Bbp 201

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EDITORIAL TEAM
Chief Editor : Dr.V.UMAMAHESH
Assistant Professor (Plant Physiology)
Agricultural College, Naira.
Co-Editors: Dr.K.Bala Krishna Reddy, Professor (Plant Physiology)
Dr.P.V. Rao, Professor (Plant Physiology)
Dr.A.Siva Sankar, Professor (Plant Physiology)
Dr.K.L.Narasimha Rao, Professor (Plant Physiology)
Dr.V.Raja Rajeswari, Professor (Plant Physiology)
Dr.Y. Ashoka Rani, Professor (Plant Physiology)
Dr.V.Padma, Professor (Plant Physiology)
Dr.T.Ramesh, Associate Professor (Plant Physiology)
Dr.P.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Professor (Plant Physiology)
Dr.P.Umamaheswari, Asst.Professor (Plant Physiology)

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ACHARYA N.G. RANGA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
Department of Plant Physiology
Detailed Lecture Outlines
1. COURSE NO : PPHY 261
2. COURSE TITLE : ECOPHYSIOLOGY
3. CREDIT HOURS : 2(1+ 1)
4. GENERAL OBJECTIVE : To impart knowledge to the students on the
environmental factors and their effect on
plants.
5. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES :
a) Theory
By the end of the course, the students will be able to
I. Study the ecophysiological aspects of plants
II. know about pollution and its effect on plant growth
III. understand controlled environment and its use in agriculture
b) Practical
By the end of the practical exercises, the students will be able to
I. Understand the response of plants in relation to various environmental
factors affecting plant growth and development
A) THEORY LECTURE OUTLINES
1. Ecophysiology - Introduction – Definition – Importance in Agriculture and
Horticulture – Ecosystem- definition of ecosystem, ecotypes & ecads –
Biosphere and Ecosystem: subdivisions of biosphere – pathways of energy
in the biosphere – concept of ecosystem – components of ecosystem- Basic
structure of ecosystem.
2. Different types of ecosystems – freshwater – marine – forest and crop
ecosystem – Energy in Ecosystem – productivity – primary production –
secondary production – types of food chains.
3. Global climate and crop distribution– Influence of climate on crop distribution
(Rice, Wheat, Maize, Sorghum and Sugar cane)- Important climatic regions
of the world- Agro-climatic zones of India -crop distribution in India and
Andhra Pradesh.
4. Environment – Definition – components - Biotic and Abiotic environments-
Biotic environment: Biotic factors and Anthropic factors, Abiotic environmet:
Climatic, edaphic. Physiographic and pyric factors- Climatic factors –
Radiation – effect of radiation on plant functions - Classification of ultraviolet
radiation- effects of UV-B radiation.

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5. Abiotic environment- Climatic factors- precipitation – forms of precipitation
Effect of water deficit and water logging on plant processes– temperature-
Cardinal temperature- effects of temperature on plant processes –
temperature injuries – high temperature and low temperature stress-
classification of plants based on heat resistance and cold resistance – heat
units.
6. Abiotic enviromemnt- Edaphic factors – Classification of plants based on
adaptation to different soil types – halophytes and salt stress tolerance
mechanisms.
7. Abiotic environment – physiographic factors, Altitude of the place –
steepness of the slope, direction of mountain chain and exposure of the
slope to light and wind- -effects of topographic factors on vegetation – wind
effect on physiological processes.
8. Abiotic environment – pyric factors – sources and types of fires-Effects of fire
on vegetation and environment – management of fires and rejuvenation of
crops.
9. Biotic factors –herbivores (grazing effect), symbiosis (Mycorrhiza and
Rhizobium associations), insectivorous plants, epiphytism and parasites
Anthropic factors –industrialization-shifting cultivation –crop improvement.
10.Competition- Ecological Succession - dominance and subordination-types of
competition- inter specific – intra specific and intra plant competition –
Monoculture and Polyculture- Multistoried cropping system – mutual shading.
11.Allelopathy – Definition- concept – sources of allelopathic chemicals in crop
and weed species –natural products identified as allelopathic chemicals–
mode of action – scope for allelopathy.
12.Phyto-remediation-Definition – concept – Applications in Agriculture and
Industry.
13.Pollution - Air pollution – Sources – Physiological effects on plants and its
management. Water pollution – sources- physiological effects on plants and
its management, soil pollution- sources- physiological effects on plants and
its management.
14.Global warming – Green house effect – causes of global warming- methane,
Co2, Chloro Fluoro Carbon’s (CFC) and nitrous oxide (NO) gas, ozone –
Impact of Global warming on climate and agricultural productivity – measures
to reduce build up of Green House Gases.
15.Controlled environment – Purposes – types – designs of structures-
commercial applications.
16.Carbon dioxide fertilization –definition-concept-importance- Sources –
Methods of CO2 fertilization – effects on crop yields and limitations;
Ecophysiological Models – concept – models for different environmental
management.

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References:
1. Agarwal, K.C. 1999. Environmental Biology. Agro Botanica, Bikaner.
2. Cox, G.W. And Atkins, W.H.1979. Agrictultural Ecology. W.H.
Freeman and Co., San Francisco.
3. Larcher, W. 2010. Physiological Plant Ecology. Springer India Pvt.Ltd.
New Delhi.
4. Palaniappan, S.P.1985. Cropping Systems in the Tropics – Principles
and Management. Wiley Eastern, New Delhi.
5. Wat, K.E.F.1979. Principles of Environmental Science. McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York.
*******

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Lecture-1
ECOPHYSIOLOGY
I.I INTRODUCTION
Eco physiology is a branch of plant physiology. It deals with the
ecological control on growth, reproduction, survival, abundance, and geographical
distribution of plants. It is well known that all these processes are affected by
interactions between plants with their physical, chemical, and biotic environment.
German biologist Ernst Haeckel (1969) was first to propose the word
Ecology (Greek; Oikos- house or place to live; Logos– study). Ecology is defined as
the study of the relationship of organisms or groups of organisms with their
environment. The questions addressed by eco physiologists are derived from
“ecology” in its broadest sense. It also includes questions originating from
agriculture, horticulture, forestry, and environmental sciences.
However, the eco physiological explanations often require
understanding even at a lower level of integration of organisms (i.e. about
physiology, biochemistry, biophysics and molecular biology).Ecophysiology also
addresses some societal issues like pollution, climate change, conservation of
nature etc. Thus, a modern eco physiologist requires a good understanding of both
molecular aspects of plant metabolic processes and also functioning of an intact
plant in its environment.
I.2 Definition: Eco physiology can be defined as the study of physiological
response of organisms (plants) to their environment.
I.3 IMPORTANCE OF ECOPHYSIOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE AND
HORTICULTURE
Knowledge of ecophysiology is essential to understand the following broad areas of
Agriculture and Horticulture
1.3.1 To understand the functional significance of specific plant traits and
their evolutionary heritage.
C4 and CAM plants are evolved from C3 plants. In that process they have
developed specific traits to adapt themselves to higher temperatures. This
alteration in physiological mechanism of the plants with response to ecological
changes can be explained better from an eco-physiological perspective.
1.3.2 To demarcate crops and their varieties to different agro systems
Ecological classification of plants based on their interactions with
different environmental factors helps us to demarcate crops and their varieties
for adoption and acclimatization to different agro systems. This is important for
achieving qualitative and quantitative yields.

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For example
a) Wheat is cultivated largely in North India because it requires low
temperatures for germination and vegetative growth.
b) Sugarcane is a less yielder under Punjab climatic conditions as compared to
that of Tamilnadu. (A warm summer season with less variation in mean
monthly temperatures is the reason for higher cane yield in Tamilnadu.)
1.3.3 To develop stress resistant varieties
In general, animals are able to escape unfavorable and changing
environmental factors such as heat, cold, drought, or floods, where as plants can
not move away. They either have to endure the adverse conditions or to perish.
Some Plants have an impressive array of genes which aid in adapting to wider
range of changing conditions. This type of genetic variation helps us to
understand stress resistant mechanisms and to breed resistant varieties
Some examples are given below:
 Salt resistant Rice cultivars SR-26B and Tellahamsa were developed by
ANGRAU.
 Salt resistant Rice cultivars,CSR-1 and CSR-6 were developed at Central
soil salinity Research Institute, Karnal,
 A drought resistant sorghum cultivar, M35-1 was developed in Maharashtra
and is in adoption all over the country.
 A drought resistant Groundnut cultivar, Abhaya was developed by ANGRAU.
1.3.4 To manipulate environment for better crop growth
Better crop management always demands manipulation of crop
growing environment. Weed free environment gives comparative edge for crop
plants over weeds. Proper spacing of crop plants is maintained to reduce inter
plant competition. Shelterbelts are positioned to protect crops from hot winds.
These practices are certain ways of manipulating the crop growing environment.
A clear understanding of the crop and its ecosystem helps in development of
better management practices.
1.3.5 To understand location specific problems in a better way
In Northern Telangana zone, rice planted late in tail end areas of Sriram
Sagar project suffers from low temperatures from the beginning of reproductive
stage. Hence, Two thirds of panicle remains inside the boot leaf (panicle
exertion).This problem has been very well tackled by developing lines which can
exert panicle completely even under lower temperatures. Cold tolerant Rice
varieties JGL 1798 and JGL 384 were thus developed by ANGRAU.

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1.3.6 To cultivate crops under controlled environmental conditions
A complete knowledge on environmental requirement of plants, helps us
to cultivate them under controlled environmental structures. Commercial
cultivation of crops in Green houses and Poly houses has now become a
flourishing enterprise.
Ex. Cultivation of Chrysanthemum, Tomato, Carnation etc,
Besides, simulation experiments are also being conducted under controlled
environmental structures, to know the response of different crops to changing
global climate.
I.4 SOME RELATED WORDS AND THEIR DEFINITIONS:
I.4.1 ECOSYSTEM
The term ‘ecosystem’ was first proposed in 1935 by the British ecologist A.G.
Tansley.
Ecosystem is broadly defined as “the system resulting from the integration of all
living (biotic) and non-loving (abiotic) factors of the environment. Thus, it refers to
the sum total of all physical and biological factors operating in an area.
I.4.2 ECADS OR ECOPHENES:
Ecads or the Ecophenes are the plants of the same species which differ in
appearance such as size, stature and reproductive vigor etc. in differing
environmental conditions. How ever, these variations are not genetically fixed and
when transplanted to neutral conditions these variations are lost.
Ex: Euphorbia hirta.
- It shows prostrate growth when grown under disturbed conditions but erect
under undisturbed conditions. If the prostrate type is transplanted to undisturbed
locality it also grows erectly.
I.4.3 ECOTYPES:
A species which is distributed in a wide range of geographical areas always
develop some locally adapted populations called ecotypes. In simple, ecotypes are
genetically distinct ecological races, where the variations are genetically fixed and
irreversible. However, taxonomically they belong to the same species and can inter
fertile among themselves.
EX: Oryza sativa (Asian Rice) - Branched panicle
Oryza globerrima (African Rice) - Un branched panicle.
As they belong to two different species, variations in this case can be expected.
But with in the same species of Oryza Sativa there are three distinct ecological
races or ecotypes or subspecies which show morphological, physiological and
phenological variations (Indica, Japonica,Javanica). Existence of this variation
forms the basis for breeding better varieties in paddy.

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I.5 BIOSPHERE AND ITS COMPONENTS( Sub divisions of biosphere)
The planet earth along with its living organisms and atmosphere (air, land
and water) which sustain life is known as biosphere. Biosphere extends vertically
into the atmosphere to about 10km, downwards into oceans to the depth of about
3500 ft and about 23000 ft deep from the earth’s surface where living organisms are
found.
Biosphere comprises of three major components.
(A) Atmosphere, - which includes air.
(B) Hydrosphere, - which includes rivers, lakes and oceans
(C) Lithosphere, - from which the soil is derived.
These three components interact in a controlled and organized manner. If any one
of these components is destroyed the resulting damage is likely to be transmitted to
the other two elements also.
Further, the atmosphere consists of three major divisions. (a) Troposphere
(b) Stratosphere and (c) Ionosphere
(a) Troposphere : The part of the atmosphere with which plants and animals come
into contact is called as troposphere. It consists of water vapor and clouds. This
layer is only slightly transparent to radiation from the earth and is having much
influence on all living organisms
(b) Stratosphere : The middle layer of atmosphere is known as stratosphere. It
contains all the atmospheric ozone, which absorbs ultraviolet radiation. This
prevents UV radiation reaching the troposphere arena and thus protects life on the
Earth.
(c) Ionosphere: The uppermost layer is termed as ionosphere consisting of ionized
particles. It reflects radio waves and thus making radio communication possible
(B)Hydrosphere is the envelope of water which covers a major part of earth’s
surface. It contains oceans and seas with marine waters, lakes and rivers with fresh
water. Seas and oceans occupy more than two- thirds of the whole surface of the
Earth. The oxygen content in water medium is far less as compared to atmosphere.
Hence living organisms in this medium have to adapt to this prevailing conditions.
(C) Lithosphere is the earth’s crust made up of different layers, like SIAL, made up
with silicon and Aluminum, SIMA, which contains Silicon and magnesium and
MANTLE, the densest part of the earth’s crust.
The biosphere is not entirely hospitable to life and based on this fact
biosphere is identified into two regions.
Parabiosphere : The region of the biosphere ,with severe environmental conditions
which permits inhabitation for some organisms only.

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Ex : Higher altitudes, cold Polar Regions and numerous localized regions such as
volcanoes (burning mountains) geysers (a spring that throws forth intermittent jets
of heated water) and highly polluted areas.
Eubiosphere : The region of the biosphere in which active metabolic processes of
the organisms are possible. This region is hospitable for much of the organisms of
the earth.
Modern ecologists fear that parabiosphere is increasing in size at the
expense of the eubiosphere, owing to the destructive activities of man.
I.6 Pathways of Energy in the Biosphere
The following diagram clearly illustrates how the energy is transferred from
one component to the other.
The main source of energy in the entire universe is the Sun. The autotrophs or
producers [Green plants and Photosynthetic bacteria] traps and converts this solar
energy into chemical energy and stores it in the form of adenosine tri phosphate
(ATP). Autotrophs are consumed by the consumer class and they may be primary,
secondary or tertiary consumers. Producers and consumers after their death are
subjected to decomposition by the decomposers, where the complex organic food
substances storing energy are broken down in to simpler substances like sugars
and nutrients. They are again taken up by the producers.
I.7 CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM:
In the term ecosystem ‘eco’ implies the environment and ‘system’ implies an
interacting and interdependent complex.
The whole ‘biosphere’ or ‘giant ecosystem’ may be viewed as comprising
of many small units of ecosystems. Since it is difficult to study and understand the
TERRESTRIAL
ECOSYSTEMS
AQUATIC
ECOSYSTEM
FOREST ECOSYSTEM
GRASSLAND
ECOSYSTEM
DESERT
ECOSYSTEM
MAN ENGINEERED
ECOSYSTEM
MARINE
ECOSYSTEM
FRESH WATER
ECOSYSTEM
CLIMATE REGIME
PRODUCERS
DECOMPOSERS CONSUMERS
NUTRIENTS
SUN

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whole biosphere at a stroke, it is convenient to undertake a detailed study of small
units of biosphere (ecosystems) and understand the manifestations of the larger
unit (biosphere).
“Thus ecosystem becomes the basic functional unit of ecology”
An ecosystem may be as small as a drop of water from a pond (Micro
ecosystems) or as large as an ocean (Mega ecosystem). The ecosystem can be of
temporary (eg.Crop ecosystem) or permanent (eg. Forests and Oceans) in its
nature. It may be of natural (e.g. forest, grassland, desert, lake, ocean ecosystem
etc.) or artificial (Man engineered croplands of rice, sorghum, groundnut etc.) in its
operation.
Which ever might be the Ecosystem, it basically regulates around the
following three basic themes:
1. Interdependence: Ecosystem posses interacting and interdependent
components. The ecosystems are either open or linked with each other.
2. Limitation: ‘Limits’ are natural in any ecosystem as no individual or species grows
indefinitely. The total numbers always keep pace with the natural resources
available.
3. Complexity: The interactions of various constituents of an ecosystem are highly
complex and often beyond the comprehension of human brain.
I.8 Components and structure of Ecosystem:
In general, any ecosystem has two basic components
1) Abiotic or non-living component
2) Biotic or living component
1) Abiotic or non-living component: It includes (a) Inorganic substances such as
N, P, K etc. (b) Organic compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, etc. and
(c) Climatic factors such as light, temperature, precipitation, wind etc.
2) Biotic or living component: The biotic components of the ecosystem can be
divided into 3 groups:
(a) Producers: Green plants and Photosynthetic bacteria (eg. Chlorobium
Chromatium,Rhodospirillum etc.) They convert light energy of sun into potential
chemical energy (in the form of organic compounds). Thus, producers are
autotrophs in any ecosystem.
The animals which are heterotrophs depend upon plant products for their
food. But after digestion, the animals are capable of re synthesizing organic
compounds like carbohydrates, proteins and fats. They could become food material
for some other animals. Thus, the green plants are Primary producers and animals
(heterotrophs) are known as Secondary producers.

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(b) Consumers: These are heterotrophs, mainly animals including human-beings,
which are incapable of synthesizing food material on their own and simply depend
on green plants for food. Further consumers may be classified into 3 types:
1) Primary consumers: All the heterotrophs which live directly upon plant food
are called as primary consumers. These are herbivores like, Grasshopper,
Goat, Cow, Deer, Rabbit, Elephant etc.
2) Secondary consumers: They are heterotrophs and derive their food
requirement from herbivores. These secondary consumers are carnivores
E.g. Frog, Tiger, Lion etc.
3) Tertiary consumers: These are carnivores which feed on other carnivores
(mostly Secondary consumers) e.g. snake.
c) Decomposers: They are also heterotrophic organisms which break down
complex organic compounds of dead plants and animals and release inorganic
substances which are made available to autotrophs. Since they consume some
chemical substances for their own growth and reproduction they are also called as
microconsumers. These decomposers play a very special and important role in
the ecosystem
E.g. Bacteria, Actinomyces and Fungi.
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Lecture-2
DIFFERENT TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS
Ecosystems are classified as natural ecosystems (E.g. a pond, a
lake, a river, a stream, a forest or a coral reef) and Artificial or man engineered
ecosystems (E.g. crop ecosystems of maize, wheat, sugarcane, groundnut etc.).
Another way of classification of ecosystems is as follows
ECOSYSTEMS
2.I Aquatic ecosystems: The water ecosystems on the earth are mainly of two
types (a) Fresh water and (b) Marine ecosystems
2.I.I FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEM: A pond is a good example of fresh water
ecosystem. This is a self sufficient and self regulating system containing plants,
animals and favorable, physico-chemical environment. Various components of a
pond ecosystem are as follows.
Abiotic environment: It consists of heat, light, basic organic and inorganic
compounds like water, CO2 gas, calcium, nitrogen, phosphorus, amino acids, humic
acid etc.
Biotic environment: Various biotic components are as follows:
1) Producers: These are autotrophic green plants and some photosynthetic
bacteria. These producers fix radiant energy with the help of minerals derived from
water and mud.
Producers in a fresh water ecosystem are of two types:
a) Macrophytes: these are mainly rooted large plants. They are submerged or
Free floating or emergent hydrophytes.
E.g. Typha Nymphia, Chara, Hydrilla, Salvenia, Eichhornia, Lemna etc.
b) Phytoplanktons: These are minute, Suspended or floating lower plants.
E.g.Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Oedogonium, Volvox, diatoms, chlamydomonas
etc.
Aquatic Ecosystems
- Fresh water ecosystem
- Marine ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystems
- Forest ecosystem
- Desert ecosystem
- Crop ecosystem
- Grass land ecosystem

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2) Consumers: These are heterotrophs which may be herbivores or carnivores.
Consumers are further divided into 3 groups:
a) Primary consumers (herbivores): These are herbivores feeding on living
plants or plant remnants. These herbivores are further differentiated as (i) Benthos
and (ii) Zooplanktons.
(i) Benthos: These are the animals associated with living plants. They are also
called as detrivores, which feeds on plant remains lying upon the bottom of the
pond. E.g. fish, insect larvae, beetles, mites, mollusks and crustaceans.
(ii) Zooplanktons: which are chiefly rotifers, such as Brachionus, Asplanchna or
Lecane. They feed chiefly on phytoplanktons
b) Secondary consumers (carnivores): They feed on primary consumers
(herbivores). They are mainly insects and fish which feed upon zooplanktons.
c) Tertiary consumers (carnivores): They are large fish such as game fish which
feed upon small fish and thus become tertiary (top) consumers.
NOTE: In a pond, fish may occupy more than one tropic levels.
3) Decomposers: They bring about decomposition of plants and animals to simple
form. They play an important role in returning of mineral elements back to the
medium of pond.
E.g. bacteria, actinomyces and fungi.
2.I.2 MARINE OR OCEAN ECOSYSTEM
Oceans cover approximately 70% of earth’s surface. Each ocean is a large
and stable ecosystem.
The biotic components of ocean ecosystem are:
1) Producers: Producers in marine ecosystem are mainly phytoplanktons,
diatoms, dinoflagellates etc.Large sea weeds like Sargassam and Rhododendran
etc.
2) Consumers: They depend for their nutrition on primary producers.
a) Primary consumers: These are herbivores that directly feed on
Producers
E.g. Crustaceans, mollusks and fish.
b) Secondary consumers: These are carnivores like big sized fish feeding
on herbivores E.g. Herring, Shad, and Mackerel
c) Tertiary consumers: They are the Consumers of higher order
(carnivorous) that feed on carnivores of Secondary consumer level.
E.g. Fishes like Cod, Haddock, and Halibut etc.

