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Basic concept of the Cell biology of humen being
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- 2. 2 • 读万卷书，行万里路 读万卷书，行万里路 • It'sbetter to travel 10000 miles than to read It's better to travel 10000 miles than to read 10000 books. 10000 books. “The world is a book and those who do not travel read only one page.”
- 3. 3 If life werea colorful drawing, college life If life were a colorful drawing, college life would be one of the brightest colors. would be one of the brightest colors.
- 4. 4 You may justmiss college life. You may just miss college life.
- 5. 5 Red Gate House RedGate House
- 6. 6 Confucius boarding place Confuciusboarding place
- 7. 7 The landscape ofMount Tai with a temple situated at one of its slopes The landscape of Mount Tai with a temple situated at one of its slopes
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- 9. 9 Sunrise viewed fromMount Tai Sunrise viewed from Mount Tai
- 10. 10 Dai Temple atMount Tai Dai Temple at Mount Tai
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- 13. 13 • School ofBiological Science School of Biological Science Taishan Medical University Taishan Medical University • Name: Zhao Baochang Name: Zhao Baochang ( ( 赵宝昌） 赵宝昌） • Lecturer Lecturer • Office phone :6236074 Office phone :6236074 • Mobile: 13705386056 Mobile: 13705386056 • E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Information about the teacher Information about the teacher
- 14. 14 Rules in classroomand laboratory Rules in classroom and laboratory • Don’t be late for class. Don’t be late for class. • Do not leave class early, leave your seat only Do not leave class early, leave your seat only when necessary. when necessary. • Turn off the mobile. Turn off the mobile. • When you go to the lab, don’t forget to wear When you go to the lab, don’t forget to wear gowns. Don’t forget to bring pencil, eraser gowns. Don’t forget to bring pencil, eraser and ruler. and ruler.
- 15. 15 Final grade Final grade •experimental results experimental results • usually results (class participation) usually results (class participation) • test scores (the final exam) test scores (the final exam) 考， 考， 考，老师的法宝 考， 考， 考，老师的法宝 Test, test, test, the teacher's magic weapon Test, test, test, the teacher's magic weapon 分， 分， 分，学生的命根 分， 分， 分，学生的命根 Score, score, score, the student's lifeblood Score, score, score, the student's lifeblood
- 16. 16 • What’s biology? •What’s cell biology? • Why do we learn biology?
- 17. 17 What’s biology? Biology Biology isfirst named by is first named by Lamarck Lamarck in 1802. in 1802. Born: 1 August 1744 Bazentin, Picardie Died: 18December1829 (aged 85) Paris,France Institutions ： French Academy of Sciences; Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle; Jardin des Plantes Known for ： Evolution; inheritance fo acquired characteristics; Influenced Geoffroy
- 18. 18 Biology Biology is anatural science concerned with the study of life is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy.
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- 21. 21 Basic Character oflife Basic Character of life 1. Living Things are Composed of Cells: Single-cell organisms have everything they need to be self-sufficient. Single-cell organisms have everything they need to be self-sufficient. In multicellular organisms, specialization increases until some cells do In multicellular organisms, specialization increases until some cells do only certain things. only certain things.
- 22. 22 2.Living Things HaveDifferent Levels of Organization: Both molecular and cellular organization. Living things must be able to organize simple substances into complex ones. Living things organize cells at several levels: Tissue - a group of cells that perform a common function. Organ - a group of tissues that perform a common function. Organ system - a group of organs that perform a common function. Organism - any complete living thing. Basic Character of life Basic Character of life
- 23. 23 Basic Character oflife Basic Character of life
- 24. 24 Basic Character oflife Basic Character of life 3. Living Things Use Energy: Living things take in energy and use it for maintenance and growth. Living things take in energy and use it for maintenance and growth.
- 25. 25 Basic Character oflife Basic Character of life 3. Living Things Use Energy: Living things take in energy and use it for maintenance and growth. Living things take in energy and use it for maintenance and growth.
- 26. 26 Basic Character oflife Basic Character of life 4. Living Things Respond To Their Environment: • Living things will make changes in response to a stimulus Living things will make changes in response to a stimulus in their environment. in their environment. • A behavior is a complex set of responses. A behavior is a complex set of responses.
