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Biological presentation by Joel Haisa M251342F
- 1. LECTURE 1 1 INTRODUCTIONTO BIOLOGY
- 2. The termBiology is derived from two Greek words Bio means living Logos means course” Biology a branch of science which deals with the study of living things What is Biology?
- 3. Aristotle isregarded as "father of Biology". Biology mainly deals with plant and animal kingdom and is divided into two main branches. ◦ 1)Zoology:branch of biology that deals with the study of animal kingdom. Father of zoology is Aristotle. ◦ 2)Botany:branch of biology that deals with the study of plant kingdom. Father of botany is Theoprastus.
- 5. 1)Acarology:Study of mitesand ticks 2)Araneology:Study of spiders 3)Carcinology:Study of Crustaceans 4)Chorology:Study of geographical distribution 5)Cnidology:Study of coelenterates 6)Conchology:Study of molluscans shells 7)Ctelogy: Study of Acquired Characters 8)Ethnology:Study of human race 9)Ethology:Study of behaviour of animal 10)Etiology:Study of diseases Other branches of biology
- 6. 11)Eugenics:Study of improvementof human race by altering genetic combination 12)Helminthology:Study of helminthes 13)Ichnology:Study of fossils of fishes 14)Ichthyology:Study of fishes 15)Ornithology:Study of birds 16)Herpetology:Study of reptiles 17)Ophilogy:Study of snakes 18)Myrmecology:Study of ants 19)Phenology:Study of birds migration 20)Saurology:Study of lizards
- 7. 21)Tectology:Study of structuralorganiztion and morphology of animals 22)Tricology:Study of hairs 23)Zoophytology:Study of drifting organisms 24)Actinobiology:Study of radiations on organisms 25)Agroforestry:Study of land use for cultivating herbaceous and tree crops 26)Agronomy:Management of farms and cultivation of crops 27)Agrostology:Study of grasses 28)Algology:Study of algae 29)Arboriculture:Study of cultivation of ornamental trees 30)Olericulture:Study of cultivation of vegetables
- 8. 31)Palynology:Study of morphologyof pollen grains 32)Pomology:Study of fruits and fruits yielding plants 33)Anatomy :Study of internal stucture 34)Silviculture:Study of timber yielding plants 35)Zymology:Study of Fermentation
- 11. Relationship of Biologywith other Disciplines
- 12. Life arose morethan 3.5 billion years ago First organisms (living things) were single celled Only life on Earth for millions of years Organisms changed over time (evolved) 12 Biology – The Study of Life
- 13. New organisms arose fromolder kinds Today there are millions of species They inhabit almost every region of Earth today 13
- 14. Fundaments Properties ofLife Five fundamental characteristics 1. Cellular organization 2. Energy utilization 3. Homeostasis 4. Growth, development, & reproduction 5. Heredity 14
- 15. 1. Cellular organization •All living things are composed of one or more cells • Cells carry out the basic activities of living These paramecia are complex single- celled protists 15
- 16. 2. Energy utilization Allliving things use energy • Moving, growing, and thinking require energy Energy is captured from sunlight by plants and algae through photosynthesis Other organisms extract energy from plants or from plant-eating animals 16
- 17. 3. Homeostasis All livingthings maintain relatively constant internal conditions Organisms keep their interior conditions relatively constant even when the environment varies 17
- 18. 4. Growth, development,& reproduction Bacteria increase in size and simply split in two Complex multicellular organisms grow by increasing the number of cells and develop by producing different kinds of cells 18
- 19. 19 Growth Grow occursas the result of cell division and cell enlargement Cell division is the formation of two cells from a preexisting cell New cells enlarge as they mature When a cell grows to a size where its surface area isn’t big enough for its volume, the cell divides
- 20. Copyright Cmassengale 20 Theprocess by which an adult organism arise is called development ◦ Repeated cell divisions and cell differentiation Development
- 21. Copyright Cmassengale 21 Reproduction Allspecies have the ability to reproduce ◦ Not essential to survival of individual but is essential for continuation of a species
- 22. 5. Heredity All organismspossess a genetic system based on the replication and duplication of DNA DNA transmits the characteristics of an organism from parent to offspring 22
- 23. 23 Responsiveness Respond tostimuli in the external environment Detect and respond to changes in light, heat, sound and chemical and mechanical contact Coordinates it’s responses
- 24. 24 Evolve Ability toadapt to their environment through the process of evolution Favorable characteristics are selected for and passed on to offspring Called adaptations Driven by natural selection or “survival of the fittest”
- 25. MAJOR THEMES INTHE STUDY OF LIFE
- 26. Cell structure andfunction Stability and homeostasis Reproduction and inheritance Evolution Interdependence of organisms Matter, energy, and organization 26 Themes of Biology
- 27. Key issues Anorganism’s adaptations to its environment are the result of evolution Evolution is the process of change that has transformed life on Earth Key biological questions: How does a single cell develop into an organism? How does the human mind work? How do living things interact in communities?