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3) Decomposers: They are chiefly bacteria and some fungi .These microbes are
active in decay of dead organic matter of Producers and macro consumers.
2.2 TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS: Under this heading Forest ecosystem and crop
ecosystems are discussed here.
2.2.I FOREST ECOSYSTEM
The different components of forest ecosystem are:
a) Abiotic component: forest soil consists of minerals and accumulated dead
organic debris. Litter accumulation and complex stratification are characteristic
features of forest ecosystem.
b) Biotic component:
1) Producers: These are mainly trees that show much species diversity and
greater degree of stratification in tropical forests. E.g. Tectona grandis, Butea
frondosa, Shorea robusta etc. Besides trees, there are also shrubs and ground
vegetation. In temperate forests the dominant trees are species of Quercus, acer,
Betula, Thuja, etc,
2) Consumers: These are of three types:
a) Primary consumers: These are herbivores that include animals feeding
on tree leaves such as ants, flies, beetles, leaf hoppers etc. and larger
animals grazing on shoots and/ or fruits of Producers such as elephants,
squirrels, flying foxes, etc.
b) Secondary consumers: These are carnivores feeding upon herbivores
Ex. snakes, birds, lizards, fox, etc.
c) Tertiary consumes: These are the top carnivores that eat carnivores of
Secondary consumer level. Ex. lion, tiger etc
3) Decomposers: They include fungi (species of Aspergillus, Polyporus,
Ganoderma, etc.), bacteria (species of Bacillus, Clostridium, Pseudomonas etc.)
and actinomyces (E.g.species of Streptomyces etc.) Rate of decomposition in
tropical and subtropical forests is more rapid than that of temperate forests.
22.2 CROP ECOSYSTEM
The crop ecosystems are artificial or man – engineered. In this, man makes
much planned manipulations, in the physical and chemical environment of crop
fields in order to obtain more yield. These manipulations include addition of
fertilizers, use of pesticides, irrigation practices etc.
Some of the characteristic features of crop ecosystems are as follows.
 The crop ecosystem is chiefly a monospecific community with some weed
associates.

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 In natural ecosystem nature intends to maximize for gross production, where
as in an artificial ecosystem, man wants to maximize the net production or
the harvest index.
 Simplicity in structure and function of crop ecosystem, maintained in order to
get maximum economic yield makes it fragile and susceptible to
environmental stresses. Where as natural ecosystem is a complex
community with many species and has the capacity to survive climatic
hazards and pest damage.
 In a cropland ecosystem the crops are harvested and removed away from
the site for human or cattle consumption. Hence, the crop fields always lose
minerals and the soils are depleted of the nutrients (N, P,K etc). In order to
maintain a high rate of production man has to add fertilizers in the crop fields.
Functionally crop ecosystem/agro-ecosystem is characterized by high rate of
energy and nutrient transfers.
The following are the chief components of crop ecosystem
A) Abiotic environment: It includes climatic conditions where the crop is grown
and various minerals (particularly C, H, O, N, P, K) present in soil and atmosphere.
Besides, Chemical fertilizers are also added to the soil.
1. Biotic Structure:
Most of the crops are seasonal, some are annuals and biannuals. The crops
are maintained as pure population, though some weeds grow along with the crops.
The biotic component of Agro-ecosystem is represented by producers, consumers
and decomposers.
a. Producers:
Crops and weeds constitute the producers. The weed seeds are already
present in the field or they are introduced along with the grain seeds at the time of
sowing and also through irrigation water and animal agencies. For example in a
maize crop the dominant species would be Zea mays. Besides, certain weeds like
Cynodon dactylon, Euphorbia hirta, Cyperus rotundus, Digitaria sp. also appear.
They also contribute to primary production of the field.
b. Consumers:
The homogenous stretch of producers in cropland ecosystem permits only a
few animal representatives (consumers) to thrive and become part of the
ecosystem. The crop provides shelter, site for laying eggs, protection from enemies
and predators. Management practices like ploughing, irrigation, weeding etc,
change the fauna of the soil and sometimes affect it drastically.
In a Maize crop ecosystem consumers are classified as follows.
a) Primary consumers (Herbivores): These are small animals mainly aphids,
thrips, beetles etc. which feed and lay eggs on maize leaves. Larger animals
include rabbits, rats and birds feeding on leaves and cobs of maize.

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b) Secondary consumers: These are carnivores like frogs and some birds that
eat insects.
c) Tertiary consumers: These are carnivores like snakes and hawks. They feed
on secondary consumers like. frogs and small birds.
c. Decomposers
Ploughing , application of inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and the
organic matter in the soil subsystem are some of the factors which influence the
decomposer activity in the cropland ecosystem. Bacteria, actinomyces and fungi,
are the chief decomposers responsible for decay, and humification. This process
makes minerals available to producers.
2.3 ENERGY IN ECOSYSTEM
Energy:
Energy is defined as ‘ability to work’.
Energy flow in an ecosystem:
The energy that sustains all living systems is solar energy which is fixed in
photosynthesis and utilized for the production of organic matter by the autotrophs
(plants) as follows:
6CO2+6H2O+686 Kcal C6H12O6+6O2
Plants are eaten by animals and the death of the plants and animals is
ultimately followed by their decomposition. This process involves transfer of organic
matter which can be equated in terms of energy. If we could measure the amount
and the rate of transfer of organic matter from one organism to the other, we can
build up a dynamic picture of that ecosystem. The flow of energy and materials is
shown in figure.1
From figure.1 it is clear that the movement of energy in any ecosystem is
unidirectional and the movement of materials is cyclic in nature. Energy conversion
in to biomass depends upon the rate at which radiant energy is converted by
Producers. Besides, by feeding on producers how much energy is assimilated by
herbivores and carnivores also matters. This will decide the amount of energy
finally available for decomposers? .For example, in a given period of time if ‘X’
amount of solar energy is converted by the producers this will become the
maximum amount of energy available in that ecosystem. In that, if ‘Y’ amount of
energy is lost in the process of its transfer from producers to consumers and then to
decomposers, the amount of energy finally available for decomposers becomes ‘X-
Y’. This X-Y fraction is the net energy that helps in decomposition of organic matter
and release of nutrients. Therefore it should be noted that, more the energy fixed
per unit time and unit area, more will be the flow of materials in that ecosystem in a
cyclic manner.
2.4 PRODUCTIVITY: The rate of production of organic matter per unit area in
unit time is termed as productivity. There are two levels of production, primary and

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secondary. The amount of new organic matter resulting from photosynthesis (by
producers) is termed as primary production, while secondary production occurs
in herbivores, carnivores and decomposers, using materials synthesized in primary
production. Further, at each level it can be distinguished into gross production,
that is, the amount of organic matter produced; and net production, the amount of
organic matter that remains after respiration.
Where GP = Gross productions, RS = amount used in respiration, NP = Net
productions
.
However, in the process of energy flow, along with respiratory losses,
there is loss of energy in decomposition and some portion of energy is even lost as
rejecta (i.e. energy not utilized), only the remaining portion of energy is transmitted
SUN
PROCEDURES
(Carbohydrates,
protein, fats &
nucleic acids)
NUTRIENT POOL
N P
K
H Mg Ca S
C
Zn
Cu B
Fe
Mn Cl
Mo
HERBIVORES
CARNIVORES
DECOMPOSERS
MATERIAL FLOW IN CYCLIC MANNER
ENEREGY FLOW IS UNI DIRECTIONAL (NON-CYCLIC)
GP-R = NP

18
to the next tropic level. Thus, energy flow in an ecosystem depends not only on the
size of producers and their rate of production but also depends upon Assimilation
efficiency of producers, herbivores and carnivores.
D: DECOMPOSITION N.U: NOT UTILISED (REJECTA) R: RESPIRATORY
LOSS
2.4.1 Primary production
The basic source of energy for the ecosystem is solar radiation. A surface
exposed at right angles to the sun’s rays outside the earth’s atmosphere would
receive energy at the rate of 1.94 cal / cm-2
/ min (SOLAR CONSTANT). This solar
energy is effective only during day light hours and, because of absorption in passing
through the atmosphere, scattering by smoke, dust particles and clouds, only 47%
of the solar radiation reach the ground level. However, this varies with latitude,
season and locality.
Green plants use this energy for photosynthesis. The leaf area of the plant
is the best measure of photosynthetic size, and the most appropriate measure of
leaf area is Leaf Area Index i.e. the leaf area per unit land area . In cropland
ecosystems the LAI value is generally in the range of 2-6. In natural communities it
may be as high as 6-13 (forest) and 3-15 (grasses). In annual crops LAI steadily
rises with age, attains peak at flowering and than declines. LAI alone does not
account for the total assimilatory surface of the plant, as stem and ears possessing
chlorophyll add significantly to the photosynthetic efficiency of the plant.
Hence, in green plants, Chlorophyll content is correlated with the dry
matter production. It is thus used as an index of productive potential of the plant
population.
So long as the conditions are favorable for photosynthesis, the plants add
new tissues, or store in excess of organic matter, and the net primary-productivity
(NPP) has a positive value. But when conditions are unfavorable, the rate of NPP
may fall to zero or even become negative / if respiratory losses exceed
R
AUTOTROPHS
(Producers)
Solar radiation D
N.U
HERBIVORES CARNIVORES
D
N.U
R
D
N.U
R

19
photosynthetic gains. The important factors that effect primary production are LAI
and NAR. Besides high Co2 concentration, leaf temperature, precipitation and
nutrient status also plays an important role.
Considering the global primary production the amount of radiation reaching
the earth’s surface is approximately 3.5x1023
joules per year. Of this only 3-4% is
fixed annually by plant tissues leading to global primary production of about
17x1013
kg (dry weight) per year. The primary productivity differs in different
ecosystems according to the prevailing conditions.
Net primary productivity of various ecosystems
Ecosystem Productivity (gm-2
yr-1
)
1. Desert scrub and tundra 90-150
2. Temperate grass lands 500
3. Tropical forests 2000
4. Estuaries, swamps and marshes 2000
2.4.2 Secondary production:
The organic matter formed as a result of primary production is channeled
through the food chain to sustain the different organisms constituting the community
within an ecosystem. Secondary producers consist of herbivores, carnivores and
decomposers which can not synthesis their own food material, and depend on
autotrophic producers (plants).
There are three basic types of food chains through which organic matter produced
by plants can move.
2.4.3 Types of food chains:
Grazing food chain: Starts from a green plant base, goes to an herbivore and then
to a carnivore.
Detritus food chain: Starts from dead organic matter, goes to microorganisms,
then to detrivores and predators.
Parasitic food chain: Starts from a host, and passes through parasites and then to
hyper parasites.
2.4.4 Assimilation efficiency:
Secondary production in Herbivores, Carnivores and
decomposers can be understood from their assimilation efficiency. It is a ratio of
total net primary production assimilated to that of total net primary production
consumed. Assimilation efficiency is expressed as percentage
Assimilation
Assimilation efficiency (%) = ----------------- X 100
Consumption

20
Lecture-3
GLOBAL CLIMATE AND CROP DISTRIBUTION
Climate is a long term mean of daily weather conditions as expressed
by temperature, precipitation, pressure, winds and humidity at a specific place over
a considerable period of time.
A climatic region is defined as an area on the earth surface where an
approximately homogenous set of climatic condition is produced by the combined
effect of climatic controls (mostly temperature & rainfall).
Temperature is regarded as basic factor of climate on the basis of
which, the world has been divided into torrid/tropical, Frigid and temperate zones.
Similarly rainfall pattern is also fundamental in establishing climatic regions on the
globe as wet, humid, sub-humid, semi arid and arid zones. However, when it
comes to the classification of global climate both temperature and rainfall were
together considered by many scientists.
Among various classifications proposed on global climate
Koppen’s(1936), Thronthwaite’s(1948) and Glen T. Trewartha’s (1980) schemes
have gained popularity. Out of which Trewartha’s model is more relevant and
simple. He had classified world climates in six great climatic groups where five are
based on temperature criteria (Tropical humid, sub tropical, temperate, Boreal and
polar) and the sixth group is based on precipitation (deserts and tropical grass lands
which are dry in nature)
3. 1 Influence of climate on Global crop distribution.
Successful cultivation of a crop in a particular area is largely decided by the
climatic factors (eg.Temperature, Radiation / Sunshine, Rainfall) and edaphic
factors of that particular locality.
Hot and humid nature of equatorial region shows severe pest and disease
incidence. High evapo-transpiration in these areas is another limiting factor for
cultivation of field crops. Therefore, only plantation crops like rubber, Oil palm,
Cocoa etc., are grown here.
A SIMPLE DIAGRAM
EXPLAINING MAJOR
CLIMATIC REGIONS
OF THE WORLD

21
Crops that are adapted to higher temperatures (30-35o
c) are called as
tropical crops. They are so susceptible to cold, that they even die at a temperature
below 10o
c. Ex: Rice, Cotton, Sorghum etc.
Crops that are grown in subtropical and temperate regions, where lower
temperatures prevail upon are called as temperate crops. In these areas, the
“growing season” is the crucial factor for crop growth. Which otherwise decides
how many months are congenial for crop cultivation. Here the growing season is the
period between last frost in winter ( December, January and February) and the first
frost in autumn(September, October and November))
An example: Mediterranean lands experience winter rains and summer drought.
Here crop growth is almost restricted to autumn and spring when temp and moisture
conditions are favorable. Only during these seasons cultivation of wheat is possible
in Mediterranean and temperate grass lands.
(Spring: March, April, May;
Summer: June, July, August;
Autumn: September, October, November;
Winter: December, January, February)
When we further move towards Polar Regions this growing season further
constricts. Because, in Taiga regions there will be a snow cover for 5-7 months and
in tundra’s temperature is less than 0o
c for more than 9 months period, which allows
us to grow very less number of crops here.
Thus, one should understand the fact, that, it is not possible to cultivate all
the crops in all the climatic regions of the world.
3.2 PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR DISTRIBUTION OF SOME MAJOR CROPS IN
VARIOUS CLIMATIC REGIONS OF THE WORLD
3.2.1 RICE:
Rice is a warmth loving crop requiring high temperature (27-30o
c), ample
water supply (100cm rainfall) and high solar radiation at the last 35-40 days of its
ripening period. Climatic requirements of rice crop are best available in tropical
monsoon climate of Asian region. Where temperatures are high (around 32o
c) and
never fall below 19-21o
c. Thus the top five producers of rice viz., China, India,
Indonasia, Bangladesh, Thailad are located in this area. (FAO statistics 2008-
09)

22
3.2.2 Wheat:
Wheat requires a cool weather during vegetative phase and warmth
weather during its maturity. It needs an average temperature of 16o
c and a clear sky
at the time of ripening. Temperature above 25-30o
c shows adverse effect on wheat
growth. Thus, it is mainly grown in temperate regions like temperate grass lands
and Mediterranean regions. To some extent it is also cultivated in subtropical
regions also.
Major wheat producing countries are EU 27, China, India, Russia, and U.S.
Note: Wheat is a very hardy crop which shows great adoptability to various climatic
regions. It needs an annual rainfall of 40-75cm only. Although yields and
productivity levels are highest in temperate mid latitudes, the major wheat belts are
in the drier semi arid climates. In dry tropical areas wheat is mainly cultivated
because of it’s lesser water requirement (Rainfall of 40-75cm). Half of the world has
the possibility to get this much of rainfall. Thus, wheat is most extensively grown
crop of the world.
3.2.3 Maize:
It grows best where the summers are warm and humid. About half of the
world’s maize is grown in U.S. (In U.S from central Ohio State to central Nebraska
region corn is cultivated in a stretch of 1400 Kms which is popularly called as Corn
Belt). Maize requires 34o
c temperature for its optimum growth and 21-30o
c for

23
better tasseling. The most essential climatic factor for maize is a 140 days frost free
period. Thus it is mainly grown in temperate regions. Major maize producers are
The U.S., China, EU-27, Brazil and Mexico.
3.2.4 Sorghum:
It is a major cereal crop of dry land agriculture in semi arid tropics.
Maize in temperate regions is what sorghum in tropics. It requires warm weather for
development and it cannot grow well or set seed at temperatures below 18-21o
c. It
is thus grown in tropical and subtropical areas with low seasonal rainfall.
Major producers of Sorghum are Nigeria, U.S. India, Mexico and Sudan.
3.2.5 Sugarcane:
This is a tropical crop thrives best in hot and humid sunny areas.
Temperatures ranging between 20o
c – 27o
c and a rainfall of 75-120cm are ideal for
its growth. Ideal climate for a one year crop would include at least 4-5 months with
a mean daily temperature of 30-35o
c and 1.5-2.0 months of cooler temperatures
prior to harvest which enhances sucrose accumulation.
Hence, it is largely grown in tropical monsoon and tropical grass land areas.
Brazil (1/3 of world Sugarcane producing area), India, China, Thailand and Mexico
are the lead producers of Sugarcane.

24
3.3 Important Climatic regions – their latitudinal distribution, climatic
characteristics and major crops cultivated
NOTE - While understanding climatic regions of the world we should not expect fixed
latitudinal zonation like 0-10 o
, 10-20 o
, 20-30 o
etc., because of the local physiographic
factors role in deciding the climate of a locality. Many a times a slight overlapping of
latitudes for eg. 0-10 o
, 5-15 o
etc., is quite common . Remember that, with in the same
latitudinal width there may exist, more than one type of climatic conditions.
S.
N
o
CLIMATIC REGION LATITUDES MAJOR CROPS CULTIVATED
1 EQUATORIAL
REGIONS
0o
– 10o
N&S
Mostly plantation crops like Rubber
(Indonesia),
Oil palm(Malaysia),Sugarcane(Brazil),
Cocoa(Ghana) etc., are grown here
2 TROPICAL GRASS
LANDS/
SAVANNAHS
5o
– 15o
N & S
Mil Millets, Groundnut, Maize, Cotton and
Sugarcane are some of the field crops
grown here.
Cuba – popularly called as SUGAR
BOWL OF THE WORLD is located in this
region.
Pineapples are grown in Hawaii Islands
3 TROPICAL
MONSOON
REGIONS
10o
–30o
N & S
- Rice, Wheat, Maize, Sorghum,
Sugarcane, Cotton, Jute and Tea are
some of the important crops grown in this
region.
-This is the major paddy producing zone of
the world
-Largest sugarcane producing area is
situated in this zone
--India & Bangladesh are the lead jute
producers, where as India & Srilanka are
the leading Tea producers of the world.
4 TROPICAL DESERT
REGIONS
15o
–30o
N & S
Dates are cultivated around oasis areas.
Where irrigation is possible wheat, cotton,
(Nile, delta) are grown.
5 MEDITERRANIAN
REGIONS
30-45 o
N
30-40 o
S
Olive, Orange& Grape cultivation is the
main feature of this region, besides nuts
(Walnuts, almonds) & Cereals like Wheat
(in Australia) & Barley are also cultivated.
6 TEMPERATE
GRASS LANDS
REGION
35-55 o
N & S
This region is well known as Wheat
granary of the world. Rice (in China),
Maize (in U.S), Cotton, Tobacco & Soya
are the other crops grown.
7 TAIGA REGION OR
BOREAL CLIMATE
50-70 o
only
in Northern
hemisphere.
At Southern
hemisphere
there is
Antarctic
ocean.
Potato, Turnip, Radish, are some of the
crops grown during summer.
Cereals- Only rye and oats have some
Significance in this zone.
8 TUNDRA REGIONS 65-90 o
N
only
Lichens, sedges, mosses, butter cups,
poppies are some of the plants grown.
Crops cannot be cultivated here.