- 27. 27 Basic Character oflife Basic Character of life 5. Living Things Grow: • Cell division - the orderly formation of new cells. Cell division - the orderly formation of new cells. • Cell enlargement - the increase in size of a cell. Cell enlargement - the increase in size of a cell. Cells grow to a certain size and then divide. Cells grow to a certain size and then divide. • An organism gets larger as the number of its cells An organism gets larger as the number of its cells increases. increases.
- 28. 28 Basic Character oflife Basic Character of life 5. Living Things Grow:
- 29. 29 Basic Character oflife Basic Character of life 6. Living Things Reproduce: • Reproduction is not essential for the survival of Reproduction is not essential for the survival of individual organisms, but must occur for a species to individual organisms, but must occur for a species to survive. survive. • All living things reproduce in one of the following ways: All living things reproduce in one of the following ways: – Asexual repoduction - Producing offspring without the Asexual repoduction - Producing offspring without the use of gametes. use of gametes. – Sexual reproduction - Producing offspring by the Sexual reproduction - Producing offspring by the joining of sex cells. joining of sex cells.
- 30. 30 Basic Character oflife Basic Character of life 6. Living Things Reproduce:
- 31. 31 Basic Character oflife Basic Character of life 7. Living Things Adapt To Their Environment: • Adaptations are traits giving an organism an advantage in a Adaptations are traits giving an organism an advantage in a certain environment. certain environment. • Variation of individuals is important for a healthy species. Variation of individuals is important for a healthy species.
- 32. 32 • Biology Biology isa vast subject containing many subdivisions, is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines. topics, and disciplines. ☆ ☆ Cells are the basic unit of life; Cells are the basic unit of life; ☆ ☆ Genes are the basic unit of heredity; Genes are the basic unit of heredity; ☆ ☆ New species and inherited traits are the product New species and inherited traits are the product ofevolution; ofevolution; ☆ ☆ An organism regulates its internal environment to An organism regulates its internal environment to maintain a stable and constant condition; maintain a stable and constant condition; ☆ ☆ Living organisms consume and transform energy; Living organisms consume and transform energy;
- 33. 33 Subdisciplines of biology •Biochemistry Biochemistry examines the rudimentary chemistry of life; examines the rudimentary chemistry of life; • Molecular biology Molecular biology studies the complex interactions of studies the complex interactions of systems of biological molecules; systems of biological molecules; • Cellular biology Cellular biology examines the basic building block of all examines the basic building block of all life, the cell; life, the cell; • Physiology Physiology examines the physical and chemical functions examines the physical and chemical functions of the tissues, organs, andorgan systems of an organism; of the tissues, organs, andorgan systems of an organism; • Evolutionary biology Evolutionary biology examines theprocesses that have examines theprocesses that have given rise to the diversity of life; given rise to the diversity of life; • Ecology Ecology examines how various organisms interact and examines how various organisms interact and associate with their environment. associate with their environment.
- 34. 34 • What’s cellbiology? Cell biology (formerly cytology, from the Greek kytos, "contain") is a scientific discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle,division and death. Allium cells in different phases of the cell cycle Allium cells in different phases of the cell cycle
- 35. 35 1665 1838- 1839 1965 Discovery ofcell The discovery of cell theory Birth of cell biology 1980s Molecular cell biology A Brief History of Cell Biology A Brief History of Cell Biology
- 36. 36 • The discoveryof cell. • The establishment of cell theory. • The birth of cell biology. • Molecular cell biology. • Nobel prize about cell biology. A Brief History of Cell Biology A Brief History of Cell Biology
- 37. 37 In 1665, RobertHooke saw a network of tiny boxlike compartments that reminded him of a honeycomb. He called these little compartments “cellulae”, a Latin term meaning little room. It is from this word we get our present-day term, cell. The microscope used by Robert Hooke and the honeycomb-like network of “cell” he drawed in 1665 Discovery of cells Discovery of cells
- 38. 38 Who first observedthe “living cell"? Who first observed the “living cell"? Leeuwenhoek observe the teeming microscopic “animalcules” that darted back and forth before his eyes.
