someone
throwing snow at you are kinds of …
Adaptations.

We can separate adaptations into two
categories:
Physical
(structural)
AND
Behavioral
A
D
A
P
T
A
T
I
O
N
S

Structural Adaptations
Definition: Actual body parts or coloration that help
an organism survive in their environment.
EX: camouflage, mimicry, bent hind legs, sharp
teeth and claws, body structures.
18

Behavioral Adaptations
Definition: Ways an organism act to help them
survive in their environment.
EX: Migration, hibernation, warning calls, mating
dances, hunting in packs.
19

Types of Structural Adaptations
CAMOUFLAGE/COLORATION: blending in with the
environment for protection from predators or to help
sneak up on prey.
Use: Obtaining food
and protection
20
21
17
22

MIMICRY: copying a behavior or
appearance.
Used for protection or obtaining food and
protection.
23

Bent hind legs – prey run fast to escape &
predators run faster to catch prey
Used for: protection, locomotion

24

Types of Structural
Adaptations
Body Structures
Predator – Eyes
facing forward to find
prey.
25

We have been looking at structural
adaptations of animals. ADAPTATIONS
ON THE BODY, but animals can also have
behavioral adaptations. This type of
adaptation cannot be seen on the body. It
is the way an animal reacts or behaves in
certain situations. In other words:
INSTINCTS

In simple animals, behavior is governed
almost entirely by instinct, meaning that it
is pre-programmed by an animal's genes. In
more complex animals, instinctive behavior
is often modified by learning, producing
more-flexible responses to the outside
world.

1. Migration - seasonal or periodic
movement of animals in response
to changes in climate or food
availability, or to ensure
reproduction.
Migration most commonly involves
movement from one area to
another and then back again.
Examples: geese, whales, salmon,
Monarch butterflies

2. Hibernation – adaptive winter
survival
technique where animal becomes
inactive
and all body processes slow down.
In cold weather most animals must eat large
quantities of food to obtain the energy needed to
carry on normal body activities.Examples: bears, chipmunks,
squirrels, bats,
26

3. Living in a Group –
more eyes in a group to
watch out for prey or
predator, protection Examples: fish,
wildebeest,
walruses,
lions

4. Tool Use - any
object
manipulated by
an animal in
order to perform
a specific task.
(monkeys, otters,
birds)
5. Playing Dead - By
pretending that they are dead,
some animals escape bodily
harm. (snakes, possums)
27

6. Calling –
communication
between animals
7. Threatening
Gestures – scares
off potential
predators

PLANT ADAPTATIONS
All living things adapt is a characteristic of life.
All 6 kingdoms adapt. Animals are not the only
organisms to adapt.
Structural Plant Adaptations
1. Structures - adaptations on the body:
2. Seeds – all seeds have adaptation to
better enable it to survive long enough
to plant itself and grow.
holdfasts, empty space for water storage, catch
animals for minerals, tallness, heartiness, thorns,
flexibility, floatation devices

Plant Adaptations
Protection – thorns, bad taste, poison,
coloration, spikes
Obtaining Food – All plants do
photosynthesis and make glucose in their
leaves. The larger the leaves the more
Sun they can capture.

SEEDS
Seeds are the baby plants!!! They
are formed when the pollen fertilizes
the egg. Fruit protects the seed.
28

PLANT STRUCTURE ADAPTATIONS
Below are pictures of plants. Pick out their
adaptations.

SEED ADAPTATIONS
For plants to survive, seeds have to be
dispersed
away from the parent plant.
29

SEED DISPERSAL
Look at the seeds below and name how
they are dispersed.

PLANT BEHAVIORS
Plants not only have structural
adaptations; they have behaviors that help
them to survive in their environment.
Tropism: movement of a plant toward or
away from a stimulus. Toward is called
positive, away is called negative.

Example 1-Phototropism
When the plant senses light and the shoots
(stems & leaves) grow toward the light source.
This is a positive tropism because the plant is
growing toward the stimulus.

Example 2-Gravitropism
When growth of a plant changes in response to
direction of gravity.
Shoots (stems & leaves)
have a negative
Gravitropism
because they grow in the
opposite direction of the
force of gravity.