25
3.4 AGROCLIMATIC ZONES OF INDIA
An agro climatic region is a land unit in terms of major climate and growing
period which is climatically suitable for a certain range of crops and cultivars
(FAO,1983)
Planning commission of India (1984) has divided the country in to 15 Agro
climatic regions on the basis of factors like soil type, rainfall pattern, temperature
etc.,They are summarized in the following table
.
AGRO CLIMATIC REGION SPREAD
Western Himalayan Region J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh
and Uttaranchal
Eastern Himalayan Region Assam, Sikkim, West Bengal and all North
eastern states ( Meghalaya, Manipur,
Mizoram, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh,
Nagaland)
Lower Gangetic Plains West Bengal
Middle Gangetic Plains Uttara Pradesh & Bihar
Upper Gangetic Plains Uttara Pradesh
Trans Gangetic Plains Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Rajasthan
Eastern Plateau and Hill region Maharashtra, UP, Orissa & West Bengal
Central Plateau and Hill region Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan & UP
Western Plateau and Hill region Maharashtra, MP and Rajasthan
Southern Plateau and Hill region Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
Tamilnadu
East Coast plains and Ghat regions Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and
Pondicherry
West Coast plains and Ghat regions Tamilnadu, Kerala, Goa, Karnataka and
Maharashtra
Gujarat plains and hill regions Gujarat
Western dry region Rajasthan
The Islands regions Andaman and Nicobar, Lakshadweep

26
3.5 CROP DISTRIBUTION IN INDIA
Thornthwaite (1948) has identified 6 climatic zones in India according to the
Moisture adequacy Index (annual rainfall). This classification is very useful to
understand Crop distribution in India.
3.6 CROP DISTRIBUTION IN ANDHRA PRADESH
S.N
o
Climatic Zone Major crops States come
under zone
Remarks
1 Arid zone Jowar and Bajra Rajasthan, Gujarat Rainfall is very low
(<250mm).Distribution of
rains is uncertain. Mostly It is
a desert climate.
2 Semi arid zone Jowar, Bajra,
Maize, Groundnut,
Castor
Parts of
Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Punjab and Mid
Maharashtra
Rainfall is between 250-
500mm.Dry farming regions
of the country. drought is a
recurrent phenomenon.
Variation in rainfall is >25%
3
&4
Sub humid zone
(Includes Dry
sub-humid &
Moist sub-humid
zones)
Cotton, Jowar,
Bajra, Wheat,
Maize,
Sugarcane,
Mustard.
M.P,U.P,
Karnataka, Orissa,
Chattisgarh,
Jharkhand
West A.P, west
Tamilnadu
500-1000mm of rainfall. It
forms an important area for
crop production. Here rainfall
variation is less than 20 per
cent. So yields are better.
5 Humid zone Rice, Pulses,
Sugarcane
East U.P,
Uttarakhand,
Karnataka,
Orissa,Eastern
Tamilnadu,East AP
Maharahtra
1000-1500 mm rainfall. The
condition for crop production
is more stable. The principal
crop of this region is Rice
6 Per humid zone Rice, Jute Assam, North west
Bengal and North
Eastern states.
Rainfall is >1500mm.
S.No Agro climatic
zone
Major crops cultivated
1 North Coastal Zone Paddy, Sugarcane, Mesta, Sesame, Bajra
2 Godavari zone Paddy, Pulses (Black gram, Green gram etc.,)
3 Krishna zone Paddy, Cotton, Pulses, Chillies, Sugarcane
4 Southern zone Paddy, Groundnut, Jowar, Sugarcane,
Redgarm, Sunflower
5 Northern
Telangana zone
Paddy, Maize, Groundnut, Sesame, Sugarcane,
Jowar, Soya
6 Central Telangana
zone
Jowar,Paddy,Pulses, Coarse cereals
7 Southern
Telangana zone
Jowar, Maize, Bajra, Paddy, Castor, Sunflower,
Groundnut
8 Scarce rainfall zone Groundnut, Paddy,Cotton,Jowar,Sunflower,
Bengal gram
9 High altitude zone Paddy, Bajra, Maize, Ginger, Pineapple

27
Lecture-4
ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
Maelzer (1965) defined the term environment as “The sum total of
everything that directly influences the organism’s chances to survive and
reproduce”. For an organism, the environment consists of all the surrounding
physical and biological factors with which it interacts.
4.1 Environment and Habitat.
The term habitat is closely related to the concept of environment. Habitat is
ecologically defined as the sum total of all such condition of environment which
influences the individual species or a community in that particular locality.
The term habitat is more specific than environment as a whole. The
Preferred environment of a plant is normally called its habitat. Plants living on
land are termed to have terrestrial habitat, while those living in water have an
aquatic habitat.
4.2 Environmental Factors
The environment comprises a number of factors interacting with one another
and also acting upon vegetation. For convenience they can be broadly identified
into two groups namely
Physical factors – providing abiotic environment and the Living factors
– providing biotic environment. The abiotic environment includes physical forces
such as light (Radiation), temperature, precipitation, humidity, soil, wind etc. and the
biotic environment includes numerous living organisms which inhabit in the physical
environment.
Environmental factors do not act in isolation from one another. As a matter
of fact all the factors interact with one another to influence the organism. Further, all
the environmental factors do not influence the plant equally.
4.3 Classification of Environmental / Ecological Factors
All the ecological factors with reference to a plant can be classified into six
major groups.
1. Climatic factors - related to the aerial environment Like Radiation,
Temperature, Precipitation & Wind
2. Edaphic factors - related to the soil conditions
3. Topographic factors - related to the form and surface behaviour of the earth.
4. Biotic factors - related to the activities of other plants and animals

28
5. Pyric factors - concerned with fire hazards.
6. Anthropic factors - concerned with the role played by man.
4.3.1 ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES: CLIMATIC FACTOR – RADIATION
All life on earth is supported by the stream of energy Radiated by the sun
and flowing into the Ecosphere. The ecosphere receives solar radiation at wave
lengths ranging from 290 nm to about 3000 nm. Radiation at shorter wavelengths
(ultraviolet) is absorbed in the upper atmosphere by the ozone and oxygen in the
air, the long wavelengths or infrared radiation is absorbed by water – vapour and
carbon dioxide of the atmosphere. About 40-50% of the solar energy received falls
in the spectral region 380-780 nm which we perceive as visible light.
Radiation is characterized by its wavelengths. It is composed of small
packets of energy called quanta or photons. The energy in a single photon is
inversely proportional to its wavelength. That means, shorter wavelengths possess
highest energy.
Ultraviolet – B radiation
Global UV- radiation on the earth’s surface fluctuates with changes in
altitude, cloud cover, stratospheric ozone concentration and atmospheric turbidity.
No appreciable UV- radiation below 295nm is received on the earth’s surface due to
absorption of UV- radiation by stratospheric ozone layer.
In the light of modern research and development in photo biological studies
on UV- radiation (a component of extra terrestrial radiation) it is divided into different
groups based on their wave lengths.
i) UV below 280 nm - UV- C radiation
ii) UV between 280-320 nm - UV- B radiation
iii) UV from 320-390 nm - UV- A radiation
Of these three types, plants are much influenced by UV- B radiation.
Some of the effects can be seen as:
 Cotton seedlings when exposed to UV- B radiation showed bronzing of
cotyledons.
 Exposure to UV- B radiation reduces plant height, fresh weight, dry weight
and ash content in soybean, groundnut and maize.
 C3 plants showed significantly more reduction when compared to C4 plants in
which chlorophyll content was much reduced when exposed to U.V radiation.
 There was inhibition of several components of photosynthetic reactions.

29
 Hill reaction activity was reduced in oats and soybeans. Electron transport
system became ineffective. Photo system – II was more inhibited when
compared Photosystem – I.
 When exposed to 72 hours of UV- B radiation, the double membrane of
chloroplast was disrupted and vesicles are formed in stroma. In mitochondria
less number of cristae was observed.
 The enzyme RuBP carboxylase activity was reduced in soybean ultimately
affecting photosynthesis.
 Dark respiration was stimulated much. Protein content was reduced
significantly.
 There was reduction in nodulation and nitrogen fixation in Crotaloria juncea,
when exposed to UV- B radiation.
4.3.1.1 Effect of Radiation on Plant Functions
Radiation effect on plant processes may be divided into three categories viz.
photoenergetic effects, Photo cybernetic effects and photo destructive effects. All
these effects are brought by Photo receptors (pigments) of the plants.
a. Photo energetic Effects
The energy provided by absorption serves to drive metabolic reactions in a
manner directly dependent on the amount of quanta absorbed. These effects
include the production of energy rich compounds (photosynthesis) or alteration of
molecular structures (Photo-conversion).
The primary process of photosynthesis in green plants is driven by radiation
in the range of 380 to 710nm. This Photo synthetically Active Radiation (PAR) (400-
700)nm) plays an important role in plant ecology. The photoreceptors involved in
photosynthesis are chlorophyll (with absorption maxima in the red and blue) and
accessory plastid pigments (like carotenes and xanthophylls that absorb light in the
blue and UV regions)
b. Photo cybernetic Effects
Absorption of radiation chemically alters the receptor substances and affects
the control of metabolism, growth and development. Low intensities of radiation are
sufficient to produce these effects. Some important photo cybernetic reactions are:
1. Photostimulation : Formation of chlorophyll from precursors.
2. Phototropism : Radiation in adjusting the direction of growth
3. Photoinduction : Triggering germination and flower formation
4. Photoperiodism :Rhythmic events in the life cycle with response to the
relative length of day and night.

30
Light in two regions of the electro magnetic spectrum is effective Photo
synthetically i.e– blue to ultraviolet and red to near infra – red.
Elongation and Phototropism are regulated by blue- light whereas most other
processes depend on the phytochrome system. Phytochrome is Photo convertible:
It occurs in two forms P-660 and P-730 depending on the red (620-680nm) or far-
red (700-800nm) illumination.
c. Photo destructive Effects
They occur with extremely high intensity of radiation. The damage consists
primarily of Photo oxidation of chloroplast pigments. Some of the sensitive plants to
strong light are algae, some ferns and shade plants.
*******

31
Lecture-5
ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES: CLIMATIC FACTORS : PRECIPITATION
Since all life requires water and water is unevenly distributed over the earth,
its abundance or scarcity in the environment is reflected on the vegetation. About
73% of earth’s surface is covered with water in the form of rivers, streams and
oceans. The source of precipitation is the atmospheric water vapor. This source of
atmosphere reaches the earth’s surface through precipitation and the water from
the earth’s surface goes back to the atmosphere through evaporation and
transpiration. This is a continuous and cyclic process termed as Hydrological Cycle
or Water Cycle.
At a given time the amount of water in the atmosphere has been estimated to
be only enough to provide a one inch rainfall for the whole world. It can meet only
10 day’s supply. This limited supply means that the Hydrological cycle must be
rapid and continuous.
According to Hutchinson (1957), world precipitation amounts to about
4.46x1020
Gallons annually, of this amount about 0.99x1020
G falls on land surfaces
and remaining 2.47x1020
G falls on oceans and river surfaces.
5.1 Forms of Precipitation
Precipitation results as a consequence of cooling and condensation of water
vapor at higher altitudes. The various forms of precipitation are rain, snow, hail,
sleet, fog and dew.
Rain
Of the various forms of precipitation, rainfall is the main source of water for
terrestrial plants.
Snow
White crystals of frozen water formed directly from water vapour of the air at
temperature less than 00
C is known as snow. Snow may be injurious or beneficial to
plants in a number of ways.
Its weight may cause physical injuries to the plants, especially when the
snow fall is accompanied by wind. Plants ranging in size from small grasses to lofty
pines are damaged by heavy snows. Glazing, which is the coating of leaves and
stems by snow may cause damage by suffocation, accumulation of toxic materials,
oxygen deficiency or by physical breaking.
The gradual melting of mountain snow feeds streams descending to the low
lands during summer. Winter surveys of the depth and water content of snow in

32
such regions helps in good forecast of the supply of irrigation water that is available
in the following season.
Hail
It is a special type of precipitation during summer season in the form of small
ice pieces. This is too infrequent and not a significant source of soil water. It is
called a Hail-storm when it is accompanied by wind. It may cause considerable
temporary damage to the aerial parts of plants.
Orchard crops like Mango during flowering and fruit setting damages severely by
this hail storms.
Sleet
Frozen or partly frozen rain is called as sleet. This is not a frequent
phenomenon and causes considerable damage to plants, especially in case of
tender crops.
Fog and Mist
It is the visible vapor content of the atmosphere which is formed when the air
is cooled near the surface of land. It is more frequent at higher relative humidity and
occurs during winter. The moisture released by fog and mist are absorbed by the
leaves thus, meets a substantial fraction of the water needs of plants in certain dry
areas.
Dew
The moisture condensed upon the surfaces of cool bodies like grasses,
usually at night, is called as dew. It is the main source of water for the ephemeral
plants (which can complete their life cycle in a very short time like drought evading
types) that grow in the deserts. Dew formation occurs normally during winter.
 Effect of precipitation on plant growth and development can be understood from
the perspective of effect of water deficit and water logging on plant processes:
5.1.2 Effect of water deficit on vegetation:
 The health and survival of a plant depends on a proper water balance. Any
degree of water imbalance will affect physiological activity, growth and
reproduction of plants.
 Photosynthesis and related metabolic processes dependent on gas
exchange are quickly impaired by water deficiency as the deficit induces the
closure of stomatal aperture and thus stops CO2 uptake. Carbohydrate
synthesis is therefore suppressed and the growth potential is reduced.

33
 Imbalance between photosynthesis and respiration is seen with increased
water loss. A net loss of reserves must occur if respiration exceeds
Photosynthesis.
 Protein breakdown: Wilting causes proteolysis. Wilting causes degradation of
proteins to amino acids particularly proline in high concentrations. proline is
the only amino acid constantly present in large amounts in all the plant
organs. The accumulated proline is involved in osmotic adjustment as a
compatible solute and is also involved in detoxification of ammonia etc .
 Enzyme inactivation: The enzymes are inactivated under moisture stress. eg.
Nitrate reductase show considerable decrease in corn seedlings when the
leaf water potential decreased below -2 bars.
 Nucleic acid loss: Water stress causes reduction in RNA content and also
decreases nucleic acid synthesis.
 Hormones: Under water stress accumulation of ABA was reported and this
ABA is responsible for closure of stomata.
 Foliar symptoms of moisture stress are far more common .Wilting in leaves is
the earliest readily visible expression of moisture stress. Leaves in a wilted
state are relatively non-functional, and if wilting is prolonged and tissues
remain desiccated, they will ultimately die.
Blossom – end – rot of tomato fruits is the classic example of a drought –
related fruit disorder. It appears as a water – soaked spot at the stylar end of the
fruit. The disease develops when plants have grown rapidly and luxuriantly during
an early favorable season and then subjected to moisture stress.
5.1.3 Effect of water logging on Plant Processes
The normal mesophytic land plants must have oxygen for the liberation of
energy required to maintain life processes. When the pore spaces of the soil are
filled with water, the plant root suffocates. The immediate effect of suffocation is
suppression of growth. Plants may survive brief periods of oxygen deficiency of
even 0.5 per cent oxygen is available in the soil. However, plant roots need 2 to 8
per cent of O2 for their optimum growth. Below this, leaves become chlorotic, growth
ceases, no new roots develop, shoots die back and death is ensured. In
addition to reducing the available oxygen, flooding may decrease transpiration over
90 per cent, limiting water absorption and photosynthesis.
Low soil oxygen is most damaging when soil or air temperatures are high.
Sunflower plants grown under low oxygen levels had weak, stunted growth at 13
and 240
but died if they were exposed to 340
C. plants require less oxygen at low
temperatures, they are able to endure low oxygen levels at low temperatures. But at
higher temperatures, respiration is accelerated and the demand for oxygen is great.
There are several situations which give rise to excessive water. The poor
drainage afforded by heavier soils is probably the most common, other reasons

34
being heavy rain, run off or irrigation. But whatever be the reason for excessive
water, the effect is much the same and depends on the sensitivity and tolerance of
the species.
Apart from roots, the soil micro – organisms are greatly affected by poor
aeration in waterlogged situations.
5.2 ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES: CLIMATIC FACTOR – TEMPERATURE
Although some heat originates from the interior (core) of the earth and
another small increment originates from decomposition of organic matter, by far the
greatest part of the energy available at the Earth surface is derived from the Sun by
radiation. The localization of this heat source together with the movements of the
earth, create great variations in the temperature phases of environment. The
amount of heat received from the sun fluctuates owing to the momentary passing of
clouds and to variations in daily, seasonal, annual and geological processes.
As the sun rises in the morning, the earth’s surface beings to gain more heat
than the heat lost by radiation so that, its temperature rises progressively and
rapidly. After several hours a relatively high surface temperature is attained and
radiation gains are approximately equaled by losses due to re-radiation and
conduction. After the sun sets, the earth’s warmed surface continues to give up its
accumulated heat to the atmosphere.
5.2.1 Cardinal Temperature
Temperature regulates all the chemical processes, many physical processes
and biological processes. The metabolic processes of plants begin at a certain
minimum temperature and increases with rise of temperature until they reach a
peak at a temperature called the Optimum temperature. Further rise in
temperature is accompanied by a fall in metabolic activity until it ceases at a
temperature called the maximum temperature. The three temperature points viz,
minimum, optimum and maximum temperatures are referred as Cardinal points or
Cardinal Temperature For example.
CARDINAL TEMPERATURES (0
C)
Minimum Optimum Maximum
Cool season cereals (Wheat, Barley, Oats) 0-15 25-30 31-37
Warm season cereals( Rice, Maize, Sorghum) 15-18 31-37 44-50

35
5.2.2 Effects of temperature on plant processes
Temperature affects the rate of metabolic activities of plants. Cardinal
Temperatures differ for different functions of the same plant. The processes
influenced most strongly by temperature include chemical reactions, gas solubility,
mineral absorption, and water uptake.
1) Plant development is largely a function of the cellular biochemical
reactions. These reactions are controlled by the enzymes and the rate at
which the enzymes act and the reactions proceed is a function of
temperature. Ex: Photosynthesis is an important process which depends on
enzymatic activity and is considered as a temperature- dependent reaction.
2) Temperature is the most important factor determining the solubility of gases
in the plant cell. CO2 and O2 solubility are particularly influenced by
temperature. Low temperatures facilitate solubility of these gases and large
amounts can be held in the sap of the plant cells. This suggests that low
temperatures may favor CO2 fixation and increase the carbohydrate
reserves, which helps to protect plants against still lower
temperatures. Such high CO2 concentrations at low temperature may also
increase the acidity of the cell sap slightly and this could influence the
availability of the plant nutrients.
3) Temperature directly influences the availability and absorption of mineral
elements from the soil. In active absorption, the plants absorb essential
mineral ions by expending energy which is temperature dependent.
Prolonged low temperatures limit the available energy, and results in
nutrient deficiencies. Furthermore, the tenacity with which soil particles
cling to the mineral ions is regulated by temperature.
4) Temperatures influence the ability of the roots to absorb water. The
viscosity of water doubles as temperatures drop from 250
C to 00
C, water
is bound tightly to the soil and is absorbed by plants with extreme difficulty.
Low temperatures can significantly limit water uptake particularly passive
absorption which is strongly influenced by viscosity, even when water is
abundant. Optimum absorption of water generally takes place above 300
C.
5.2.3 Temperature injuries caused by high or low temperature stress are
discussed below:
When temperature rises above the maximum for growth, plant enters in to
Quiescent State. When temperature drops below the minimum for growth, a plant
becomes Dormant.