- 39. 39 The establishment ofcell theory. The establishment of cell theory. M.J. Schleiden M.J. Schwann Rudolf Virchow
- 40. 40 The birth ofcell biology. The birth of cell biology. • Cell biology first appeared in 1876 with the establishment of the Laboratory of Cell Biology at the Catholic University of Loucain in Belgium. Institute of Botany and Microbiology
- 41. 41 • In 1893,"cells and tissues" written by Hertwig was published, which marked the birth of cytology. • In 1965, De Robetis compiled its “General cytology” to" Cell Biology “ which marked the birth of cell biology. The birth of cell biology. The birth of cell biology.
- 42. 42 • The NobelPrize in Physiology or Medicine 2012 The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2012 Nobel prize about cell biology Nobel prize about cell biology The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2012 was awarded jointly The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2012 was awarded jointly to Sir John B. Gurdon and Shinya Yamanaka for to Sir John B. Gurdon and Shinya Yamanaka for " " the discovery that the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent" mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent" Shinya Yamanaka Sir John B. Sir John B. Gurdon Gurdon
- 43. 43 cloned a frogusing intact nuclei from the somatic cloned a frog using intact nuclei from the somatic cells of a cells of a Xenopus Xenopus tadpole. tadpole.
- 44. 44 Pioneer of InducedPluripotent Stem Cell(ips) Pioneer of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell(ips)
- 45. 45 Can we rejuvenateor live forever Can we rejuvenate or live forever ? ?
- 46. 46 • The NobelPrize in Literature 2012 was awarded to Mo The Nobel Prize in Literature 2012 was awarded to Mo Yan Yan "who with hallucinatory realism merges folk tales, "who with hallucinatory realism merges folk tales, history and the contemporary" history and the contemporary". . • The Nobel Prize in Literature 2012 The Nobel Prize in Literature 2012 Mo Yan( Mo Yan( 莫 莫 言 言 ) ) Hello ！ My name is “shut up!”
- 47. 47 • The NobelPrize in Physiology or Medicine 2011 The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2011 The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2011 was divided, one half The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2011 was divided, one half jointly to Bruce A. Beutler and Jules A. Hoffmann jointly to Bruce A. Beutler and Jules A. Hoffmann "for their "for their discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity" and the other discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity" and the other half to Ralph M. Steinman "for his discovery of the dendritic cell and its half to Ralph M. Steinman "for his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity". role in adaptive immunity". Bruce A. Beutler Bruce A. Beutler Jules A. Hoffmann Jules A. Hoffmann Ralph M. Steinman Ralph M. Steinman
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- 49. 49 What is Cellbiology What is Cell biology • Cell biology is a branch of the biological sciences, which regards cells as the object of study, researches the structures of cells and principles of cellular activities at three level – cellular, subcellular and molecular.
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- 52. 52 Molecular Biology Lab molecularlevel •With the rise of molecular biology , research of Cell With the rise of molecular biology , research of Cell biology was into a new stage: biology was into a new stage: molecular cell biology molecular cell biology. .
- 53. 53 It is thefundamental subject of biological and It is the fundamental subject of biological and medical sciences. medical sciences. Cell biology is the basic course for medical Cell biology is the basic course for medical students. students. Pharmacology, Public Health, Pathology , Pharmacology, Public Health, Pathology , Microbiology, etc. Microbiology, etc. • Why should we study cell biology?
- 54. 54 • Why shouldwe study cell biology? It is the fundamental subject of biological and It is the fundamental subject of biological and medical sciences. medical sciences. Cell biology is the basic course for medical Cell biology is the basic course for medical students. students. Pharmacology, Public Health, Pathology , Pharmacology, Public Health, Pathology , Microbiology, etc. Microbiology, etc.
- 55. 55 • Here aresome specific reasons to study biology: Here are some specific reasons to study biology: • Studying anything helps you to become smarter! Studying anything helps you to become smarter! • It helps you learn how your body works so you can be It helps you learn how your body works so you can be healthier; healthier; • It teaches you about other living things so you know how It teaches you about other living things so you know how to improve the environment for your future; to improve the environment for your future; • It teaches you how life works so you can understand the It teaches you how life works so you can understand the world around you; world around you;
- 56. 56 • Here aresome specific reasons to study biology: Here are some specific reasons to study biology: • It teaches you how different organs and systems work so you It teaches you how different organs and systems work so you can understand the ways that everything is connected; can understand the ways that everything is connected; • It teaches you things like food chains for the same reason as It teaches you things like food chains for the same reason as the above; the above; • It teaches you how to classify and group things by It teaches you how to classify and group things by similarities and differences similarities and differences • It teaches you how to tell if something is alive or not, which It teaches you how to tell if something is alive or not, which is valuable in the study and exploration of space! is valuable in the study and exploration of space!