Roots mostly have positive gravi-
tropism because they grow toward
the force of gravity (downward).
31

Ex: gravitropism – responding to gravity
Stems grow up
(negative)
Roots grow down
(positive)

PLANT BEHAVIORAL ADAPTATIONS
DORMANCY - A state of rest or inactivity.
Many plants go dormant in the winter. Fall is the time of year when plants are
preparing for dormancy.
Why do trees loose their
leaves in the fall?
What other types of plants go dormant
in the winter?
30

DORMANCYSeasonal Changes in Trees to survive winter. All
trees lose their leaves at some point. Stop taking
in water so the xylem will not freeze.
Trees like pines and holly lose their leaves all
through out the year. They are called evergreens.
Pines
Holly
31

ANIMAL ADAPTATIONS TO THE
DESERT
Water can be stored by animals in fatty deposits in
their tails and other tissues (e.g., in the gila
monster's tail).
Minimize loss of water out of the skin (cutaneous
loss), from urine and feces (excretory loss), and from
"breathing" (respiratory loss) through various means
(e.g., see torpor).
If heat reduction wasn't enough, then it is time to get
rid of body heat by evaporation (costs water though),
long appendages (legs, ears, etc.), or small "bodies"
(e.g., whole body, leaves, etc.) that radiate heat.

LONG LEGS
H
U
M
P
WOOL
or FUR
TWO ROWS OF
LONG EYELASHES
BROAD,
FLAT AND
LEATHERY
PADS
NOSTRILS
CAN BE
CLOSED
THICK LEATHERY
PATCHES ON THE KNEES
HAIR IN
THE EARS
32

Common adaptations seen in
desert plants:
1. Enhanced cuticle, a waxy covering, which prevents
water loss.
2. Long vertical roots enabling a plant to reach water
sources beneath the soil.
3. Shallow, radial roots, those which extend
horizontally, which maximize water absorption at the
surface.
4. Tricombs, hair-like projections, that create a thick
boundary layer which will deflect heat as well as IR
wavelengths.
5. Spines and hairs which discourage herbivores and
increase boundary layer effects.

PLANT ADAPTATIONS TO THE
DESERT
Water can be stored in the roots, stems, and/or
leaves of plants that grow in desert(plants that
do this are called succulents).
Many of the desert plants (e.g., this prickly pear
cactus) and animals (e.g., desert toads) can
tolerate great losses of water out of their bodies
without dying.
This can be done by staying out of the sun, by
shading (e.g., spines/fur), by posture and
orientation (e.g., orienting leaves vertically to
minimize surface area directly hit by sun), by
insulation, by shiny surfaces that reflect sun, etc. 34

Small and narrow leaves which
decreases heating from the sun.
Rotating leaves which enable the plant
to orient its leaves away from maximum
exposure to the sun.

When animals live in the water, they must have special
adaptations to help them survive in an aquatic habitat. The
more time an animal spends in the water, the more
adaptations the animal will have for an aquatic life. Below are
examples of some of these adaptations:
1. Streamlined body reduces friction when the animal moves
through the water.
2. Smooth, almost furless body helps aquatic mammals move
through the water with little friction.
3. Dense fur helps streamline the bodies of some aquatic
mammals and keeps them warm.
4. Webbed feet, formed from thin skin between the toes, work
like paddles.
5. Long legs and necks keep the bodies of wading birds out of the
water and are thin, light, and easy to move, and the long
neck helps the birds to reach the water, or below it, for food.

6. Flippers provide a large surface for pushing against water
and act like paddles.
7. Eyes positioned on top of the head allow animals to hide
almost fully submerged in water and still detect
predators or prey above the water.
8. Nostrils positioned near the top of the head allow
animals to come to the surface to breathe while only a
small part of the body can be seen. Nostrils close when
the animal goes under the water.
9. Blubber, a thick layer of fat or oil stored between the skin
and muscles of the body, provides insulation.
10. Transparent eyelids cover the eyes of animals swimming
underwater.
11. Flattened tails serve as paddles.

Aquatic Adaptation In Plants
The presence of little or no mechanical strengthening
tissue in stems and leaf petioles. If these plants are
removed from the water, they hang limply. They are
normally supported by water all around them and so have
no need of mechanical strengthening. Indeed, this would
be a distinct disadvantage as it would limit flexibility in
the event of changes in water level or water movements.
Submerged plants lack the external protective tissues
required by land plants to limit water loss. The epidermal
(outermost) layer shows very little, if any, sign of cuticle
formation. All the surface cells appear to be able to absorb
water, nutrients and dissolved gases directly from the
surrounding water.