36
5.2.3.1 High Temperature Stress
Besides from its role in desiccation, and in bringing about an imbalance
between respiration and Photosynthesis, high temperature can injure and kill
protoplasm. Plants grown in temperate regions of the world are poorly adopted to
withstand the stresses imposed by high temperatures and can rarely tolerate
temperatures much above 350
C.
The principal adaptational features which protect plants against high
temperature injury are:
1. A vertical orientation of leaf blades which always reduces the tissue
temperatures at least 30
C below that of leaves turned at right angles to the
sun’s rays.
2. Whitish color of surfaces which reflects rays that would otherwise be absorbed
and become heat energy.
3. A covering of dead hairs which shades living cells.
4. A thick corky bark which insulates the phloem and cambium.
5. Thinness of leaf blades, coupled with a high rate of transpiration, which
prevents leaves, exposed to the sun from becoming more than 50
C warmer
than air.
6. A low moisture content of the protoplasm and high carbohydrate content.
5.2.3.1.1 Classification of plants Based on Heat- Resistance
The resistance is ordinarily taken as the temperature at which half of the
plant samples are destroyed (this is called as temperature lethality TL50). On the
basis of heat resistance, plants may be categorized into the following three types:
I. Heat Sensitive Species
This group includes all species that are injured even at 30 to 450
C. Ex:
Submerged vascular plants, soft-leaved land plants, tomato wilt virus.
II. Relatively Heat - Tolerant Eukaryotes
These plants are capable of developing resistance to heat. They can survive
heating for half an hour at 50-600
C. Ex: Plants of Sunny and dry habitats.
III. Heat – tolerant Prokaryotes
These plants can endure exceedingly high temperatures. These are
equipped with especially resistant nucleic acids and proteins. Ex: Thermophilic
Bacteria (with stands as mush as 900
C). Blue – green algae (as much as 750
C).

37
5.2.3.2 Low Temperature Stress
Low temperature injury occurs when a plant gives off more heat than it
absorbs. The death by cold is the consequence primarily of disturbed nucleic acid
and protein metabolism though changes in permeability of membranes and
stoppage of Photosynthesis are also involved. Plants resistant to chilling above the
freezing point are damaged by frost that is by ice formation in the tissues. Usually
ice is formed not in the protoplasts (Intracellular ice formation) but rather in the
intracellular spaces and in the cell walls (Free space or outer space). This sort of ice
formation is called Inter cellular ice formation.
The sensitivity of plants to low temperatures, and the amount and severity of
injury, depends to great extent on the physiological conditions of the plant. For
example mineral nutrition, especially the nitrogen level has a particularly strong
influence on low temperature tolerance. Tissues too high in nitrogen are soft, with
moderate to low nitrogen content are harder and more tolerant of temperature
extremes.
Adaptation to low temperature stress
The ability of plants to endure low temperature extremes varies widely
among species. Certain plants of tropical affinity (Ex. Rice and Cotton) are injured
by exposures to temperatures which are low but yet above the freezing point. Plants
native to temperate climates can endure periods when the tissues are frozen solidly
and the temperature drops to -620
C. the freezing points of plant sap, because of its
solute content, usually lies several degrees below 00
C but certain plants (mostly
cryptogams, and seeds can not be frozen at temperatures even-2700
C and these
are immune to low temperature injury.
A plant is not equally resistant to low temperatures at all stages of its life-
cycle. Seeds and spores are generally the most resistant stages. All organs of the
same plant are not necessarily equally resistant to low temperature at the same
time. For example the ovule may be killed without apparent injury to the carpel.
5.2.3.2.1 Classification based on Cold-Resistant
On the basis of the limits and the specific nature of cold resistance, one may
distinguish three categories of plants:
1. Chilling – Sensitive Plants: this group includes all plants seriously
damaged even at temperatures above the freezing point. Ex : Rice; cotton
and cowpea.

38
2. Freezing – Sensitive Plants : These can tolerate low temperature but they
are damaged as soon as ice beings to form in the cells. Ex: Valencia
peanuts.
3. Freezing – Tolerant Plants : These plants survive extra cellular freezing
and the associated withdrawal of water from the cells. Ex: Certain freshwater
algae, Algae of tidal zones and Perennial land plants.
5.2.4 Concept of Heat Units:
Reaumer (1735) has introduced Heat Unit concept and stated that the sum
of mean daily air temperature requirement by a species towards maturity is constant
from year to year. Boussingault (1837) followed the same method and called the
calculated heat unit requirement as Degree days.
Plant development is inhibited by a temperature below a certain level which
is referred as Base temperature (Threshold temperature) this has to be subtracted
from the daily mean temperatures before carrying out summation of growing degree
days.
Of late, accumulated Growing degree days are used synonymously for heat units.
Growing degree days: This is the arithmetic accumulation of daily mean
temperatures above certain threshold temperature.
During a crop season, number of days the crop is exposed to a daily mean
temperature above the base temperature is calculated. When it is calculated every
day it is called as growing degree day. Accumulation of such growing degree days
during a crop season is called as Effective Heat units. For example accumulated
heat units for Maize and Cotton in United States climatic conditions are calculated
as 1600-1800(from planting to harvesting) and 1900 units respectively. These heat
units help us to estimate the crop yield by modeling.
******
Base temperatures for certain crops
Rice 10-15 0
C
Wheat 4 -5 0
C
Maize 8-100
C
Maximum temperature + Minimum temperature
Growing degree day = ∑ ----------------------------------------------------------- - Base temperature
2

39
Lecture-6
ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES:CLIMATIC FACTORS :
6.1 EDAPHIC FACTORS
The factors of the environment that are related to the soil are called
edaphic factors. The branch of science concerned with the study of soil
formation, composition and classification of soil types is called pedology.
Knowledge of fundamentals of this field is an absolute prerequisite to
understand plant ecology.
Soil contains most of the mineral elements which are essential for
plant growth. Deficiency of any one of these elements severely impairs plant
growth. Besides, excess presence of these elements also causes serious
problems. For example excess of Aluminium in acidic soils cause leaf
yellowing, distorted root growth and reduced shoot growth.
6.1.1 LIST OF EDAPHIC FACTORS
a) Soil Moisture
b) Soil Temperature
c) Soil Aeration
d) Soil reaction (PH)
e) Soil organisms
f) Soil nutrients
Marsden–Jones and Turrill (1945) reporting on a comprehensive project
of the British ecological society, listed a number of effects of different soils on
the plants. They are
1. Germination ability of seeds
2. Size and erectness of the plant
3. Woodiness of the stem
4. Depth of the root system
5. Pubescence on stems and leaves
6. Susceptibility to drought, frost and parasites
7. General vigour of the vegetative parts.
8. Number of flowers and date of flowering.

40
6.2 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS BASED ON SOIL TYPES
Plants growing in different types of soils exhibit variations in their
physiological and morphological features. Based on the characters of soil
Warming (1909) has classified the plants in to five groups: They are
1. Oxalophytes - Plants growing in acidic soils
2. Halophytes - Plants growing in saline soils
3. Psammophytes - Plants growing on Sandy soils
4. Lithophytes - Plants growing on rocks
5. Chasmophytes - Plants growing on rock crevices
6.2.1 OXALOPHYTES:
Oxalophytes are the plants that grow on acidic soils. The acidity in
the soil develops due to chemical composition of parent materials,
metabolism of soil microbes and accumulation of organic matter. In
temperate climates soil acidity develops mainly due to accumulation of un
decomposed organic matter. On acidic soils several Pinaceae, Eriaceae,&
Polytricum species grow well. Roots of these plants are restricted in the
upper acidic soil horizon.
6.2.2 HALOPHYTES:
Halophytes are those plants which grow on soils and in water- rich in
salts. The non Halophytes such as Sugar beet and Alfalfa sometimes grow
on saline soil and are known as facultative halophytes. In saline conditions
water is usually not available owing to its high concentration and plants are
unable to absorb water in these conditions. (The mechanisms for salt
tolerance are discussed in the later part of this chapter)
The effect of dissolved salts on the plant is partly osmotic and partly
chemical. Important adaptive features of plants growing on saline soils are as
follows.
a) Plants grow chiefly on rainy season when soil solution has been diluted
and salts move down below the root zone.
b) Germination and seedling establishment is mostly restricted to rainy
season.
c) Plants are usually shallow rooted. Surface feeding roots are helpful in
aeration, as the soil becomes water logged in the rainy season.
d) Most of the halophytes exhibit succulence.
The flora adapted to saline water is more diverse. The saline
marshes of temperate region are dominated by herbaceous succulents

41
while in tropics they shows a remarkable tree growth which are called as
Mangrove forests.
The most important features of mangrove plants are as follows:
1. Leaves are succulent, highly cutinized and posses well developed
palisade tissue.
2. They exhibit a vast network of prop roots which supports plants high
above the water mark.
3. Presence of negatively geotropic pneumatophores- specialized organs
for respiration are seen.
4. They exhibit vivipary (Seeds germinate inside the fruits while they are
still on the mother plant)
6.2.3 PSAMMOPHYTES
Psammophytes are the plants adapted to sandy soils. Since the soil is
made up of bigger soil particles, the water is not retained in the upper layers
of soil but it trickles down to reach ground water table. Thus, most of the time
the soils remain deficient in water and plants have to depend on dew and
ground water for their requirement. Therefore, psammophytes have a well
developed root system which enables them to procure water both from
deeper layers of the soil as well as from upper soil horizon.
The plant community developed in such soils is very sparse and is
mostly dominated by annual herbs, grasses and shrubs.
6.2.4 LITHOPHYTES:
Lithophytes are the plants grown on exposed rock surface. Plants
which can withstand high degree of desiccation grow on such surfaces.
Lithophytes have the capacity to utilize the atmospheric humidity as a
source of water.
Ex.Lichens and Selaginella
6.2.5 CHASMOPHYTES:
Chasmpophytes are the plants which can grow on rock crevices. These
are grown slightly on a better condition of soil moisture. Soil in rock crevices
is made up of gravel and coarse sand with low organic matter content. Plants
growing in such habitats are mainly surface feeders and their roots are
exposed to soil surface.

42
6.3 HALOPHYTES AND SALT STRESS TOLERANCE MECHANISMS
Salt affected soils contain excess soluble salts in the root zone of crop
plants, which adversely affects their growth and yield. In India they are estimated to
cover about 7 Million ha area.
Plants are classified as glycophytes or halophytes according to their
capacity to grow on salt medium. Most plants are glycophytes and cannot tolerate
salt stress because-
 High salt concentration (chlorides & sulphates (Cl-
&SO4
--
) of Na and Mg in
case of saline soils) decrease the osmotic potential of the soil solution creating
a water stress in plants. This is known as physiological drought (i.e. water is
available around the root zone but plant cannot take up this water because of
the highly concentrated soil solution around the root)
 Secondly, they cause severe ion toxicity.
 Finally, the interactions of salts with mineral nutrition may result in nutrient
imbalances and deficiencies.
 Alkali soils are rich in Carbonates and Bicarbonates which makes the
physical condition of the soil so poor. For example, seed germination is difficult
in these soils because of the Crust formation by the salts.
Relative tolerance of crops to salts:
Tolerant Medium tolerance Sensitive
Barley, Cotton, Sugar
beet, Tobacco.
Wheat, Rice, Oats, Maize
Sorghum, Potato
Legumes (Mung, Urd,
Gram), Beans, Groundnut,
Alfalfa
SALT TOLERANCE MECHANISMS
OTHER MECHANISMS
Succulence, Salt excretion
by salt glands.ABA
production, late
embryogenesis abundant
proteins (LEA)
MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
& ION UPTAKE
ANTI OXIDANTS
OSMOLITE
PRODUCTION

43
6.3.1 OSMOLITE PRODUCTION:
High salt concentration or decreased osmotic potential outside the root
environment does not allow the root to absorb water. It not only does impair the
uptake of water but also affect the nutrient uptake. One of the strategies of the plant
to avoid this situation is to produce osmolites. They help in increasing the
concentration of the cell sap. Thus, the osmotic potential gets adjusted with the
outside environment. There are different groups of osmolites like
Carbohydrates Nitrogenous compounds Organic acids
Ex: Sucrose, Mannitol,
Sorbitol, Pinitol
Ex: Proline, Glycine betaine Ex: Oxalate,Malate
Glutamate, Aspartate
6.3.2 ANTIOXIDANTS:
Salt stress like any other abiotic stress leads to production of reactive oxygen
species (ROS) like
Antioxidants are mostly enzymes like Super oxide dismutase (SOD),
Ascorbate Peroxidase (APOX), Glutathione Reductase (GR) and Catalase (CAT).
These enzymes help in scavenging the potentially hazardous ROS.
6.3.3 Membrane transport and ion uptake
The ability of plant cells to maintain low cytosolic sodium concentrations is an
essential process for halophytes .Plant cells respond to this situation by increasing
sodium efflux (sending out sodium) at the plasma membrane. Na+
is exchanged for
H+
ions across the membrane by Na+
/H+
antiporters. Some times sodium ions are
accumulated in the vacuole (Ion compartmentalization), in which tonoplast
permeability plays an important role.
6.3.4 Regulation of Ion homeostasis:
Regulation of sodium, chloride, and potassium uptake is almost certainly
vital in the adaptation of plants to saline soils. Salt tolerance requires not only the
adaptation to sodium toxicity, but also the acquisition of potassium (an essential
nutrient) whose uptake is affected by high external sodium concentration, due to the
chemical similarity of the two ions. Therefore, potassium transport systems involving
good selectivity of potassium over sodium can also be considered an important salt
tolerance determinant.
*******
Singlet oxygen (1
O2), Superoxide radical ( O2
-
.
)
Hydrogen Peroxide ( H2O2), Hydroxyl radical ( OH
.
).

44
Lecture-7
ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES: CLIMATIC FACTORS:
7.1 PHYSIOGRAPHIC FACTORS
The factors related to the form and surface behavior of the earth constitute
physiographic factors or topographic factors.
Topography affects the growth of plants in two ways
a) They bring about local variations in climatic conditions
b) They can modify the edaphic factors.
The topographic factors include
1. Altitude of the place
2. Steepness of the slope
3. Exposure of the slope to light and wind
4. Direction of the mountain chains
7.1.1 Altitude Of The Place:
Altitude refers to the position of the land surface to the mean sea
level (MSL). The continuous increase in altitude and its effect on vegetation
can be best observed on the mountains. Increase in altitude is usually
associated with climatic changes, namely
 Decrease in temperature
 Increase in precipitation
 Increase in wind velocity
 Increase in humidity
Amount of total solar energy absorbed at higher altitudes is more.
However, increased absorption of heat is not able to raise the temperature of
the air because of strong winds and increase in precipitation at higher
altitudes. As we ascend the mountains, due to changes in temperature,
amount of precipitation etc, we can observe a definite pattern of vegetation.
A similar sequence of change in vegetation can be seen when we move from
equator to poles.
7.1.2 Steepness of the slope:
The slope of a mountain is another feature of topography which affects
the nature of vegetation.
Steep slope causes swift runoff of water after rain. This will decrease the
moisture content of the soil and the soil becomes untenable due to erosion.

45
The water table on the slopes is also very low. Further, in the adjacent
valleys the water table is nearer to the soil level and therefore they have
luxuriant vegetation. There is no possibility for accumulation of humus on
slopes and thus difficult for plants to establish on slopes. It is because of this
reason absence of higher plants has become a characteristic feature of steep
slopes.
The only possibility for cultivation of crops in steep slopes is through
terrace farming. (Small terrace like flat fields reduces the force of the water
flow)
7.1.3 Exposure of the slope to light and wind:
A mountain slope exposed to weak intensity of light and strong dry winds
has xerophytic vegetation.
Ex. The vegetation of northern slopes of the Himalayas
The slope exposed to direct sunlight and humid winds has luxurious
mesophytic vegetation.
Ex. The vegetation of Southern slopes of the Himalayas
7.1.4 Direction of mountain chains:
The direction of mountain chains has a tremendous effect on the climate of a
region. If the mountain chain lies in the path of winds with full of water
vapour, there happens a heavy rain fall on the wind striking side of the
mountain and results in very luxuriant vegetation.
For example: Based on the data of a recent few decades, Mawsynram
located in the state of Meghalaya appears to be the wettest place in the
world or the place with the highest average annual rainfall.
Reasons for this are as follows.
During the monsoon season, warm moist winds from the Bay of
Bengal move towards Northern part of the country. When these winds drift
towards north eastern side they are forced to converge in the narrower zone
over the Khasi Hills of Assam and Meghalaya. Thus moisture is concentrated
in this area. The alignment of the Khasi Hills (east to west) places them
directly in the path of the airflow from the Bay of Bengal, producing a
significant uplift of moisture laden winds, their cooling and condensation. On
the other hand similar winds moving from the Arabian Sea blow over a part of
Rajasthan without condensing into rain drops because there is no mountain
chain in the path of the wind.

46
7.2 EFFECT OF WIND ON PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES OF PLANTS
Definition: air in motion is generally referred to as wind
Velocity of wind at a particular place depends on
1. Geographical situation 2. Topography (form and surface behavior of Earth)
3. Distance from sea shore 4. Flat plains and vegetation cover
Air moves from a region of high pressure to the one of low pressure. Pressure
differences are caused basically by unequal heating of the atmosphere, the
equatorial region receiving more heat than regions further south and north. In
general this results in a movement of air from the poles (High pressure) towards the
equator (low pressure).Thus, winds correct the imbalance of solar energy and
prevents a cumulative excess of energy in the tropics and a deficit in polar regions.
7.2.1 Effects of wind on vegetation: Wind has both positive and negative effects
on plants.
 Winds help in transporting of water vapor to inland areas from large water
bodies. They play a crucial role in hydrological cycle.
 Transporting of pollen and seed dissemination is an important ecological
function performed by winds.
 Winds have a powerful effect on the humidity of atmosphere. Layers of
humid air adjacent to plant leaf surfaces are removed by wind. This tends to
keep relative humidity low and to increase transpiration rate. The velocity of
wind increases with height so trees may suffer more from drying effects than
do herbaceous plants.
 Unidirectional strong wind causes complete distortion of general shape of the
plant and its branches by killing the buds and twigs.
 Plants like Rice, Maize and Sugarcane fall flat on the ground due to lodging
caused by strong winds. Single trees or a group of trees which are uprooted
in forests by strong winds are known as ‘wind throws’ or ‘wind falls’.
 Winds carrying coarse sand particles may tear off the delicate surface of the
leaf .It allows easy entry of pathogens.
 Along the sea coasts strong winds carry salts from the near by seas and
deposit them on plants which is called as ‘salt spray’
 Plants growing under the influences of dry winds causes’ desiccation. This
will decrease the turgidity of the cells and their size is reduced. Plants
exposed to such unidirectional winds are usually dwarfed in their stature.
 Much damage to crops is caused by hot dry winds during the time of
flowering. The decrease in flower set is because of the upset caused by hot
dry winds in the internal water balance of the plants.
 Soil erosion is aggravated by winds in dry regions and areas with extended
periods of drought.
*******

47
Lecture-8
ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES: CLIMATIC FACTORS : PYRIC FACTORS
The environmental factors concerned with the effect of fire on vegetation are
called as pyric factors.
8.1 Sources of fires
I) Natural fires
1. Lightening
2. Constant rubbing of branches
(Branches having inflammable resins Ex. Pinus)
3. Heat generated by the activities of saprophytic bacteria.
II) Artificial fires
1. To clear the forests for habitation and agriculture (Shifting cultivation)
8.2 Types of fires:
S No. Type of
fire
Reasons for fire & matter
involved
Extent of damage caused
1 Ground
fires
Occurs when accumulated
humus and debris catches
fire. They show Smoldering
effect (burn and smoke
without flame)
Destroys all plants that are
rooted within the debris
2 Surface
fires
When dried twigs and fallen
leaves catch fires.
Rapidly spreads over the forest
floor Kills and scorches ground
flora and bases of forest trees
3 Crown
fires
When tree tops of dense
forests catches fire it leads
to crown fires.
Spreads easily from one crown
to another. Engulfs the entire
forest, cause huge flames and
consume entire tree from top to
bottom
8.3 Effects of fire on vegetation and environment:
Negative effects:
1. Destruction of humus and organic matter. It can also disrupt Nitrogen cycle.
2. Destroys seeds and seedlings of many plant species
3. Damages surface layer of the soil and its fertility.
4. Changes the composition of forest species.
a) Sciophytes are displaced by heliophytes
b) Fire sensitive species are replaced by fire tolerant species.
5. Fire exerts stimulating effect on growth and seed production ability of
certain weed species like Cynodon dactylon .
6. Fire leaves wounds and large scars on the trunks of woody trees which
facilitate easy entry of parasitic bacteria and fungi.