- 57. 57 19th century Industrial Revolution 20thcentury Information Revolution 21th century Biotechnology revolution
- 58. 58 – Energy conservationlaw – Evolution – Cell theory – genetics The three cornerstones The three cornerstones of modern biology of modern biology Three 19th-century Three 19th-century discovery of nature discovery of nature • Friedrich Engels The three cornerstones The three cornerstones of modern biology of modern biology – Energy conservation law – Evolution – Cell theory – genetics The three cornerstones The three cornerstones of modern biology of modern biology • Friedrich Engels
- 59. 59 Three 19th-century Three 19th-century discoveryof nature discovery of nature – Energy conservation law – Evolution – Cell theory – genetics The three cornerstones The three cornerstones of modern biology of modern biology Friedrich Engels Friedrich Engels
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- 61. 61 Alberts B Alberts Bet al et al. . Essential Cell Biology Essential Cell Biology. New York and . New York and London London ： ： Garland publishing Garland publishing ， ， Inc. 1998 Inc. 1998 Alberts B Alberts B et al et al. . Molecuar Biology of the Cell Molecuar Biology of the Cell, 3rd ed , 3rd ed. New . New York and London York and London ： ： Garland Publishing Garland Publishing ， ， Inc. 1994; Inc. 1994; 3rd 2002. 3rd 2002. Becker W.M. Becker W.M. et al et al. . The World of the Cell The World of the Cell. . Fourth Ed. The Fourth Ed. The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company. 2000. Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company. 2000. Lodish H. Lodish H. et al et al. . Molecular Cell Biology Molecular Cell Biology. . 4th Ed. Scientific 4th Ed. Scientific American Books,Inc. 2000. American Books,Inc. 2000. Gerald Karp. Gerald Karp. Cell and Molecular Biology Cell and Molecular Biology ： ： concepts and concepts and experiments experiments ， ， 3rd Edition. Published by John Wiley & 3rd Edition. Published by John Wiley & Sons,Inc. 2002. Sons,Inc. 2002.
- 62. 62 How to Studyfor cell Biology? • Change your attitude towards Biology! Change your attitude towards Biology! • Study. Study. • Understand how to answer a Biology paper. Understand how to answer a Biology paper. • To learn about a biological process To learn about a biological process • If possible, try to look for past papers of the exam If possible, try to look for past papers of the exam you need to take. you need to take.
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Editor's Notes
- #1 Hi，ererybody! It’ s a great honor for me to be here. Three monthes ago, when I knew I’ll have the opportunity to teach in English, I became nervous. After such a long time, I’m too nervous to forget what’s nervous. My name is DON’t NERVOUS.