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- 29. Figure 1.3b Response tothe environment
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- 31. Figure 1.3d Growth anddevelopment
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- 35. Theme 1: TheCell Is an Organism’s Basic Unit of Structure and Function The cell is the lowest level of organization that can perform all activities required for life All cells Are enclosed by a membrane Use DNA as their genetic information
- 36. A eukaryotic cellhas membrane-enclosed organelles, the largest of which is usually the nucleus By comparison, a prokaryotic cell is simpler and usually smaller, and does not contain a nucleus or other membrane-enclosed organelles
- 37. Eukaryotic cell Prokaryotic cell Cytoplasm DNA (nonucleus) Membrane Nucleus (membrane- enclosed) Membrane Membrane- enclosed organelles DNA (throughout nucleus) 1 m Figure 1.8
- 38. Theme 2: FeedbackMechanisms Regulate Biological Systems Feedback mechanisms allow biological processes to self-regulate Negative feedback means that as more of a product accumulates, the process that creates it slows and less of the product is produced Positive feedback means that as more of a product accumulates, the process that creates it speeds up and more of the product is produced
- 39. Negative feedback A B D C Enzyme 2 Enzyme 3 D D D ExcessD blocks a step. (a) Negative feedback Enzyme 1 Figure 1.13a
- 40. W Enzyme 4 X Positive feedback Excess Z stimulatesa step. Y Z + Z Z Z (b) Positive feedback Enzyme 5 Enzyme 6 Figure 1.13b
- 41. Theme 3: TheContinuity of Life Is Based on Heritable Information in the Form of DNA Chromosomes contain most of a cell’s genetic material in the form of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) DNA is the substance of genes Genes are the units of inheritance that transmit information from parents to offspring The ability of cells to divide is the basis of all reproduction, growth, and repair of multicellular organisms
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- 43. Each chromosomehas one long DNA molecule with hundreds or thousands of genes Genes encode information for building proteins DNA is inherited by offspring from their parents DNA controls the development and maintenance of organisms
- 44. Figure 1.10 Sperm cell Nuclei containing DNA Eggcell Fertilized egg with DNA from both parents Embryo’s cells with copies of inherited DNA Offspring with traits inherited from both parents
- 45. Each DNA moleculeis made up of two long chains arranged in a double helix Each link of a chain is one of four kinds of chemical building blocks called nucleotides and nicknamed A, G, C, and T
- 46. Nucleus DNA Cell Nucleotide (b) Single strandof DNA A C T T A A T C C G T A G T (a) DNA double helix A Figure 1.11
- 47. Genes control proteinproduction indirectly DNA is transcribed into RNA then translated into a protein Gene expression is the process of converting information from gene to cellular product
- 48. Genomics: Large-Scale Analysisof DNA Sequences An organism’s genome is its entire set of genetic instructions The human genome and those of many other organisms have been sequenced using DNA-sequencing machines Genomics is the study of sets of genes within and between species
- 49. The genomics approachdepends on “High-throughput” technology, which yields enormous amounts of data Bioinformatics, which is the use of computational tools to process a large volume of data Interdisciplinary research teams
- 50. Theme 4: NewProperties Emerge at Each Level in the Biological Hierarchy Life can be studied at different levels, from molecules to the entire living planet The study of life can be divided into different levels of biological organization © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
- 51. The biosphere Ecosystems Tissues Organs and organsystems Communities Populations Organisms Organelles Cells Atoms Molecules Figure 1.4
- 52. Emergent Properties Emergent propertiesresult from the arrangement and interaction of parts within a system Emergent properties characterize nonbiological entities as well For example, a functioning bicycle emerges only when all of the necessary parts connect in the correct way
- 53. Theme 5: OrganismsInteract with Other Organisms and the Physical Environment Every organism interacts with its environment, including nonliving factors and other organisms Both organisms and their environments are affected by the interactions between them For example, a tree takes up water and minerals from the soil and carbon dioxide from the air; the tree releases oxygen to the air and roots help form soil
- 54. Animals eat leaves andfruit from the tree. Leaves take in carbon dioxide from the air and release oxygen. Sunlight CO2 O2 Cycling of chemical nutrients Leaves fall to the ground and are decomposed by organisms that return minerals to the soil. Water and minerals in the soil are taken up by the tree through its roots. Leaves absorb light energy from the sun. Figure 1.5