48
Positive effects:
1. With fires, immediate supply of potash increases.
2. In certain cases harmful surface layer (highly acidic raw humus) may be
eliminated. This practice helps in increasing the PH value of the soil.
3. Burning of undesirable debris eliminates certain harmful pathogens.
4. Well planned burning is taken up to clear old forests and to take up new
plantations.
Plant adaptations to fires
 Seeds of certain species are fire-resistant and easily escape fire injury
Ex.Pinus
 High moisture content in the leaves of coniferous plants prevents fire to
some extent.
 Certain plants like Eucalyptus possess auxiliary buds and ligno tubers.
They are dormant during fires. Once the fire puts off they helps in
producing new growth.
 Certain plants develop thick bark and cork layers to escape from fires.
8.4 Management of fires and rejuvenation of crops:
Burning practiced by farmers and foresters can also be considered beneficial in
certain instances like
 Controlled burning is practiced to convert forest and field to agricultural uses
 Agricultural burns, such as in the case of sugarcane
 To improve pastures
 controlled burning is used as a part of forest management
Burning crop residues: Burning crop residue in the respective fields is a common
phenomenon as preparatory measure of fields before monsoon rains and otherwise
too. When crop residue is burnt in a controlled manner it turns into ash. Ash has its
value especially in improving the pH of the acidic soils. It also adds potassium to the
soil. How ever, burning practice leads to loss of valuable organic matter.
Rejuvenation of plants : Forest fires help the seeds and cones of certain plant
species. These cones which are coated with resins releases seeds only when they
are exposed to fires.
Ex. Pinus plant has serotinus cones completely covered with thick resin.
These seeds remain dormant even for a period of 75 years. This seeds get a
chance to germinate only when they are exposed to fires.
*******

49
Lecture-9
Environmental variables: BIOTIC FACTORS
The effects of the activities of living organisms constitute biotic factors.
These activities in a community include interactions among plants, plants and local
animals, plants and microorganisms and above all, influence of man on plants.
The plants ability to live and grow depends not only on the physical factors of the
environment but also on other organisms which can usually modify the physical
environment. Physical factors are usually the governing forces of environment but
some biotic influences are truly direct.
The plants association with other organisms is either social or nutritional.
Plants provide Niche (dwelling) for the animals, and the animals feed upon the
plants, pollinate them, disperse them or destroy them. Plants also interact with each
other competing for space, water and mineral nutrients of the soil.
Some of the important biotic factors are herbivores( grazing effect), symbiosis,
insectivorous plants, epiphyte, parasites and mycorrizha.
9.1 GRAZING EFFECT:
Grazing and browsing (feeding on leaves and shoots of plants) by
herbivorous animals has a profound influence on the soil and vegetation of an area.
Uncontrolled grazing by animals like goats, sheep, cows, buffaloes, deer, camels,
elephants etc has caused destruction of herbaceous and woody plants in the past.
In the Himalayas herds of cattle, goats and sheep have destroyed the alpine
meadows completely. Seed eating animals may destroy certain species and
displace them completely. In pastures the removal of grass often leads to the
growth of thorny weeds.
9.2 SYMBIOSIS:
The association of two organisms for mutual benefit is called symbiosis and the
organisms involved in such association are called symbionts. Some of the best
examples for symbiosis can be seen from the following associations of living
organisms
9.2.1 Lichens: lichen is composed of two different plants living in a very close
association. One is the Blue green algae, a producer that makes food by
photosynthesis and the other is a fungus, a consumer that obtains food from algae.
These lichens are found growing on rocks or on the bark of trees. Without fungus
the algae cannot survive because the fungus protects the tiny alga from drying out.

50
9.2.2 Rhizobium and leguminous roots:
Leguminous plants (Peanut, pea, Lucerne, soybean, clover, alfalfa etc.)
by themselves do not have the ability to fix N2. However, legume nodules
containing viable rhizobium bacteria fixes N2 in a Symbiotic way. In the symbiotic
association the bacterium obtains carbon containing substances from the host and
the host obtains fixed nitrogen through the agency of bacterium. Thus it is mutually
beneficial to both organisms.
The following points explains the fine symbiosis between these organisms at every
step in the process of N2 fixation:
1) Host plant (legumes)produces Lectins, a specific group of proteins which interact
with the carbohydrates (glycoproteins)found in the capsule of bacteria. This is a
crucial factor for the bacterium to recognize its correct host plant.
2) In the processes of nodule formation, host plant releases tryptophan in to the soil
which is taken up by bacteria (rhizobium)and metabolises it in to IAA.This IAA helps
for growth and multiplication of root cells.
3) Initial infection of rhizobial cells occurs in root hairs, which undergo characteristic
curling. After a series of cell divisions and multiplications root nodules are formed in
the cortical cells of the host. Bacterial cells inside infected host cells (cortical cells)
multiply rapidly and are transformed in to swollen forms called Bacteroids.
4) Bacteroids carry on the aerobic respiration and require O2.But the enzyme
system that fixes N2 in bacteriods is very sensitive to O2.Excess O2 invivo inhibits
Nitrogen fixation. This problem of bacteroids is solved by its host plant by producing
a reddish protein called leghaemoglobin.
Leghaemoglobin delivers O2 to bacteroids at concentrations necessary
for their aerobic respiration but harmless to their N2 fixing enzyme system.
Thus at each step a fine cooperation is found in the symbiotic relationship of
legumes and Rhizobium.
9.2.3 Mycorrizha
Mycorrhizal fungi are species of fungi that intimately associate with plant roots
forming a symbiotic relationship. Plants provide sugars and other organic
substances to the fungi where as fungi helps the plant in mineral nutrition and water
uptake.
Advantages of mycorrhizal symbiosis:
 Helps in uptake of water.
 Helps in mineral nutrition particularly in Phosphorus uptake. In some cases
increased uptake of Zn and Cu has also been reported.

51
 This symbiotic association helps the plant to resist root rot and color rot
diseases.
 It is also claimed to be helpful in release of growth hormones like GA and
Auxin.
There are three major groups of mycorrhiza viz.,Ecto mycorrhiza, Endo
mycorrhiza and Ecto-endo mycorrhiza. Out of which, first two groups are important
in Agriculture and Horticulture.
9.3 INSECTIVOROUS BEHAVIOR:
Insectivorous plants are partly autotrophic and partly heterotrophic. They can
manufacture carbohydrates by themselves but are Incapable of synthesizing
proteins. The soil in which they grow is waterlogged, swampy and deficient in
nitrogenous compounds. They supplement their requirement of Nitrogenous food by
capturing and digesting insects. The leaves of these plants are modified to trap the
insects.
E.g., Nepenthes (Pitcher plant), Utricularia (Bladderwort)
9.4 PARASITISM:
Parasites obtain nutrition from living plants.
The parasites produce roots called haustoria which penetrate in to the host plant
tissue. They make connections with the conducting elements of the host.
Common angiospermic parasites include
S No. Nature of
Parasitism
Name of the
angiospermic
Parasite
Host
plant
part
Crop
1 Total or complete
parasites (depend
for both water &
food)
Orabanche cernua
Striga parasitica
Cuscuta reflexa
Roots
Roots
Stems
Brinjal and tobacco
Sorghum and sugarcane
Stems of many plants
Ex.Blackgram
2 Partial parasites
(derive water and
minerals from
host& make their
own food
material)
Loranthus
Longiflorus
Stems Neem & guava

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9.5 ANTHROPIC FACTORS
The factors related to the role played by man are called Anthropic factors.
Various activities of human beings considerably affect the distribution of plants and
their survival.
Some of them are outlined here
9.5.1 Deforestation: Excessive and indiscriminate cutting and felling of the trees for
the purpose of firewood, timber, house building and clearing the land for cultivation
purpose has completely changed the vegetation of different places. These activities
affected the ecological balance and are responsible for vast variations in climatic
situations of the affected regions.
Recurrence of heavy floods in Ganga and Brahmaputra plains is mainly due to
forest clearing during second world war for improving communications and military
installations along Himalayan frontiers.
9.5.2 Afforsetation: To check the soil erosion, loss of fertility of soil and spread
of sandy tracts in the plains the forest department has launched a drive to erect
new forests .This process of raising forests in hither to barren and unproductive
lands is called as afforestation.
9.5.3 Reforestation: This is referred to raising of forests on a forest land after the
forest is cleared for timber and other purposes.
9.5.4 INDUSTRIALISATION
Unplanned and un-scientific method of industrialization has caused lot of
disturbance to the natural ecosystems. Persistent disturbance to natural
ecosystems may have pronounced and prolonged effects especially with regard to
the toxic industrial chemicals.
9.5.5 CHANGE OF CROPPING PATTERNS:
Raising crops on virgin lands and after some time when they become less
productive, shifting to new areas of virgin lands is referred to as shifting cultivation.
Through shifting cultivation man has brought forth large scale changes in vegetation
patterns especially in the fragile ecosystems along the hills and savannahs.
Instead of changing the field every time, It is always better to follow crop rotation
i.e raising different crops in the same field in a sequential order For example:
legume crops after cereals, Shallow rooted crops after deep rooted crops.

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9.5.6 INTRODUCTION OF NEW PLANT SPECIES:
During his migration and travel from one region to other man carried the
seeds and saplings of useful plants, medicinal plants, fibre yielding plants and other
industrially important plants. This practice has led to the spread of these useful
plants to many regions of the world. In this process knowingly or unknowingly, man
has also introduced many weed species, new diseases and pests in to new areas.
Through breeding programme the plant breeders produce new varieties of
crops with different environmental requirements. Though this new varieties
enhanced the productivity of various crops, their large scale cultivation in varying
climatic situations posed many ecological problems. One such issue of current
importance in India is introduction of transgenic food crops like Bt.Brinjal,
Bt.Potato.etc.
*******

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Lecture:10
COMPETITION
The word “competition” denotes a striving for the same thing. In ecological
terms competition is a process of interaction when two or more individuals/ Plants
/organisms make simultaneous demand on a type of resource or quality of
resource, in insufficient supply, to meet the growing needs.
Competition influences the ability of an individual to survive and reproduce. It
results in reduced survival potential or death of both the individuals. Such
interaction may involve direct contact between the affected individuals (direct
competition), or it may be mediated through the environment (indirect competition).
Hence, it influences the ability of population to maintain itself or to increase with
time.
Plants in agriculture and forests compete for light, space and nutrients when
supply and availability of resource is inadequate. In a struggle for existence plant
communities modify, change or regulate their physical environment within certain
limits through competition.
10.1 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:
One of the most dramatic and important consequences of biological regulation
in a plant community as a whole is the phenomenon of “ Ecological Succession” .
When a cultivated land is abandoned in the eastern part of North America, for
example, the forest that originally occupied the site returns only after the series of
temporary communities have prepared the way. The successive stages may be
entirely different in structure and function from the forest that eventually develops on
the site.
Ecological succession, then, may be defined in terms of the following three
parameters: (1) It is the orderly process of community change, (2) It results in the
modification of physical environment by the community (3) It culminates in the
establishment of a suitable ecosystem as is biologically possible.
10.2 DOMINANCE AND SUB - ORDINATION.
Competition exists when plants meet each other on more or less in equal
terms. However, if it is not on equal terms- such as in the case of oak tree and a
shade loving plant growing in its shade, the interaction between such plants is
referred to as “Dominance” and “sub-ordination”. The distinction between
competition and dominance is illustrated by development of secondary forest in a

55
site (cleared by forest fire or deforestation). All the individuals (pioneers as they are
called) compete with each other first; with the growth of the shrubs they become
dominant over herbs and are in turn dominated by trees. Herbs or shrubs still
compete with respective counterparts. Within the dominant tree layer, individuals
compete with one another in the same higher layer.
10.3 NATURE AND EFFECTS OF COMPETITION:
The importance of competition both in development of natural vegetation and in
crop production is so great that it has received much attention and very well studied.
When seedlings/ plants especially of the same species are closely spaced,
competition begins almost immediately. As the plants grow, it increases with
density, stage of plant growth and shortage of needed resources.
Competition has two types of effects on the competing individuals :
1. Short term and 2. Long-term
1. SHORT-TERM OR ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Some of the short term effects that are important in a population are poor
establishment, reduced growth rate and poor reproduction resulting in low dry
matter production and grain/seed yields.
2. LONG TERM OR EVOLUTIONARY EFFECTS
The long term effects lead to succession wherein less suitable species
are totally eliminated from the habitat itself.
10.4 STRATIFICATION
Stratification is the occurrence of plants in different strata (Stories or tiers
of layers) at different heights or levels in a stand of plant community. It is a way
of vertical distribution of plants. Both the above ground parts as well as
underground parts show stratification. Some of the contributory causes for
stratification are that the life forms such as trees, shrubs, herbs, and mosses
(also bryophytes, lichens) differ in their requirements and ecological amplitude.
Therefore, they grow at various levels (in a community) which differ in light
intensity, temperature, humidity and other factors.
The stratification of vegetation facilitates a fuller and better utilization of
environmental resources. It minimizes competition among plants of a stand.

56
These concepts are used in agriculture to make effective and economic use of
the arial space within crops especially in plantation crops.
(A) Stratification of aerial parts
The number of strata above ground varies with the kind of plant community. In a
forest, the number of strata is more. It is common to recognize a tree layer, a
shrub layer, an herb (i.e., a field) layer and a bryophyte-lichen (the bottom –
ground layer).
Stratification is well developed in tropical rain forests where 7-8 strata may be
well recognized; here the trees and shrubs are divided into two or three tiers of
tall and short herbs. Each stratum has an environmental or habitat which differs
from that of others. But in grasslands strata are few.
(B) Stratification of subterranean parts
Roots in the soil also show stratification so that competition between species is
minimized and the resources available are more completely utilized. For
example, in a forest the roots of herbs occupy the surface layer of the soil, that
of shrubs root a little deeper and roots of trees grow very deep into the soil.
In agriculture, successful inter-cropping is based partly on root stratification,
when groundnut and red gram are grown together in distinct rows (7:1), the roots
of groundnut grow up to certain depth in the soil while red gram roots grow still
deeper.
10.5 TYPES OF COMPETITION
Three types of competitions are recognized in plant communities:
1. Inter- specific competition
2. Intra- specific competition and
3.Intra- plant competition
10.5.1 Inter-specific competition
Any interaction between two or more plant species adapted to same or
similar niche affecting their growth and their survival is called inter-specific
competition. In general it is more likely to be severe between closely related

57
forms such as grasses with grass; than between those that are distant forms
such as grass with dicots.
In nature, inter-Specific competition is common, the potential outcome
being a reduction in number and size of the characters of individual, or in
severity total disappearance of one or more species. Greater the difference
between the species, in one or all the characters (root, leaf and stem) the less
severe the competition. For instance, a deep rooted wild rose/rose plant does
not compete with the shallow rooted grass.
In agricultural crops, in inter-cropped situations, crops are selected in
such a manner, that there is no competition in component crops. For example,
groundnut and red gram grown in 7:1 ratio, the crops differ in their height,
branching, date of maturity and other physiological characteristics distantly.
Hence, component crops would have the maximum advantage to exploit the
resources from the environment and achieve the production potential and grain/
seed yield.
Weeds are known to compete effectively with the crop plants due to their
vigorous nature in exploiting resources and better adaptability in limiting
situations. If they are left un checked they can reduce crop yields.
10.5.2 Intra-specific competition
Competition between the members of the same species which
adversely affect their growth and survival is intra-specific competition. In nature,
this type of competition is not common because the vegetation consists of
different species. However in situations, where the population comprises of the
same species such as aquatic vegetation, agricultural lands where monoculture
crops such as rice , wheat, jowar and plantations in forestry, there this type of
intra-specific competition exists.
In such situations, population growth depends necessarily on density. But
with appropriate spacing, it is possible to obtain minimum intra-specific
competition. The total yield of these crops with increase in population per
hectare maybe higher, but the size of both vegetative parts and fruits is
reduced. Example: carrots, Onions, Cabbage and Cauliflower.
Intra- specific competition in grasses/ monocotyledons is very similar;
where under higher density that plants grow erect due to competition for light
with thin stem while widely (optimum) spaced plants grow producing more
number of effective tillers. Crowded plants exhibits spindling, yellowish, nitrogen
starved symptoms while optimum spaced plants have green foliage and shorter
plants with good tillering.

58
10.5.3 Intra – Plant competition
Competition operating within the plant between different organs or
parts or between similar parts for resources such as water, nutrients,
photosynthates etc. is known as intra-plant competition. This type of competition
within the plant may occur between:
1.Root and shoot
2. Leaves of different ages
3. The developing seeds
Young and developing fruits in a plant are strong sinks as they are more
competitive than matured parts. However, environmental conditions interact
with the stage of plant growth, size and number of plant parts, availability and
mobilization of photosynthates to characterize the intra- plant competition.
The best example, is the grain set in cereals. In an inflorescence
competition exists between basal spikelets and upper spikelets and upper
florets within the spike let. Intensity of inter – grain competition within the
spikelet during grain set and grain growth phase is an important factor that
alters source- sink relationship. Increased number of grains per spikelet/panicle
and individual grain weight depends upon the intensity of competition and on
the sink drawing ability.
With the backdrop of nature and types of competition that exists in plant
communities certain terms are important in cultivation of crops in agriculture.
10.6 MONOCULTURE:
Continuous cropping of same crop species in the same piece of land year after
year or season after season is called as monoculture
Example: rice, wheat, Plantations in forest etc.
Plants with more sensitivity to inter-specific competition will show their best
growth in monoculture, Here the time of onset of competition and intensity is
linked to density of population which determines the inter- plant and intra-plant
competition which in turn determine the final grain yield.
10.7 POLYCULTURE:
Cultivation of different species of crops in the same piece of land in a year
either in a sequence or simultaneously is called as polyculture. Example (a)
Rice followed by a pulse or groundnut (b) Groundnut and red gram grown
simultaneously in inter cropped situation.
The species with minimum inter- specific competition show better growth in
polyculture.