- #2 I even you to have the chance abroad. How many years will you stay in China? Five years! You can consider this to be a big travel. 旅游的意义的却很多：当然首先就是一种享受，与此同时也可以增长见识。旅游过程中可以让人学到很多东西：自然与人；、各地区的风俗习惯；经济发展情况；其实无形中就相当与在当地做了一份调查！所以我觉得这会是旅游最大的意义！！ Traveling a great enjoyment ,meanwhile Traveling can open our mind, learn more, expand our knowledge. manners and customs /economic conditions . 读书的意义书籍是巨大的力量（列宁），书籍是青年人不可分离的生命伴侣和导师（高尔基）。读一本好书，就是和许多高尚的人谈话（笛卡尔）。读书越多，越感到腹中空虚（雪莱）。每一本书都是一个用黑字印在白纸上的灵魂，只要我的眼睛、我的理智接触了它，它就活起来了（高尔基） Reading makes a full man. Good books are like a wise and nice man of last generation, who supports me to walk forward, and helps me come to understand the world. No matter how much one has experienced, he can’t enrich his knowledge without reading books. 气质(Temperament) Books lends charm to her 书籍可以增强人的魅力。
- #3 College life is challenging for nearly every student. From meal plans and roommates to study abroad and college finances, learn more about how to make the most of your college life. 人生苦短Life is short 。We spend our most beautiful time in
- #4 Our campus is so beautiful 泰安市 泰山
- #5 Taishan Mountain in Shandong was included as "World Cultural and Natural Heritage" by UNESCO in Dec 1987. Taishan Mountain, a typical representative of the Chinese famous traditional mountai , is a mountain with a long history and a ecial historic status. In 1982, Taishan Mountain was up into the list of State key scenic ots and was formally listed in the directory of World Natural and Cultural Heritage in 1987. It becomes a precious heritage of human being. This superior condition hel Taishan Mountain gain the first position among the Five Famous Mountai in China. As a mountainous scenic ot, Taishan Mountain has high values in term of aesthetics and science, e ecially the aesthetic value, which is the foundation for Taishan Mountain becoming a famous mountain in the history and the world natural and cultural heritage today. For thousands of years, during the proce of studying on Taishan Mountain in terms of adoration, taste, religion and science, the people has created extremely abundant and valued Taishan scenic culture. Moreover, in the Taishan scenic culture, the natural scene plays the key role with the literacy scene a isting. The nature and culture penetrate into each other. Here we can see the philosophy, aesthetics and science idea about the harmonious development of Sky, Ground and Human beings. Thereby, either from the point of time or ace, Taishan Mountain contai extremely abundant contents with high aesthetic, science and historic value. We can say that Taishan Mountain is the symbol of iritual culture of China and the unique heritage of the world.\
- #12 Taishan Medical University covers an area of 200 hectares with a construction area of 770,000 square meters. The university now has fixed assets valued at 1.22 billion RMB including teaching, science and research equipment with a total value of more than 140 million RMB. The students have access to 2,560,000 books including 1,170,000 e-books. The university has one affiliated hospital, 11 non-direct affiliated hospitals and more than 200 practice and internship bases.
- #14 Be respectful of yourself and others. Raise your hand before you speak during a classroom lesson. Listen quietly while others are speaking. Obey all school rules.
- #16 高中所学
- #17 Lamarck developed a particular interest in botany, and later, after he published a three-volume work Flore françoise, he gained membership of the French Academy of Sciences in 1779. Lamarck became involved in theJardin des Plantes and was appointed to the Chair of Botany in 1788. When the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle was founded in 1793, Lamarck was appointed as a professor of zoology.
- #19 二十一世纪是现代生物科学的世纪 生命科学吸引了大批优秀科学家； 人类所面临的人口、食品、能源、环境、健康等一系列问题都有待生命科学回答； 解决人类生存与发展所面临的一系列重大问题，在很大程度上将依赖于生命科学的发展。生命科学对人类经济、科技、政治和社会发展的作用是全方位的。 人口膨胀； 粮食短缺； 疾病危害； 环境污染； 能源危机； 资源匮乏； 生态平衡破坏； 生物物种大量消亡。
- #20 Before moving on to the development of microscopic organisms on Earth, we must first describe the characteristics of life. All matter, both living and non-living, is composed of miniature chemical building blocks called atoms. Your body contains billions of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon atoms. The computer you are looking at is also composed of billions of various atoms. However, there is a very important distinction between yourself and your computer - you are alive. What is life? What does it mean do be alive? How is something made “living”? These are all pertinent questions when discussing the origin of life. Scientists have identified seven basic characteristics of life. For something to be described as living, that something must display all seven of these characteristics. Although many different people have many different opinions about what "living" means, the following characteristics were designated "characteristics of living things" with the consensus of the scientific community.
- #24 . It is often called the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories. Catabolism breaks down organic matter, for example to harvest energy in cellular respiration. Anabolism uses energy to construct components of cells such as proteins and nucleic acids.
- #25 . It is often called the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer.