- 55. Humans have modifiedour environment For example, half the human-generated CO2 stays in the atmosphere and contributes to global warming Global warming is a major aspect of global climate change It is important to understand the effects of global climate change on the Earth and its populations
- 56. Theme 6: LifeRequires Energy Transfer and Transformation A fundamental characteristic of living organisms is their use of energy to carry out life’s activities Work, including moving, growing, and reproducing, requires a source of energy Living organisms transform energy from one form to another For example, light energy is converted to chemical energy, then kinetic energy Energy flows through an ecosystem, usually entering as light and exiting as heat
- 57. Figure 1.6 Heat Producers absorblight energy and transform it into chemical energy. Chemical energy Chemical energy in food is transferred from plants to consumers. (b) Using energy to do work (a) Energy flow from sunlight to producers to consumers Sunlight An animal’s muscle cells convert chemical energy from food to kinetic energy, the energy of motion. When energy is used to do work, some energy is converted to thermal energy, which is lost as heat. A plant’s cells use chemical energy to do work such as growing new leaves.
- 58. Figure 1.6a Chemical energy (a) Energyflow from sunlight to producers to consumers Sunlight Producers absorb light energy and transform it into chemical energy. Chemical energy in food is transferred from plants to consumers.
- 59. Figure 1.6b Heat (b) Usingenergy to do work When energy is used to do work, some energy is converted to thermal energy, which is lost as heat. An animal’s muscle cells convert chemical energy from food to kinetic energy, the energy of motion. A plant’s cells use chemical energy to do work such as growing new leaves.
- 60. Theme 7: Structureand Function Are Correlated at All Levels of Biological Organization Structure and function of living organisms are closely related For example, a leaf is thin and flat, maximizing the capture of light by chloroplasts For example, the structure of a bird’s wing is adapted to flight
- 61. Figure 1.7 (a) Wings (b)Wing bones
- 62. The Core Theme8: Evolution, the Overarching Theme of Biology Evolution explains patterns of unity and diversity in living organisms, unifying biology throughout history of life on Earth Organisms are modified descendants of common ancestors, and similar traits are explained by descent from these common ancestors Differences among organisms are explained by the accumulation of heritable changes
- 63. Unifying Themes inBiology Cell theory All organisms composed of cells Cells are life’s basic units All cells come from preexisting cells 63
- 64. Molecular basisof inheritance Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Sequence of 4 nucleotides encode cell’s information Gene – discrete unit of information Genome – entire set of DNA instructions Continuity of life depends on faithful copying of DNA into daughter cells 64
- 65. Structure andfunction Study structure to learn function Know a function – look for that structure in other organisms Example Receptor on human cell for insulin known Find similar molecule in a worm Might conclude this molecule functions the same in the worm 65
- 66. Cells areinformation-processing systems Information in DNA used to direct synthesis of cellular components Control of gene expression leads to different cells/ tissue types Cells process environmental information Glucose levels, presence of hormones Cells in multicellular organisms must coordinate with each other 66
- 67. Diversity oflife arises by evolution certain key characteristics shared by many related life- forms contrasts with the diversity of living things The diversity of life has arisen by evolutionary change – Much of it visible in the fossil record 67
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- 69. Nonequilibrium state Living systems are open systems Constant supply of energy needed Self-organizing properties at different levels Emergent properties from collections of molecules, cells, and individuals 69
- 70. Life depends onenergy from the sun 70
- 71. Life depends onenergy from the sun. Producers- produce the food for a typical ecosystem. Consumers – obtain energy from eating plants and animals Decomposers – break down organic matter 71
- 72. Two Approaches toStudying Biology Reductionism Systems Biology
- 73. The Power andLimitations of Reductionism • Reductionism is the reduction of complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study i.e., studying the molecular structure of DNA helps us to understand the chemical basis of inheritance • An understanding of biology balances reductionism with the study of emergent properties i.e., new understanding comes from studying the interactions of DNA with other molecules
- 74. Systems Biology A systemis a combination of components that function together Systems biology constructs models for the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems The systems approach poses questions such as How does a drug for blood pressure affect other organs? How does increasing CO2 alter the biosphere?