59
10.8 SHIFT CULTIVATION:
It is a farming system in which the land is cleared and cultivated for few
seasons or years and that land is abandoned afterwards. This is because of
exhaustion of soil nutrients; build up of weeds and pest populations.
It is always better to cultivate more number of crops in the same piece of land
(eg.polyculture) rather than shifting the site of cultivation every time which
makes the soil exhausted.
10.9 MULTISTORIED CROPPING SYSTEMS:
The concept of stratification is made use in developing multistoried
cropping systems which allows better use of solar energy and soil fertility and
increase the yield of crops which do not tolerate full sunlight Example : Cocoa,
Cinnamon, Betel vine etc.
It is a system where crops with different stature and rooting habits are
grouped to form compatible combinations so as to enable efficient light
interception and utilization at different vertical intervals and facilitate exploitation
of mineral resources at different layers.
One such combination is Coconut + Pepper + Cocoa or Cinnamon+
Pineapple is practiced in Kerala. Here, coconut is spaced 7.5 m apart; the black
pepper is planted at the base of coconut, cocoa-cinnamon and pineapple in the
interspaces between coconut trees.
The pineapple which grows to a height of about 1 m forms the first ground
layer; Cocoa-cinnamon with its pruned canopy grows to a height of about 3.0 m
on coconut trunk and forms the second layer; The black pepper, the growth of
which is restricted to about 6-8 m forms the third layer; coconut which grows to
10-30 m (tall form) occupies the top layer. Rooting characters tics of the
component crops in the multistoried system or mutually exclusive horizontally.
Roots of cocoa and cinnamon have tapering root systems with relatively lesser
lateral spread; do not offer any effective competition with the roots of coconut
palm.
OTHER EXAMPLES:
A) Coconut + Pepper + Rice + Cocoa : in Philippines
B) Rice + Cassava + Banana + Beans : South America

60
Multistoried cropping
Stratification of roots at varying depths
Spatial distribution of roots

61
10.10 MUTUAL SHADING
As plants grow in a community, leaves developing in upper positions normally
cast their shadow on the lower ones. Hence, in a crop canopy there is mutual
shading normally.
In forest canopies light reaching the ground is very much reduced. Plant/tree
species adapted to shade will grow, otherwise will be eliminated in course of time.
Mutual shading in a community is responsible for change in species composition
and the life forms of constituent plants. Partial shade cause succulence, trees grow
slender and straight, their height being very great in relation to the diameter.
In certain agricultural crops, certain amount of competition under the influence of
mutual shading is desirable. For example, (1) In fibrous crop Corchorus sp. The
mutual shade created by increased density of crop promotes desirable competition
among plants- where main stem grows taller while the lateral branches are slowed
down in their growth,
(2) In tobacco, artificial shading is used to produce large and thin leaves used for
cigar wrapper, (3) In coffee plantations, the plants are grown under shade of trees
(4) Tea plants and betel vine plants are also grown under shade of trees to improve
quality of leaves.
When excess N is applied, in crops like rice mutual shading causes for lower
photosynthetic ability. Besides, it also increases succulence causing increased
incidence of diseases and pest attack ultimately reducing grain yield.
Many successful competitors create conditions of “stress” for other plants by
growing rapidly/taller by producing large, dense canopies thus create a deep shade
below. This makes it difficult for other crops to establish. For example: pulse crops
after producing dense canopies become dominant over weeds.
*******

62
Lecture-11
ALLELOPATHY
11.1 Definition
The term allelopathy was coined by Hans Molisch (1937), which is derived
from Greek language (allelon: of each other; pathos: to suffer). It means “mutual
harm or injurious effect of one upon the other”. Molisch defined the term allelopathy
as “biochemical interactions detrimental as well as beneficial between all types of
plants”.
In current use the term allelopathy refers to any effect; direct or indirect,
stimulatory or inhibitory, mediated by a chemical compound released in to the
environment by a given plant or microorganism (Rice,1984).The walnut tree
(Juglans nigra and Juglans regia) is perhaps the best known allelopathic plant
causing many crops and other plants in its vicinity to wither and die. The leaves,
roots and fruits of this plant produce a hydroquinone, which is oxidized in the
environment to juglone, this compound is responsible for the toxic effects on other
plants.
11.2 CONCEPT OF ALLELOPATHY:
Allelo chemicals or allelopathins are released by the donor plants in to the
environment through a variety of mechanisms viz., volatalisation from leaves,
exudation from roots, and leaching from fallen leaves and Plant litter.
1. Volatilization: Volatile substances released from the radially spread leaves
of parthenium inhibit growth of indigofera, bean, cowpea, tomato, ragi and
wheat.
2. Root exudation: The hydrophobic exudates from the roots of sorghum
inhibit germination in corn and root elongation in lettuce.
3. Leaching: A variety of chemicals may be leached from the aerial portions of
plants by rainwater or by fog dip.
Ex: Leachates from roots and inflorescences of Cleodendron viscosum
inhibit growth of lettuce.
The leachates of Abutilon theophrasti inhibit growth of soyabean.
4. Decomposition of plant residues: The plant residues of Rye (Secale
Cereale) decrease the emergence of lettuce and prosomillet (Panicum
milliaceum)
11.3 SOURCES OF ALLELOPATHIC CHEMICALS (ALLELOCHEMICALS
PRESENT IN DIFFERENT PLANT PARTS):
Chemicals with allelopathic potential are present virtually in all plant tissues
Including leaves, stems, roots, rhizomes, flowers, fruits and seeds.

63
LEAVES : Parthenium, Celosia argentea, Amaranthus viridis
SHOOT : lantana camera
ROOT : Wild oats, Sunflower, Asparagus afficinalis
RHIZOME : Quackgrass (Agropyron repens)
FRUITS : Parthenium hysterophorous
SEEDS : Datura stromonium
WHOLE PLANT : Cyperus rotundus
11.3.1 Weed and Crop Species With allelopathic Potential:
a) WEED SPECIES:
Examples: Celosia aregenta, Parthenium hysterophorus,
Lantana camera, Chenopodium album,
Echinocloa crusgalli, Agropyran repens, Amaranthus
retroflexus etc.,
b) CROP SPECIES:
Numerous crops have been investigated more or less thoroughly for
allelopathic activity towards weeds or other crops. A suppressive effect on weed,
possibly mediated by the release of allelochemicals has been reported for a wide
range of temperate and tropical crops. These include alfalfa (Medicago sativa),
barley (Hordeum vulgare),clovers (Trifolium spp., Melilotus spp.) oats (Avena
sativa) pearl millet(Pennisetum glaucum), rice (Oryza sativa) rye (Secale cereale),
sorghums (Sorghum spp.), sunflower (Helianthus annuus), sweet potato (Ipomoea
batatas) and wheat (Triticum aestivum)
Example: Certain cultivars of Wheat releases allelochemicals that can affect
the root growth and seed germination of Avena fatua ( Wild oats).
11.4 Natural products identified as allelopathic agents:
Most of the allelochemicals are secondary metabolites that are produced
as intermediate compounds in plant metabolism. They are derived from diverse
chemical groups viz., organic acids, Aldehydes, terpenoids, steroids, phenolics,
long chain fatty acids, Aromatic amino acids etc.,
1.Parthenium hysterophorus: Parthenin, Caffeic acid, ,Ferulic acid,
Chlorogenic acid,P-hydroxybenzoic acid,
P-Coumaric acid, as inhibitor in Parthenium
leachate.
2.Sorghum halopens : Dhurrine (Cyanogenic glucoside), Chlorogenic acid,
Coumaric acid and P-hydroxy benzaldehyde
3.Lantana camera : Lentedene and Lancamarene in leaves and fruits

64
4 Argemone mexicana : Sanguinarine and dihydroxy sanguinarine
5. Euphorbia geniculata : Eupatol
6. Datura stromonium : Tropane alkaloids, Scopalamine and hyoscyamine
in both seeds and foliage.
11.5 MODE OF ACTION OF ALLELOCHEMICAL INHIBITORS:
The following sites or processes are known targets for allelochemicals: cell
division, production of plant hormones and their balance, membrane stability and
permeability, germination of pollen, mineral uptake, movement of stomata, pigment
synthesis, photosynthesis, respiration, amino acid syntheses, nitrogen fixation,
specific enzyme activities and conduction tissue.
11.6 FURTHER SCOPE FOR ALLELOPATHY:
The viable weed management includes mechanical, chemical and biological
methods of control. The mechanical weed control is time consuming, expensive and
less effective, when the plant is well established. The selectivity, residual toxicity,
prohibitive cost, non availability of herbicides, lack of technical know how and
environmental pollution restricts the use of herbicides from wider adaptability,
especially in cultivated lands. Thus economic and ecological limitations on control of
many noxious weeds become more restrictive. Under these circumstances, the
allelopathic means of controlling weeds offer a potential alternative.
Eg. Noxious and wide spread weed of Parthenium hysterophorous can be
controlled successfully by introducing Cassia uniflora indicating potential
allelopathic means of controlling this weed.
Understanding the concept of allelopathy helps us to develop natural
herbicides. For example CINEMETHYLIN (this is natural compound having
herbicidal properties. It is a derivative of 1, 4-cineole an allelochemical produced in
Eucalyptus plant).
*******

65
Lecture-12
PHYTOREMEDIATION
12.1 Definition:
Phytoremediation is an emerging technology that uses either naturally
occurring or genetically engineered plants to remediate contaminated soils,
sediments and water. The term ‘Phytoremediation’ consists of two words. A Greek
prefix phyto (plant) and a Latin word remedium (to correct or remove an evil). Thus,
“Phytoremediation is defined as a process in which various naturally occurring or
genetically modified plants, including trees and grasses, are used to degrade,
extract, detoxify, contain, and/or immobilize toxic pollutants from contaminated soil,
water, and air…”
Organic solvents, detergents, pesticides, Heavy metals, crude oil and its
derivatives are some of the common pollutants that affect soil, water and air. Most
of the conventional methods (soil incineration, excavation and landfill, soil washing
etc.,) used for cleaning up of these contaminants are either costly or cumbersome.
It is estimated that, the conventional methods of remediation may cost from $10 to
1000 per cubic meter. Where as, phyto remediation (phyto extraction) costs are
estimated to be as low as $ 0.05 per cubic meter. Therefore, phytoremediation is
now accepted as a cost effective and an environmental friendly alternative to
prevent pollution.
12.2 CONCEPT OF PHYTOREMEDIATION:
Various processes and mechanisms involved in phytoremediation are
1) Phytoextraction 2) Phytostabilisation 3) Rhizofiltration 4) Phytovolatalisation
and 5) Phytotransformation.
12.2.1 Phytoextraction:
It is the best approach to remove the contaminants, particularly Heavy metals
from soil. It is also referred as phyto accumulation. There are two basic strategies of
phytoextraction
i) Chelate assisted phytoextraction or induced phytoextraction, in which artificial
chelates are added to soil to increase the mobility and uptake of metal contaminant
by plant.
For example: Use of synthetic chelators (EDTA, HEDTA etc.,) helps in rapid
mobility and translocation of Pb and Cd from roots to shoots.
ii) Natural hyper accumulation, Here, the uptake of contaminants from soil by the
plants is natural and un assisted. It is the natural ability of certain plant species to
accumulate metals at a higher concentration. They are called as metallophyte
plants or hyper accumulators. At least 45 families have been identified to have
hyper accumulative plants; some of the families are Brassicaceae, Fabaceae,
Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae, Lamiaceae and Scrophulariaceae. The Brassicaceae

66
family contains a large number of hyper accumulating species with widest range of
metals.
These plants absorb contaminants through root system and store them in
root biomass and/or transport them in to stems and leaves. Thus, at the time of
disposal contaminants are typically concentrated in much smaller volume of the
plant matter than in the initially contaminated soil or sediment. Through repeated
planting and harvesting of hyper accumulators heavy metals concentration in the
soil can be reduced to an acceptable limit.
A plant is called as a hyper accumulator if it accumulates the following heavy metals
at the concentrations mentioned below.
Examples of different Hyper accumulator plants and their use in removal of
contaminants. :
S.NO HYPER
ACCUMULATOR
PLANT
CONTAMINANT
IT REMOVES
REMARKS
1 Thlaspi caerulescens
( Alpine pennycress)
Zinc, Cadmium This is the best known hyper
accumulator
2 a) Brassica juncea
(Indian mustard)
b) Ambrosia artemisifolia
(Rag weed)
Pb (Lead) -
3 a) Azolla Chromium
Hyper accumulating Aquatic
plants
b) Eichornia crassipes
(Water hyacinth)
Mercury
Cadmium
Chromium
6 Helianthus annus
(Sun flower)
Uranium This was observed after the
Chernobyl nuclear accident
Arsenic -
100 mg g-1
or 0.01% of its dry wt Cd, As
1000 mg g-1
or 0.1% of its dry wt Co, Cu, Cr, Ni and Pb
10,000 mg g-1
or 1% of its dry wt Mn and Zn.

67
12.2.2 PHYTOSTABILIZATION:
Unlike phyto extraction, the goal of phytostabilization is not to remove metal
contaminants from a site, but rather to stabilize them and reduce the risk to human
health and the environment. In this technique, plant roots immobilize a contaminant
in soil through adsorption and accumulation or precipitation within their root
zone.Thus, reduces the mobility of the contaminant and prevents its migration to the
groundwater or air.
Ex: This technique immobilizes or precipitates heavy metals, so that they can not
escape from mining areas.
12.2.3 RHIZOFILTRATION:
This is a phytoremediative technique designed for the removal of metals in
aquatic environments. Rhizofiltration can partially treat industrial discharge,
agricultural runoff, or acid mine drainage. Unlike phytostabilization, here the
contaminants are not only adsorbed and precipitated, but also absorbed and
concentrated in the root system (but not translocated to shoots).
Generally, terrestrial plants that can develop large root systems are raised in
greenhouses hydroponically (with their roots in water rather than in soil). Once a
large root system has been developed the plants are moved and floated in the
contaminated water. Whenever the roots become saturated with contaminants the
plants are harvested and disposed.
ex: removal of lead from water bodies using sunflower plants.
12.2.4 PHYTOVOLATILISATION:
Phytovolatilisation is the uptake and release of the contaminant in to the
atmosphere by the plant ,either in its original or in a modified form.
Ex: Selenium is volatilized in to less toxic dimethyl selenide.
Mercuric ion is volatilised in to less toxic elemental mercury.
12.2.5 PHYTOTRANSFORMATION :
Phytotransformation is also called as Phytodegradation. In this process the
contaminants are taken up by the plant roots and are degraded in side the plant
body through the metabolic processes. Some times the breakdown of contaminants
is also possible outside the plant, through the effect of compounds (such as
enzymes) released by plants.

68
Ex:
- Hybrid poplar trees metabolize TNT (Tri Nitro Toluene), which is an explosive
material. This is done by the enzyme nitroreductase produced by the plant.
- chlorinated compounds are dechlorinate by another plant produced
enzyme dehalogenase
12.3 APPLICATIONS OF PHYTOREMEDIATION IN AGRICULTURE AND
INDUSTRY.
1) Agricultural lands situated near by industries, mining areas and oil
refineries are facing the threat of pollutants. Fertility of these soils can be
restored by using phyto remediation techniques.
2) It is a cheaper alternative compared to other types of physical and
chemical remediation methods.
3) Rhizofiltration helps to reduce the load of contaminants reaching the
water bodies. Thus, it helps to avoid the problem of eutrophication
4) In the process of phytoextraction, hyper accumulator plants are grown
and harvested repeatedly, from the polluted site. This gives large amount
of biomass. This biomass, how ever contains concentrated contaminants.
Safe disposal of this material is possible only by incinerating the biomass.
In this process of incineration lot of thermal energy is released which can
be used for various industrial purposes.
5) PHYTOMINING: This is a new area of technology, where in plants are
used for recovery of valuable metals from the soil.
6) Phytoremediation is the least harmful method because it uses naturally
occurring organisms and preserves the natural state of the environment.
12.4 LIMITATIONS :
1. Phytoremediation is limited to the surface area and up to the depth occupied
by the plant roots.
2. Slow growth and low biomass production by plants is a major set back
3. With this plant based technology it is not completely possible to stop the
leaching of contaminants in to the ground water.
4. Possible bioaccumulation of o contaminants , if not monitored properly, can
easily enter in to the food chain.

70
Lecture-13
POLLUTION
13.1 POLLUTION AND POLLUTANTS
Pollution is any unfavorable alteration of our surroundings wholly or largely
as by-products of man’s action through direct or indirect effects on changes in
energy patterns, radiation levels, physical and chemical constituents and
abundance of organisms.
A pollutant can be any chemical or geochemical substance, biological
organisms or products that are released intentionally or inadvertently by man into
environment with potential adverse effects.
Human beings by many of their activities viz.,industry, automobile traffic,
agricultural and domestic use of chemicals, and above all the extravagant
consumption of fossil fuels, release phytotoxic substances into the environment.
They are taken up by the plants from air, water, or soil.
Pollution may be studied in terms of media (e.g. Air, water and soil that are
polluted or in terms of pollutants that pollute the media like
SO2,CO2,CO,Fluorides,Nitrates,radioactive substances etc.)
13.2 AIR POLLUTION- SOURCES AND PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS ON
PLANTS.
Air pollution means the presence of one or more air contaminants in the
outdoor atmosphere such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odor, smoke, or vapor in
quantities or characteristics, and of duration, such as to be injurious to human, plant
or animal life. Some of the important air pollutants and their effects on plant growth
and development are listed below.
13.2.1 Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
It is a primary product of the combustions of sulphur containing fossil fuels.
Coal burning presently accounts for 60 per cent of the sulphur dixoxide pollution.
Sulphur oxides are absorbed by water and go into solution in water. If not absorbed,
it soon oxidized to the less toxic SO3 and finally to sulfuric acid mist. Sulphuric acid
mists on Condensation nuclei and fall upon the vegetative canopy and affect the
plant growth.
13.2.2 Oxides of nitrogen (NO)
These are the byproducts of combustion of atmospheric nitrogen and
oxygen. The initial product of this reaction, nitric oxide (NO) is oxidized to Nitrogen
dioxide (NO2), utilizing the oxygen in the atmosphere. Energy from sunlight quickly

71
splits the NO2 back to NO and atomic oxygen which combines with the molecular
oxygen of the atmosphere to form ozone (O3). Thus, Ozone (O3) accumulates in the
atmosphere. When the leaves are exposed to O3, the guard cells of the epidermis
quickly lose turgor and the stomatal aperture closes. Ozone may destroy structural
integrity of membranes. It damages tobacco, tomato, bean, pine etc. NO in the
urban atmosphere reacts with several hydrocarbons (Ex. Aledehydes) and thus
helps in production of secondary pollutants like PAN(Peroxy Acyl Nitrates).
13.2.3 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Combustion of fossil fuels and automobile exhausts increase the CO2 in the
atmosphere. Continued increase in CO2 (0.5 % per annum)has a warming effect
that melts the polar ice and bring changes in the ecology of seas. Large scale floods
are some of the potential consequences. On the other hand, increased CO2 content
could increase the rate of photosynthesis.
13.2.4 Carbon monoxide (CO)
It also comes mostly from exhaust fumes of motor vehicles and industrial
works. At high concentrations, plants produce toxic symptoms like leaf curling,
ageing and reduction in leaf size. The CO competitively inhibits nitrogen fixation by
legumes.
13.2.5 Smog to PAN
A musty, acrid, irritating pall of smoke which clung relentlessly and turn to
dirty brown haze is called as Smog. Its content cause reduced visibility. They show
symptoms like glazing, silvering and bronzing on petunia, lettuce, spinach and
sugar beet crops. Necrosis of lower leaf surface, appears on sensitive species
(bean, spinach) causing serious crop losses. The contents of Smog are named as
peroxi acyl nitrates (PAN) and ozone. Plant damage caused by Smog is attributed
to the PAN compounds detected in Smog.
13.2.6 Fluorides
Both gaseous and particulate fluorides are released into the atmosphere for
the aluminum factories, manufacturing units of fluoride compounds, glass, pottery
and brick works. Fluoride enters the plant through stomata. In intercellular spaces
they dissolve in water and transported to the leaf tips and margins where it
accumulates. Chloroplasts are presumed to be the major site of accumulation of
fluorides. Accumulation of toxic concentrations of fluorides in broad-leaved species
causes necrosis, chlorosis or both at leaf tip and margin.

72
13.2.7 Ethylene (H2C‗
CH2)
Ethylene is released from illuminating gas, burning coals, wood and
automobiles. Excessive ethylene at too early stages of leaves accelerates
respiration, causing premature senescence and abscission. Cotton within a mile
distance to ethylene source exhibits leaf abscission, scattered seedling death, vine-
like growth habit, malformed vegetative and reproductive organs.
13.2.8 Ammonia
As pollutant ammonia escapes from refrigerator pre-cooling systems of cold
storage rooms and anhydrous ammonia used in fertilizer industry. The phytotoxic
effects of ammonia include dark spots or complete blackening of leaves, bleached
white (barley) and rusty along the leaf margins (wheat and rye).
13.2.9 Chlorine
Chlorine escapes into the atmosphere from industrial accidents,
manufacturing processes and leaking chlorine cylinders. Chlorine is required for
photosynthetic O2 evolution. The sensitive species are radish, alfalfa, tobacco,
beans, citrus, potatoes etc. whilst, barley, sugar beet, maize, tomato are tolerant.
The symptoms of chlorine injury are of three basic types: Chlorosis, necrosis and
reddening.
13.2.10 Methyl-Isocyanate (MIC)
Methyl Iso cynate gas is deadly poisonous to human beings, animals and
plants as well. It emanates from pesticide preparations and its accidental leakage.
The Bhopal gas tragedy which occurred in 1984 caused complete defoliation in a
variety of trees. The fruits of guava developed cracks but surprisingly mango, palms
and banana were not at all affected.
13.3 CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
1. Use of settling chambers, bag filters, electrostatic precipitators, gas
absorbers, catalytic combustion agents.
2. Chimneys should be raised so that smoke and particulate matters are thrown
high and are carried by wind for dispersal.
3. Recycling of harmful chemicals and their reuse.
4. Use of high temperature incinerators for reduction in particulate ash
production.
5. Generally industrial activities should be located away from residential
localities.