- #26 Striking the patellar ligament with a reflex hammer just below the patella stretches the muscle spindle in the quadriceps muscle. This produces a signal which travels back to the spinal cord and synapses (without interneurons) at the level of L4 in the spinal cord, completely independent of higher centres. From there, an alpha-motor neuron conducts an efferent impulse back to the quadriceps femoris muscle, triggering contraction. This contraction, coordinated with the relaxation of the antagonistic flexor hamstring muscle causes the leg to kick. This reflex is a reflex of proprioception which helps maintain postureand balance, allowing to keep one's balance with little effort or conscious thought. The patellar reflex is a clinical and classic example of the monosynaptic reflex arc. There is no interneuronin the pathway leading to contraction of the quadriceps muscle. Instead the bipolar sensory neuron synapses directly on a motor neuron in the spinal cord. However, there is an inhibitory interneuron used to relax the antagonistic hamstring muscle. Think about why your body can work, digestion, running, thinking, these seem to be natural phenomena, but why? Why everything works just so perfectly? Thinking about how amazing human body may help you to change your idea about this subject.
- #32 Among the most important topics are five unifying principles that are said to be the fundamental axioms of modern biology:[2] 现代生物学的五大基础，也是主要的研究方向：[1] 细胞学说 进化 基因论 体内平衡 能量
- #37 罗伯特·胡克（Robert Hooke，又译胡克，1635年7月28日－1703年3月14日），英国博物学家、发明家。在物理学研究方面，他提出了描述材料弹性的基本定律——胡克定律，且提出了万有引力的平方反比关系。在机械制造方面，他设计制造了真空泵、显微镜和望远镜，并将自己用显微镜观察所得写成《显微术》一书；“细胞”的原文：cell，即由他命名。中文翻译后即称为细胞。在新技术发明方面，他发明的很多设备至今仍然在使用。除去科学技术，胡克还在城市设计和建筑方面有着重要的贡献。
- #38 列文虎克（荷兰语：Antoni van Leeuwenhoek；1632年10月24日－1723年8月26日）安东尼·范·莱文胡克[1]，全名Thonius Philips van Leeuwenhoek。是一位荷兰贸易商与科学家，有微生物学之父的称号。最为著名的成就之一，是改进了显微镜以及微生物学的建立。 他经由手工自制的显微镜，首先观察并描述单细胞生物，他当时将这些生物称为“animalcules”。此外，他也是最早纪录观察肌纤维、细菌、精虫、微血管中血流的科学家。 在他的一生当中磨制了超过500个镜片，并制造了400种以上的显微镜，其中只有9种至今仍有人使用。
- #43 20世纪50年代， 约翰·格登等人的实验就已经得知卵细胞质能重编程体细胞核。这些实验是为了解决分化细胞的基因组是否经历了不可逆转的变化，以及是否不再支持早期发育这些问题而进行的。格登的实验表明并非如此，蝌蚪的分化细胞的细胞核在移植进入卵母细胞质中后，能指导卵细胞发育为性成熟成体青蛙。这一实验具有划时代的意义，他首次证实了已分化细胞的基因组的可通核移植技术将其重新转化为具有多能性的细胞。 约翰·戈登教授在1962年发现细胞的特化是可逆的。在他进行的一项经典实验中，他将一个未成熟的青蛙卵细胞的细胞核用一个成熟的肠道细胞细胞核进行替换。这个被改造过的卵细胞后来发育成了一只正常的蝌蚪。这一实验证明，一个成熟细胞中的DNA仍然储存有让一颗细胞发育成一只完整青蛙的所有信息。
- #44 从成熟细胞回到干细胞 在Gurdon得到他的发现40多年之后，山中伸弥回答了这一问题。山中伸弥专注于胚胎干细胞研究，例如从胚胎中分离在实验室中获取多功能干细胞。这类干细胞的研究最初是从小鼠中开始（Martin Evans 藉此获得2007年诺贝尔奖），山中伸弥试图做的是找到那些能使细胞维持在非成熟状态的基因。在发现了多个基因之后，他要寻找的就是其中能让成熟细胞重返多功能干细胞的那把钥匙。 据山中伸弥及他的同事介绍，各基因以不同的组合方式注入到成熟的纤维母细胞中，然后在显微镜下观察结果。最终，他们找到了这一种组合。事实上非常简单，只要引入四种基因，就能让成熟的纤维母细胞重新编程为多能干细胞。 诱导所得的多能干细胞（iPS细胞）最后仍然可分化成成熟的细胞类型，如成纤维细胞、神经细胞和肠细胞。2006年这项研究发表，即刻引起关注，是医学界的重大突破。