Roots, which normally play a very important role in the
absorption of nutrients and water from the substrate, are
often also reduced and their main function is anchorage.
The root hairs which function in absorption are often
absent and roots themselves may be entirely dispensed
with (e.g. Bladderwort).
Many species have very specialized leaf shapes. The
submerged leaves are often highly dissected or divided.
This has the advantage of creating a very large surface area
for absorption and photosynthesis. It also minimizes water
resistance and hence potential damage to the leaves.
Heterophylly, where leaves of different shapes are
produced depending on where on the plant they are, is
common.
Air-filled cavities often extend throughout the leaves and
stems of aquatic plants, providing an internal
atmosphere,giving them access to the internal air-filled

Arboreal Adaptations
Living in or among trees.
Arboreal locomotion is the locomotion of animals
in trees. In habitats in which trees are present,
animals have evolved to move in them. Some animals
may only scale trees occasionally, while others are
exclusively arboreal. These habitats pose numerous
mechanical challenges to animals moving through
them, leading to a variety of anatomical, behavioral
and ecological consequences as well as variations
throughout different species.

Adaptations in arboreal animals
Limb length
Arboreal animals frequently have elongated limbs
that help them cross gaps, reach fruit or other
resources, test the firmness of support ahead, and in
some cases, to brachiate. However, some species of
lizard have reduced limb size that helps them avoid
limb movement being obstructed by impinging
branches
Prehensile tails
Many arboreal species, such as tree
porcupines, chameleons, Silky Anteaters, spider
monkeys, and possums, use prehensile tails to grasp
branches. In the spider monkey and crested gecko,
the tip of the tail has either a bare patch or adhesive
pad, which provide increased friction.

Claws
Claws can be used to interact with rough substrates and
re-orient the direction of forces the animal applies. This is
what allows squirrels to climb tree trunks that are so large
as to be essentially flat, from the perspective of such a
small animal. However, claws can interfere with an
animal's ability to grasp very small branches, as they may
wrap too far around and prick the animal's own paw.
Reversible feet
To control descent, especially down large diameter
branches, some arboreal animals such as squirrels have
evolved highly mobile ankle joints that permit rotating the
foot into a 'reversed' posture. This allows the claws to
hook into the rough surface of the bark, opposing the
force of gravity.

•Small size
•Small size provides many advantages to arboreal species:
such as increasing the relative size of branches to the
animal, lower center of mass, increased stability, lower
mass (allowing movement on smaller branches), and the
ability to move through more cluttered habitat. Size relating
to weight affects gliding animals such as the reduced
weight per snout-vent length for 'flying' frogs.
•Hanging under perches
•Some species of primate, bat, and all species
of sloth achieve passive stability by hanging beneath the
branch. Both pitching and tipping become irrelevant, as the
only method of failure would be losing their grip.
44

Plant Adaptation to an Arboreal
Habitat
Arboreal plants are those that live in trees instead of
on the ground. Such plants have made adaptations in
order to survive in their lofty environments.
Parasitism
Some arboreal plants have become parasites,
extracting all of their needs from the host plant. One
example of such a plant is mistletoe, an evergreen
plant that invades trees in many areas of the United
States.

Air Plants
Epiphytes are members of the bromeliad family.
These plants, also called "air plants," live on trees and
other plants. They have evolved to be able to obtain
all of their water and nutrients directly from the air.
Orchids
The natural habitat for orchids is trees. They cannot
be planted in soil, as their roots have adapted to need
constant exposure to air, and they will die if the air
flow is cut off.
45

Root Adaptations
Even in the rainforest's wet environment, gathering and using water
is challenging. Orchids developed modifications allowing them to
capture and store water. The roots of epiphytic species are exposed
to the air and susceptible to drying out. Epiphytic orchids developed
a tough tissue called velamen covering the root's surface, helping
them retain water.
Leaf Adaptations
Because orchids grow in variety of environments even within the
tropical forest, the food-producing leaf structures of individual
species vary greatly, depending on the specific habitat. Many
orchids growing directly on the ground have green, chlorophyll-filled
leaves and use sunlight to create their food. Some epiphytic
orchids, those that grow on the trunks of trees, have no green
leaves but have chlorophyll in their exposed roots clinging to the
tree's bark. Other orchids have no leaves at all and depend on a
symbiotic relationship with fungus living in their roots for food.

Flower Adaptations
Orchid flowers are individualized from species to species,
adapted for survival in different growing conditions and in
the presence of different pollinators. The flowers have a
common structure composed of three petals, two of them
extending laterally from the center of the flower and third
modified into a structure called a lip. This lip forms a
cuplike structure where nectar collects, attracting
pollinating insects. An orchid's flower color and structure
evolved to attract specific pollinators unique to its
environment.

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Books/Resources:
Environmental Studies by R. Rajgopalan
Environment and Ecology by Dr. Gourkrishna Dasmohapatra
www.mbgnet.net/sets/rforest/adapt.htm

B sc micro, biotech, biochem i es u 2 ecology

B sc micro, biotech, biochem i es u 2 ecology

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