73
6. Environment engineers should have say before setting up industries in
particular place. Because the nature of pollution, local conditions and
meteorology may not be suitable for particular industry in particular area.
7. Use of unleaded petroleum in vehicles.
8. Desulphurization of fuel or removal of sulphur gas after combustion.
9. Control over use of fossil fuels.
10.Exhaust emission by automobiles must be reduced by mechanical means.
11.Electrification of railway tracks.
12.Use of non-combustive sources of energy, e.g. solar power, unclear power,
geothermal power, tidal power etc.
13.Use of cooking gas (L.P.G) in place of wood and dung cakes.
14.Afforestation of mining area on priority basis.
15.Plants which can reduce pollutants should be cultivated more and
more(phytoremediation).
13.4 WATER POLLUTION- SOURCES AND PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS ON
PLANTS
Water becomes polluted when its quality or composition is changed by man’s
activities. Thus it becomes less suitable for drinking, domestic, agricultural,
recreational and for fisheries or other purposes for which it would otherwise be
suitable in its natural state. Pollution of water by effluents is, mainly due to poisons,
deoxygenation and suspended matter. The following are some of the important
sources of water pollution.
13.4.1 Domestic wastes and effluents
Water pollution occurs when the quantity of sewage effluent is too large to be
broken down through biological degradation.
13.4.2 Industrial wastes and effluents
Main industrial source of pollution are pulp and paper mills, sugar mills, iron
and steel factories, and petroleum refineries. Some of the contaminants released by
these industries are, lead, detergents, cyanide, chlorine, phenol benzyl derivatives,
ammonia, nitrates and soluble carbohydrates. They cause deoxygenation and
anaerobic conditions.

74
13.4.3 Agricultural Chemicals from agricultural Lands.
a) Fertilizers
Nitrogenous, phosphatic and other fertilizers leached and washed into water
bodies, cause excessive growth of algae, foul smell rendering water unfit for
drinking (EUTROPHICATION). The polluted water with excessive nitrogen gives
bad effects on rice quality. It promotes vegetative growth and reduces the quality of
grains. at moderately high nitrogen content, reduction and decomposition of
organic substances produce bivalent iron and hydrogen sulphide. Excess of these
together with organic acids hampers the nutrient metabolism of rice and suppresses
plant growth.
b) Pesticides
Some of the insecticides, DDT, dialdrin, BHC when washed into water bodies
affect growth and survival of fish. Arsenical compounds turn out into more toxic
arsenate. Though increased use of pesticides enhances production, their
contribution to the total environmental pollution over their benefit is insignificant.
c) Other pollutants
These include empty cans, bottles, automobile junk, waste pieces of rocks,
steel, iron etc. these heaped at a place harbor animals like rats, cockroaches, flies
etc.
13.4.4 Heavy metals
Pollution by very small amounts of lead, cadmium and arsenic compounds
may occur when water flows through rivers and polluted soil.
a. Lead (Pb)
Lead smelting, gasoline, pesticides, paints, lead lined utensils are the lead
poisoning sources. It is a cumulative cellular poison. Lead taken up by plants is
accumulated in the cell wall.
b. Cadmium (cd)
Cadmium is added to soil through phosphate fertilizers, sewage water, metal
smelters and zinc smelters. Many plant species retain Cd. It is toxic to plants and
disturbs enzyme activity. In plants excess Cd disturb Fe metabolism and cause
chlorosis. Cadmium hampers the growth of rice, soybean, egg plant than tomato
and cucumber.

75
c. Arsenic compounds (As)
The sources are arsenical pesticides and detergents. Under heavy water
pollution the arsenate is broken down to the more toxic arsenate. Many plants
concentrate arsenic compounds in their tissues.
4. Atomic wastes
Radioactive pollution arises from the disposal of atomic waste and
radioactive gasses released from nuclear installation and from the fall out produced
by testing nuclear weapons. The accumulation of radio nuclides in the tissues may
lead to cancer in the human body. Very high-energy radiations produce ionizing
radiations and are the chief cause of injury to protoplasm. Rapidly dividing cells are
more sensitive. In higher plants sensitivity to ionizing radiation has been shown to
be directly proportional to the size of the cell nucleus.
There is no fool-proof method of disposal of radioactive wastes. In many
cases, the radioactive wastes are sealed in steel drums or concrete blocks and
sunk into the sea to await their natural decay.
13.5 MANAGEMENT OF WATER POLLUTION
Biodegradable pollutants alone are not responsible for water pollution,
though they indicate level of pollution through BOD values. Besides this, a
substantial pollution load is contributed by non-degradable or slowly degrading
pollutants, such as heavy metals, mineral oils, pesticides, plastic material etc. that
are dumped in to water. For Biodegradable pollutants, pollution may be controlled at
source by their treatment for reuse and recycling (e.g., waste water treatment
plants). The non-degradable toxic substances can be removed from water by
suitable methods
For ex. Reverse osmosis is commonly used to desalinate the brackish water and
can also be used for purifying water from sewage.
Council of Scientific and Industrial research, New Delhi could device ION
EXCHANGE technique to remove ammonia from water.
In addition to these methods, some standards, conditions and requirements are to
be legally enforced by the Government through Acts ( Eg. Environment (protection)
Act,1986, Prevention and control of water pollution Act,1974)
13.6 SOIL POLLUTION
Soil is the basis of agriculture. All crops for human food and animal feed
depends on it. Soil is the ultimate recipient of enormous quantity of man made
waste products. Industrial wastes, sewage, sludge and polluted water cause soil
pollution.

76
13.6.1 Source of soil pollution
The sources which may pollute the soil are two fold.
a) Agricultural sources: Animal wastes, pesticides, fertilizers etc.
b) Non-Agricultural sources: Wastes related to modern life activity of human beings.
13.6.2 EFFECT OF SOIL POLLUTANTS ON PLANTS
Materials that find their entry into the soil system having long persistence and
accumulate in toxic concentrations are called as soil pollutants. There are four types
of soil pollutants.
a. Inorganic toxic compounds
Inorganic residues in industrial waste present serious problem of disposal.
They contain heavy metals which have potential toxicity. Among heavy metals
nickel, cadmium and lead are have high toxic potential, zinc and mercury moderate
and chromium low potential. Arsenic compounds which are used in insecticidal
preparations are also having high toxic potential.
b. Organic wastes
Organic wastes of various types cause pollution hazards. Domestic garbage,
municipal sewage and industrial wastes when left in heaps or improperly disposed
seriously affect the health of human beings, plants and animals. Sewage contains
detergents, water softeners, borates, phosphates and other salts in large amounts.
c. Organic pesticides:
Pesticide persistence in soil and movement into water streams may also lead
to their entry into food and create health problems (Biomagnification). Pesticides
particularly aromatic organic compounds are not degraded rapidly and therefore
have long persistence time.
Persistence time of some selected pesticides
Pesticide Persistence time
Chlordane 12 years
BHC 11 years
DDT 10 years
Aldrin 9 years
2, 3, 6, TBA (Trichlorobenzene) 2-5 years
Diuron 16 months
Simazine 17 months
2, 4 -D 2-8 weeks

77
The main method of checking pesticides pollution is to increase the organic
matter content of the soil and choose such pesticides which are non-persistent and
leave no harmful residue.
d. Radioactive wastes: Wastes from atomic reactors and nuclear power plants
containing different kinds of radioactive isotopes which are most dangerous. These
wastes affect aquatic plants and animals also. They cause ionization of various
body fluids, gene mutations and chromosomal mutations.
13.6.3 MANAGEMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION
-Sanitary land fills are to be promoted in place of open dumping.
- Recycling and reuse of materials like Paper, Metals and Glass is to be
encouraged.
- Organic waste, if treated properly, becomes a good quality compost.
*******

78
Lecture-14
GLOBAL WARMING
14.1 GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
The atmosphere is able to keep the earth habitable because some of its
constituent gases can absorb heat radiated from the earth’s surface preventing it
from escaping into space. These gases are called as greenhouse gases (GHGs).
They act as a glass pan of a green house which allow solar radiations to pass
through and heat the surface of the earth but does not allow the heat radiated from
the ground to pass through, thereby trapping it in the process. This heat trapping
phenomenon is known as greenhouse effect. It is a natural phenomenon without
which earth would be to too cold to support life.
Some of the sun’s rays that penetrate the layer of CO2 strike the earth and are
converted into heat. The heated earth reradiates this absorbed energy as radiations
of longer wavelengths, much of this does not pass through CO2 and water vapor in
the atmosphere and adds to the heating of the earth’s atmosphere. There are
several greenhouse gases, the major and important ones are carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), nitrous oxide (NOx) and ozone (O3) as
shown in the table 1.
CO2 and CH4 are produced by natural as well as man-made sources while others
such as CFCs are purely man-made.
(SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF GREEN HOUSE EFFECT)
The greenhouse effect phenomenon, indeed, is a reality. Form mid-1700 to
2000, all the major greenhouse gases have increased at a rapid rate, CFCs by 5%,
methane by about 1%, CO2 by 0.5% and N2O by 0.3 -0.4 % a year(table.2) List of
countries ranked by total greenhouse-gas emissions in 2005 by WRI is shown in
table.3. Due to the heat trapping characteristic of GHGs, the temperature of the
planet earth has been kept at an average temperature of about 150
C which
otherwise could have been at temperature of about -180
C without CO2 envelop and
other greenhouse gases (i.e., the greenhouse effect for the earth is 330
C).

79
Earth’s greenhouse effect turns out to be consistent with temperature on the
two neighboring planets, Mars and Venus. Mars has very thin atmosphere and
virtually no CO2 and maintains an average temperature of -530
C, while Venus which
is about 70,000 times larger than that of the earth, with its CO2 dominated
atmosphere, suffers from -460
to +4770
C (i.e., greenhouse effect for Venus planet
is 5230
C).
Table.1 Major Greenhouse Gases as studied by WRI
Name Composition Sources of emission
Contributi
on (%)
Carbon
dioxide
CO2
1. Fossil fuel combustion
(coal, oil, natural gas)
2. Deforestation and land use
changes.
61
Methane CH4
1. Enteric fermentations in cattle and
insects
2. Biomass burning and Garbage
land fills
3. Coal mines and natural gas leaks
4. Rice puddle fields
5. Swamps and tundra
15
Chlorofloro
carbons
(CFCs)
CFC11
CFC12
CFC113
CFC114
CFC115 etc
1.Aerosols (spray propellants)
2. Refrigeration and air-Conditioning
3. Plastic foams
4. Industrial solvents
5. Sterilants for medical supplies
11
Nitrous
oxide
N2O
1. Fertilizer use
2. Fossil fuel combustion
3. Biomass burning
4. Changing land use
4
Ozone and
others
O3, CO2CO,
NO, NO2, SO2
C2H4
1.Chloro fluoro carbons at
stratosphere (released by jet planes)
9

80
In the past, before the industrial revolution, most CO2 and CH4 came from
natural sources and CFCs were not known. Natural processes kept the levels of
these gases within the limits. As a result, through most of human history, the earth’s
atmosphere blanket was held at the average global temperature at around 150
C.
but over the last 100 years the levels of the entire major greenhouse gases have
been raising steadily, principally as a result of human activity such as
industrialization, deforestation and agriculture.
Table.2 The trend of GHGs increase from mid-1800 to 2000 A.D.
S.NO Green House Gas Annual
increase
1 CFC’S 5
2 Methane 1
3 CO2 0.5
4 N2O 0.3-0.4
Table3 List of countries ranked by total greenhouse-gas emissions in 2005. (It is
based on data for carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, perfluorocarbon,
hydrofluorocarbon, and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources
Institute.)
14.2 CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING
14.2.1 CO2:
The single largest contributor to the global greenhouse effect is CO2 which is
produced wherever fossil fuels are burnt. It has been estimated that by mid-1700
the average CO2 level in the earth’s atmosphere was 280 ppm that stood 315 ppm
by 1988 (which is about 375ppm as of now) and by the middle of 2050 if the current
Rank Country Percentage
of global
total
1 China 16.36%
2 United States of America 15.74%
3 European Union (27) 12.08%
4 Brazil 6.47%
5 Indonesia 4.63%
6 Russian Federation 4.58%
7 India 4.25%
8 Japan 3.17%
9 Germany 2.27%
10 Canada 1.83%

81
rate of fossil fuel burning continues, it is likely to reach 600 ppm. The present
growth rate of CO2 is 0.5%.
The Mauna Loa observatory at Hawaii Island constitute the longest continuous
record of atmospheric CO2 concentrations available in the world. This record is
considered to be a precise record and a reliable indicator of the regional trend in the
concentrations of atmospheric CO2 in the middle layers of the troposphere.
14.2.2 METHANE:
Another important greenhouse gas which could affect the climate of the earth
is methane (CH4 ), the level of which is rising alarmingly. It is significant to note that
the gas is only about 5% of that CO2 , but it is 20-30 times more effective than that
of CO2 in producing greenhouse effect. Most methane is produced by natural
biological processes such as bacterial action in the gut of cattle and other
ruminants, in Paddy puddle fields, marshy lands, garbage dumps and landfills. To
some extent it is also produced by mining of coal and oil distribution of natural gas.
Leakage of natural gas from pipelines or geological fissures also contributes to the
atmospheric methane level. In mid-1700 the concentration of methane averaged
800 ppm and stood at 1700 ppm 1988. It is rising at the rate of 1-2% a year.
14.2.3 Chlorofluorocarbons:
The third major greenhouse gas is a group of synthetics, called
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and these versatile chemical were manufactured only
in 1960s. They are used extensively as refrigerants, plastic foaming agents, aerosol
propellants and cleaning agents. CFCs first attracted the attention of scientists in
1970s when it was discovered that they could have destructive effects on the
stratospheric ozone layer. As a greenhouse gas, it is twenty thousand times as
powerful as CO2. Moreover, they are extremely persistent and can remain in the
stratosphere for decades.
Although CFCs stand after CO2 In their contribution to global warming but their
atmospheric concentrations are extremely small. The current level of CFCs is about

82
700 ppm and is rising at 5% a year. CFCs once released in to atmosphere, persists
for hundred years. Americans are successful in recapturing the CFCs present in the
atmosphere.
CFCs contribute global warming through two different routes:
1. As greenhouse gas like CO2 , can trap heat resulting in rise in global
temperature
2. Directly responsible for destructing the OZONE layer, consequently
responsible for increased temperature in the troposphere.
14.2.3.1 A simple version of stratospheric O3 depletion by the breakdown of CFCs
is shown in the following figure.
Cfcl3 (Chlorofluorocarbons)
Cfcl2
Cl + O3
Cl
Clo O2
NO2
Chlorine Nitrate HCl
HNO3Free chlorine molecules
U.V.RADIATION
+
+

83
14.2.4 Nitrous oxide
Nitrous oxide is yet another greenhouse gas. It is produced by burning of coal,
oil and biomass along with CO2. it is also released from nitrogen based fertilizers
applied in agricultural soils. During the pre-industrial period, the atmospheric level
of nitrous oxide was 280 ppm which stood to 310 ppm in 1988. the present level is
around 330 ppm and rising at 0.3 % to 0.4 % every year.
14.3 IMPACT OF GLOBAL WARMING ON CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTIVITY
The Stockholm Environment Institute has reported that natural ecosystems
can adapt to a temperature rise at the most 0.10
C per decade. However, IPCC
(International panel for climate change) (1990) has predicted that the increase in
global average temperature of about 10
C above the present value by 2025. Many
scientists believe that temperature would rise more than 20
C within next 50 years.
Such a rise in global temperature would have the following adverse environmental
consequences:
14.3.1 Biomass and Ecosystem:
Many species particularly plants would be unable to migrate to new and
suitable habitats., leading to rapid loss of biological diversity and a resultant loss
of natural resources of great economic potential. Vegetation influences
hydrological cycle and the relationship between climate, vegetation and
hydrological cycle continue to be fragile. India could have more rainfall during
monsoon to cause devastating floods and severe erosion. Wheat crop in
particular would be the victim of increase in temperature and precipitation
pattern.
14.3.2 Monsoon pattern & Sea level rise:
The increase in temperature will cause more frequent storms in many parts of
the world, including the regions which never experienced any storms earlier.
Oceans will warm and expand, causing sea levels to rise and flood many of the
world’s highly productive deltaic areas, including vast tracts of Bangladesh,
Egypt, Indonesia, china and India. Island nations such as Netherlands, Maldives
face the threat of inundation and wipeout all biological life including human
habitats. Melting of glaciers and icecaps, as a consequence of global warming
would also contribute to rise in sea level.

84
14.3.3 Agriculture and Food production: Climate change would pose serious
problem for agriculture especially rain fed farming such as
(1) change in the length of growing season affecting mean yield,
(2) change in the incidence of pests and diseases and weeds and
(3) loss of useful resources.
Global warming could severely disrupt marine ecosystems as well as
agriculture. The flooding of many coastal wetlands as the oceans as the
oceans rise would mean the loss of nurseries for many fish, shrimp and
birds.
14.3.4 Groundwater: Groundwater supplies in several parts of the world could
become contaminated with sea water as the sea water move into near
coastal lands creating even drinking water problem in addition to the problem
of quality irrigation water.
14.4 Measures to reduce the buildup of GHGs
The suggested measures are as follows:
1. Improving the efficiency of energy production and use
2. Consumption of less carbonaceous fuels, switching up from carbon –
intensive fuels such as coal to hydrogen – rich fuels, such as natural gas
3. Rapid development of carbon free energy sources, such as solar, wind, tidal,
geothermal and nuclear energy.
4. Total ban on production and use of CFCs
5. Halting deforestation and encouraging massive afforestation and
reforestation.
6. Developing consensus among many countries that “atmosphere” is a
common heritage of human kind and need to be protected.
*******

85
Lecture-15
CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT
15.1 INTRODUCTION
In agriculture there is continuous demand for improved varieties / plant types
that increase both crop production and quality of farm produce. Plant growth and
development are dependent in the first instance on genetic potential and then on
the interaction with the environment as well as growing conditions. The variations
between plants caused due to differences in environmental variations such as light
(radiation), temperature, moisture etc. are not inherited. The variations originating
due to the genetic makeup are only heritable.
To study the effect of genetic factors, the varying effects of environment must
exclude. Similarly, to know the exact influence of a single environmental factor any
variation caused by genetic effects must be excluded by using pure (homozygous)
lines or by using vegetatively propagated clones.
Of late commercial cultivation of high value crops under controlled
environmental conditions is gaining popularity. In this context controlled
environments are very much useful in meeting the above requirements.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Controlled environment is not a new concept. High quality vegetables and
other crops have been produced in controlled environment, such green houses for
centuries.
As early as 14-37 A.D.: Romans used talc window covering to extend plant growth.
By the end of 15th
century; Green / glasshouses were made use intensively N.
Europe, in Dutch.
Middle of 1800 s : hot beds used in producing the seedling .
Late 1800s : Structures for growing several crops appears regularly.
1921- F.G Gregory first person to make a study the growth of plants for longer
period of time in a glasshouse.
1943- F.W.Went – Showed the possibility of growing plants by providing a wide
range of different controlled environment with in a single installation.
15.2 PURPOSES OF CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT
Controlled environment incorporates the manipulation of air and root – zone
temperatures, relative humidity and radiant energy (light), air / wind velocity,
concentration of CO2, root zone O2 concentration, nutrients and moisture supply to
control plant / crop growth as per requirement in research and also in areas where
natural environment limits / prohibits normal plant growth.