- #47 诺贝尔基金会决定不取消斯坦曼所获奖项 瑞典卡罗琳医学院诺贝尔奖评选委员会３日晚宣布，不取消已故加拿大科学家拉尔夫·斯坦曼获得的２０１１年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。 诺奖得主斯坦曼已于获奖前3天去世 美国洛克菲勒大学３日向新华社记者证实，荣获２０１１年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖的该校教授拉尔夫·斯坦曼已于３天前逝世，享年６８岁。
- #48 Toll样受体(Toll-like receptors, TLR)是I型跨膜蛋白质, 识别侵入体内的微生物进而激活免疫细胞的应答。被认为在先天性免疫系统中起关键作用。Toll样受体是模式识别受体（pattern recognition receptors，PRR) 的一类，识别与宿主不同的病原体分子。这些分子被统称为病原相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecular patterns，PAMP)。但是,也有一些例外情况。在脊椎动物(包括鱼类、两栖类、 哺乳类、鸟类、爬虫类)以及无脊椎动物(如昆虫果蝇已被广泛研究)发现有Toll样受体。在细菌和植物以及更高的生物界中也发现有Toll样受体。所以，Toll样受体是最古老最保守的免疫系统的组成部分。 2011年，诺奖又新鲜出炉。之前的工作主要是探索“获得性的”免疫反应，这次工作主要奖励“天然存在”的免疫反应。Bruce A. Beutler主要贡献是发现了LPS的受体（Toll 样受体），LPS作为来源于病原体（主要是细菌外膜）的抗原会激起剧烈的免疫反应，一方面可以激活免疫系统抵抗“入侵”，但是过于惨烈的“战争”也会伤不起，也就是剧烈的炎症反应，首先累及的是心肺功能衰竭！Jules A. Hoffmann 主要研究对象是果蝇。他发现有一个与发育有关的基因（Toll）跟抵抗真菌感染有关。此后，关于这个基因在哺乳动物中免疫调节作用也逐渐开展了。Beutler发现LPS受体（也是Toll家族基因，老鼠里发现的）应该是Hoffman之后。随后在人里也发现了相应的蛋白，可惜诺奖名额有限。 今年诺奖的另一半给了一个明星细胞——树突状细胞。我们有了B细胞、T细胞干嘛还要树突细胞？树突细胞主要作用是抗原呈递，它们本身有吞噬功能，它们要把入侵病原体的抗原以最丰富的形式传递给“上级”，所以他们的表面积非常大，以至于成了树突状。可惜，Ralph M. Steinman于前几天因病辞世了！
- #51 As with the rapid growth of molecular biology in the mid-20th century, cell biology research exploded in the 1950′s. It became possible to maintain, grow, and manipulate cells outside of living organisms. The first continuous cell line to be so cultured was in 1951 by George Otto Gey and coworkers, derived from cervical cancer cells taken from Henrietta Lacks, who died from her cancer in 1951. The cell line, which was eventually referred to as HeLa cells, have been the watershed in studying cell biology in the way that the structure of DNA was the significant breakthrough of molecular biology. In an avalanche of progress in the study of cells, the coming decade included the characterization of the minimal media requirements for cells and development of sterile cell culture techniques. It was also aided by the prior advances in electron microscopy, and later advances such as development of transfection methods, discovery of green fluorescent protein in jellyfish, and discovery of small interfering RNA (siRNA), among others.
- #57 二十一世纪是现代生物科学的世纪 生命科学吸引了大批优秀科学家； 人类所面临的人口、食品、能源、环境、健康等一系列问题都有待生命科学回答； 解决人类生存与发展所面临的一系列重大问题，在很大程度上将依赖于生命科学的发展。生命科学对人类经济、科技、政治和社会发展的作用是全方位的。 人口膨胀；population expansion 粮食短缺； 疾病危害； 环境污染； 能源危机； 资源匮乏； 生态平衡破坏； 生物物种大量消亡。
- #59 father of Marxist theory, alongside Karl Marx.
- #62 Many people find Biology the hardest and the most boring subject at school. That's not true, indeed, if you know how to appreciate the beauty of Biology and how to get good results in this subject.