86
The following are various purposes for which controlled environments are used are:
15.2.1 Production of uniform plant material
In research to conduct experiments availability of uniform plant
(homozygous) material with little of no variation among themselves is a pre-requisite
to test any hypothesis. Use of uniform plant material greatly facilitates research by
reducing the number of replications required enabling the layout simplified. With
controlled environments now available, it is possible to produce plant / crop material
with great degree of uniformity.
Commercially, banana cultivation is now making the use of plantlets
produced in controlled environment / tissue culture
15.2.2 Reproduction of seasonal conditions
Many a times it may not be possible to study a particular aspect of plant
growth, for example cold tolerance in crops such as rice, which occurs at a certain
season, thus restricting the experimentation to off season in a year. By using
suitable controlled environments for example, growth cabinets, it is possible
reproduce the particular seasonal conditions and carryout experiments, at any time
during the year irrespective of weather, thus accelerating experimentation
programme.
15.2.3 Altering growth and development
a) Hastening growth rate:
Where rapid growth is needed in experimental work, it is possible to
provide conditions that induce and sustain high growth rates, once the requirements
of plant are known. In United State commercially lettuce seedlings take about 24
days in summer and over 48 days in winter. Farmer produce lettuce seedling in
winter using controlled environments with supplemental lighting where the grow–out
time is reduced to 30 days for marketable produce.
b) Acceleration of development:
When there is a requirement of plants producing viable seeds to study the
plants through successive generations, plants are brought to flowering pre-maturely

87
to set seed in controlled environment by altering growth conditions in such a way
that there is rapid phonological phage occurring terminating in seed.
c) Retarding natural development:
Just similar to hastening up maturation, it is possible to use keep plants in
vegetative condition by using controlled environment and prevent them from
maturing.
15.2.4 Studying the environmental factors on plant growth
The most important use of controlled environments world – wide is the study
of environment effects / variations in relation to growth and development of plants /
crops as well as animals / organisms. Normally, weather is infinitely variable,
unpredictable and complex. It is most difficult to determine precise effect of any one
factor on growth and development of an organism / plant. Through controlled
environments it is possible to study the influence environmental factors at various
levels and duration plants.
With the availability of controlled environments, now it is possible to study the
alarming “Global warming- Green house effect” and even predict the future through
computer simulation. For example scientists at International Rice Research Institute
(IRRI), Philippines and several others assessed how may be affected by UV- B
radiation, increases in CO2 and potential increase in global temperature. They also
analyzed and studied precisely the possible contribution of rice cultivation to climate
change through emission of methane (CH4) and other greenhouse gasses.
Controlled environments are also finding application in space research with
National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA). Scientists are developing a
working model of specially designed space growth chamber that can be used in
orbiting space stations to produce fresh vegetables for astronauts on long duration
missions.
15.2.5 Testing variety response to weather
In any crop improvement programme, varieties need to be developed suited
to particular area of with a wider adaptability. It would take many years to decide
whether a variety can grow and yield better is a particular area. With controlled
environments made available, it is possible now, to ascertain the response of new
varieties by comparing their reactions with those of established local varieties in any
are of known meteorological characteristics.

88
15.3 DESIGN OF STRUCTURES
Controlled environments encompass various systems and practices of
controlled plant growth ranging from hot beds and plastic row tunnels to
hydroponics; growth rooms to completely enclosed artificial lighted conditions. The
complexity and cost of equipment depends upon accuracy, precision and space
needed. From stand point of commercial production, these require significant
investments in capital, labor and growth skills for crops of high economic value,
necessitating yield substantially superior in quality and quantity. In Japan, where
available land is scarce, controlled environments have become essential segment
of agriculture industry.
The salient features of various types of structures are as follows
15.3.1 Greenhouse / Glasshouse:
In general, greenhouse / glasshouse are large structures designed to provide
protection from variable weather conditions such as excessive heat or cold, winds,
hails and snow and create an internal environment conducive for plant growth. The
entire roof and often part of wall in the structure are glaze (glazing – a derivation
from additional use of glass as a covering material) and exposed to normal light.
There are three types of covering typically used in greenhouse: glass, plastic or
polyethylene films, rigid plastic panels. In early times, glass was used in
greenhouses (hence, the name glasshouse) a covering. At present, 80% new
greenhouses in U.S.A., Netherlands and Germany are covered with plastic
polycarbonate panels have greater tolerance to hail storms than acrylic used in
greenhouses it farms
15.3.2 Growth Cabinets:
These are relatively small structures and inexpensive with sleek design and
have controlled mechanisms of all environmental variables such as light,
temperature, relative humidity etc. enable growing of plants / organisms as desired
with high degree of precision. These are not walk- in chamber where the operator
gains access from only outside
15.3.3 Temperature Controlled Rooms:
These rooms are large enough to admit operator / trolleys, with fine control of
temperature often relative humidity, but with relatively low light intensity. These are

89
unsuitable for long – term grow of higher plants and hence referred to as
“temperature controlled rooms” rather than growth rooms. They are largely used by
scientists concerned with research on animals and / or insects. These are used
scientists in plant science research as dark rooms to house plants at night. They
provide constant temperature control or even cyclic temperatures.
15.3.4 Growth rooms :
These are also large rooms with ample pathways for the operator (s) to move
around with provision to regulate temperature precisely within + 20
C by standard
heating / cooling systems. Temperature ranges from – 5 to +450
C with a constant
60 – 80% relative humidity. These rooms are not exposed to din sunlight but
equipped with a provision for sufficient artificial light. In some structures, the light
are include within the experimental volume (internal lighting) while in others lights
are housed above a transparent screen and thus are separated from experimental
area (external lighting). Compared to growth cabinet these structures are greater in
cost. These structures find extensive use in tissue culture / biotechnology
laboratories.
15.3.5 Phytotrons :
Phytotrons are complex installations which include a large number of
individually controlled growth rooms consisting glass / greenhouses, where plants
can be moved easily from one controlled environment another. Just as in the case
of others all the environmental factors can be precisely controlled in each unit. The
term “Phytotrons” was first applies after Fritz W. Went who built the Earhart Plant
Research Laboratory, at the California Institute of Technology in 1949. These offer
a wide range of environment simultaneously and very expensive with high degree of
precision in environmental control facilities available for long – term research also.
The large number of controlled units in phytotron also makes possible to investigate
the interaction of various environmental factors on plants simultaneously. The
building of phytotrons may become feasible only after the development of relatively
low cost a conditioning systems and adequate lighting systems, utilizing high out –
put florescent lamps.
Phytotrons are built in a few countries viz., U.S.A., Canada, Australia,
France, Germany, Japan and states in Russia. The most modern phytotron was
built at IARI, New Delhi in Novermber, 1998.

90
15.3.6 Biotrons :
It has facility to control the environmental factors, but designed to grow both
plants and animals / insects. Animals are grown for producing meat profitably.
Biotron facilitates the study of insects/ incidence on plant and plant behavior at
desired controlled conditions. A biotron is present at University of Wisconsin, U.S.A.
15.3.7 Climatron :
The latest controlled environment installation is climatron in which there is
precise control for both soil and air. The first climatron was built by Fritz Went at
Botanical Garden in St. Lewis, Missouri, U.S.A has a large “Plexiglas” dome in
which temperature gradients were established allowing (a) warm days warm nights,
(b) warm days and cool night and (c) cool days and cool nights in different parts of
unit. World’s most ultra–modern climatron is in Japan.
15.4 Case studies of Commercial Production
15.4.1 Commercial Production of Chrysanthemum:
Chrysanthemum is a short day plant which flowers only when the daily light
period is less than critical period. Bud initiation takes place when the day length is
about 12.5 hours the temperature requirement being around 160
C. many cultivars
of chrysanthemums must be vernalized before they respond to day length. About 3
– 4 weeks of exposure to chilling temperatures are needed for full vernalization. The
optimum soil pH of about 6.5 is a must.
Commercial production of chrysanthemum through–out the year became
possible by controlling the light as well as temperature in controlled environment. In
summer when the daylight is longer, the plants are covered with black sateen (cloth)
to shorten daylight to about 12 hours. If uninterrupted darkness is longer then seven
hours, buds would invariably appear.
Preventing or delaying bud initiation
Depending upon market demand flowering is selectively prevented in
chrysanthemum. Artificial light has been used for many years to delay flowering in
chrysanthemum. Initially artificial light was used to the end of the natural daylight to
extend the photoperiod. Later on, from 1940s, use of a flash of light near the middle
of night was shown to be equally effective.

91
It is well known that the effectiveness of the night-breaks treatment is due to
the conversion of Phytochrome, red form (Pr) to Far-red form (Pfr) which can be
maintained at an effective level by intermittent lighting. Three seconds of light every
minute for four hours is as effective at preventing flowering as 1.5 minutes of light
every 30 minutes for 4 hours or even continuous light for 4 hours. The minimum
practicable cycle would be 30 seconds at 200 Lux in every 10 minutes. The night
period which is used for this treatment is between 11.00 p.m. and 3.00 a.m.
The use of cyclic night-break can save 80% of the power cost of lighting
system. The application of this system depends upon (a) the cultivar, (b) the
intended use and (c) the natural day length (the shorter the natural day, the night-
break period).
15.4.2 Commercial Production of Tomatoes :
Tomato is a day neutral plant in which flowering shows no photoperiodic
response. However, use of artificial light and proper temperature is beneficial in
raising tomatoes in regions at higher latitudes such as U.S.A. and Great Britain,
where especially in winter the day light is short, intensity of sunlight is less and
temperatures are the lowest.
Especially during frosty days when natural conditions are totally unfavorable,
growth rooms are used to raise tomato crop up to certain stage. The cost of
producing complete crop with controlled environment is relatively high. In
glasshouses artificial light is used to provide supplemental light and the temperature
is maintained at about 16-180
C. the plants grow faster, come to flowering earlier
and yield better when they are provided with 16 hours of 160 watt / m2
and the
day/night temperature of 26/200
C respectively. Usually the plants are grown on
tiered benches to make best advantage of available heated space.
GROWTH CABINET GROWTH ROOMS

92
UNIFORM PRODUCTION OF PLANT
MATERIAL THROUGH TISSUE CULTURE
PHYTOTRON FACILITY
POLYHOUSE
*******

93
Lecture-16
CARBON DIOXIDE FERTILIZATION
16.1 Definition:
CO2 fertilization refers to enhancing CO2 concentration ambient to foliage
(crop canopy) by artificial means.
16.2 Concept:
CO2 is the most important rate limiting factor to increase the crop canopy
photosynthesis. How ever, Photorespiration is common in all C3 crops (like wheat,
rice, Soybean, sugar beat etc.,) which are an important part of the world’s food
supply. In some of these plants photorespiration reduces as much as 50% of the net
assimilation of CO2 by photosynthesis. Therefore it is essential to find out the means
to inhibit photorespiration to increase the crop yield.
Other equally important food crops – Corn, Sorghum, Sugarcane exhibit much
less photo respiration. This difference can be explained in part by the fact that these
species are C4 plants carrying out C4 photosynthesis. In this process the high
concentration of CO2 in the bundle sheath chloroplasts will selectively favor
carboxylation rather than oxygenation and little phosphoglycolate will be produced.
Therefore, raising the CO2 concentration increases net photosynthesis and
decreases photorespiration greatly in C3 plants.
The efficacy of CO2 enrichment in increasing yields especially in closed
environments such as Green houses is well documented.

94
From the above figure it is clearly understood that below 200 PPM,
plants do not have enough CO2 to carry on the photosynthetic process and
essentially stop growing. Because 300 PPM is the atmospheric CO2 content, this
amount is chosen as the 100% growth point. It is observed from the chart that
increased CO2 can double or some times more growth rate is also possible on
most normal plants. Above 1500ppm the growth rate decreases and at 2,000 PPM,
CO2 starts to become toxic to plants.
16.3 IMPORTANCE:
1. CO2 fertilization is an untapped modern agro technique which is not yet
harnessed commercially for maximizing crop productivity. It is certain that the
economic returns from the crops following this method exceed several folds when
compared to the cost of the treatment. Though it is difficult to apply this technique to
field grown crops it is not impossible.
2. Global atmospheric CO2 concentration is on rise at the rate of 0.5 % per annum.
Thus exploration of interactive effects of CO2 and temperature has become an
important area of research. CO2 fertilization technique helps in doing such kind of
simulation experiments to know the response of different crops at elevated CO2
concentrations and temperatures.
16.4 Sources of CO2 generation
1. Light stimulated CO2 evolution from foliage in situ
C3 plants generate CO2 through photorespiration. Around 3,00,000 C3
plants exists in the world
2. Release of CO2 by animals and human beings in the process of respiration
3. Release of CO2 from industries and automobiles.
4. Soil respiration
a. Liming of acid soils increases CO2 concentration
5. Natural Carbon reserves: Carbon reserves on the earth account to 67 x
1015
metric tonnes. World’s largest reserves are found in Mississippi delta
region and Rio Grande valley of Texas.
6. CO2 is released from manure and compost pits in the process of microbial
decomposition.
7. Pure forms of CO2 like dry ice and cylinder CO2 are some of the sources.

95
16.5 METHODS OF CO2 FERTILIZATION
In green houses CO2 can be made available through
a. Direct utilization of exhausts from combustion of fossil fuels
b. Production of pure CO2 and its distribution through perforated plastic
pipes
In field CO2 can be made available through
a. Mixing of carbonates reserves with water in trickle irrigation systems
b. Sowing of pellets of dry ice
c. Installation of plastic pipes and optimal release of CO2 in crop rows
d. Spraying of carbonated water on to the foliage
16.6 EFFECT OF ELEVATED CO2 ON CROP GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND
YIELDS:
Doubling of CO2 in the ambience of crops ( i.e addition of 300 ppm
CO2 to the existing CO2 conc.) leads to a yield increase of 15% for CAM
plants, 49% for C3 cereals and 20% for C4 cereals (Idso and Idso, 2000).
The following are some of the striking responses of CO 2 fertilization.
a) Seed yield
i. Plant growth and seed yields of soybean were increased by
45% with 1200 ppm CO2 level which was a result of more pods
and seeds per plant borne on longer and larger branches.
b) Source and sink relationship:
i. A complete study on garden tomato, soya bean and maize
exposed to supra normal CO2 levels revealed cell volume
changes and disruption of chloroplast structure by excessive
starch grain accumulation. This problem is also observed in
Cotton plant at 1000 ppm of CO2 concentration.
ii. In this case, increased concentration of CO2 has increased
yield up to certain range only. Beyond that limit, the cultivars we
are having at present are not in a position to utilise the benefit
fully. This is because of increased strength of the source and a
corresponding non-increase in sink drawing ability. This will
lead to feed back inhibition and that is the reason for more
accumulation of starch. Therefore if at all the benefits of CO2

96
fertilization are to be harnessed completely there is a need to
develop cultivars with increased source strength, translocation
efficiency and sink drawing ability. A positive aspect in this
context is that, an apparent genetic variation is present in
almost every species or cultivar to increasing CO2, for
processes like net photo synthesis, growth rates, crop
phenology etc.
c) Crop architecture:
i. With increased CO2 concentration leaf area increases. This will
further enhance LAI and biomass in case of open canopy
systems. While mutual shading reduces photosynthesis in
closed canopy systems. Therefore, to get full benefit from this
technique slight modification in crop architecture is to be
achieved.
d) Change in crop duration
i. Tomato plant grows more rapidly under enhanced CO2
conditions. Its flowering date advanced, anthesis accelerated
and early maturity of fruits is observed. Fruit size and number
of tomatoes also increased with 10-70% increase in fruit yields.
Thus more yield is produced in less time.
e) Accelerated maturity
i. CO2 fertilization has accelerated the maturity in Lettuce. A
150% increase in yield is observed in Grand rapids variety of
lettuce.
f) Nitrogen fixation
i. Symbiotic and Non symbiotic N2 fixation is increased in an
atmosphere enriched with 1000 ppm CO2. This might be a
result of more availability of carbon and changed C:N ratio.
g) Drought tolerance
i. Wheat grown at 350 and 1000 ppm with and without water
stress demonstrated that, increase in CO2 completely
compensated for water stress.
ii. Similarly CO2 enrichment has increased the root to top ratio in
beans. This is a very important trait for legumes to impart
drought tolerance.

97
h) Increased number of pistillate flowers
i. In cucumbers, early maturity and higher yield is observed with
CO2 enhancement. This is because of increase in number of
pistillate flowers.
i) Increased lateral branching
i. Lateral branching was promoted in case of Carnation.
j) Flower size and quality improved
i. Large flowers, early flowering, lengthy floral stalks, improved
texture and quality of floral blooms, higher yields and shorter
production periods was achieved with CO2 fertilization in
Roses, carnation, chrysanthemum, antirrhinum, petunias, snap
dragons and geranium. With CO2 fertilization it was found that
Summer varieties could be grown in winter
16.7 Limitations
1. Extending large scale fertilization to open fields cause differences in leaf
photosynthesis among plant species
2. Photorespiration presence or absence causes differences among species
3. Leaf orientation and architecture causes differences in diffusion of CO2
4. Anatomical structures have relevance to certain type of biochemical
pathways
5. Stomatal resistance to CO2 diffusion on one or both surfaces of leaf
6. Differences in rates and types of dark reaction
7. Optimal response to enrichment depends on levels of light intensity,
temperature, soil moisture, nutrient availability and crop varietal response
8. Transportation costs of pure or liquid or gas forms of CO2 to places which do
not have natural carbonate sources or places which do not have storage
facilities
16.8 ECOLOGICAL MODELS
Extensive data on different types of ecosystems compelled the need of
application of mathematics, Statistics and computers in ecology. This is to derive
possible conclusions from these data and to compare the nature and direction of
development of different kinds of ecosystems.

98
The main objective of such mathematical applications is, to describe detailed
information on the structure and function of ecosystem. This will be achieved
through equations and models in an abstract form. Such models are useful in
comparison and management of different ecosystems.
16.8.1 CONCEPT
A model is a formulation that mimics a real world phenomenon by which
predictions can be made. Ashby (1956) defined a model as homo-morphism of
some real system which it represents.
An ecological model is a mathematical expression that can be used to
describe or predict ecological processes or endpoints such as population
abundance (or density), community species richness, productivity, or distributions of
organisms (Rousseau et al., 2000).
Precisely, an ecological model is the quantitative description of the
relationship between biological processes and the environmental factors that affect
them. Models, in simplest form may be verbal or graphic (informal), but ultimately,
must be statistical and mathematical (formal) if quantitative predictions are to be
reasonably good.
16.8.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF MODELS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
Different environmental problems like flooding, upland soil and stream bank
erosion, pollution from agricultural run off require the understanding of the natural
processes leading to these problems. Mathematical models can be useful tools in
simulating and simplifying these complex processes and help find solutions.
Agricultural models are mathematical equations that represent the reactions that
occur within the plant and the interactions between the plant and its environment.
Some of such models are:
A.Empirical model
Empirical models are direct descriptions of observed data and are generally
expressed as regression equations (with one or a few factors) and are used to
estimate the final yield.
Examples of such models include the response of crop yield to fertilizer
application, the relationship between leaf area and leaf size in a given plant
species and the relationship between stalk height alone or coupled with stalk
number and / or diameter and final yield in the sugarcane

99
B.Dynamic Models
These models predict changes in ecosystem status with time as a function of
exogenous parameters.
Ex. 1. Models that predict the changing number of bolls on a cotton plant
throughout the growing season.
2.The changing soil water content or temperature at a certain depth
throughout the season.
C) Phenological Models
It is a broad class of models that predict crop development, from one growth
stage to another. These predictions are generally based on accumulated heat
units.
D) Stochastic Models
A probability element is attached to each output. For each set of inputs different
outputs are given along with probabilities. Thus, we will get various possible
alternatives for decision making
Eg: Weather variables and the probability of occurrence of insets, diseases and
weeds.
E) Mechanistic models: These models explain not only the relationship between
weather parameters and yield, but also the mechanism of these models (explains
the relationship of influencing dependent variables). These models are based on
physical selection. Therefore, they are sometimes referred as physical and
physiological models.
Eg. Up take of Nitrogen by the root system from the soil. It is based upon the
soil nitrogen content and the rate of solution flow to the root. Thus physical
placement of the fertilizer with regard to the plant root system is important as
well as soil and plant nitrogen transformation.
F) Surrogate Variables
These variables are calculated by the model and used to estimate the value of
another quantity that the model does not directly calculate.
Ex. Calculation of dry matter production rate from the estimated transpiration
rate by some modelers.

100
G) Simulation models:
Computer models, in general, are a mathematical representation of a real
world system. One of the main goals of crop simulation models is to estimate
agricultural production as a function of weather and soil conditions as well as crop
management. These models use one or more sets of differential equations, and
calculate both rate and state variables over time, normally from planting until
harvest maturity or final harvest.
Models are now available for almost most of the crops. A list of them are given
below
S.No Crop Model name
1 Rice *
CERES –Rice, ORYZA-1, ORYZA-W
2 Wheat CERES-Wheat, WTGROWS, APSIM – N wheat
3 Maize CERES-Maize
4 Sorghum CERES- Sorghum
5 Cotton GOSSYM
6 Peanut PNUTGRO
7 Potato SIMPOTATO
8 Soybean SOYGRO
9 Sugarcane SUCROS , CANEGRO
*
CERES: CROP ENVIRONMENT RESOURCE SYNTHESIS
APSIM: AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS SIMULATOR
Computers need an instructional language to perform functions in a definite
order.The more commonly used languages are
1. Fortran
2. CSMP (Continuous system modelling programme)
3. ILM (intermediate level model)
4. Pascal
5. C and C++
6. JAVA
*******

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