Galvin-operating System(Ch10)

Chapter 10: Virtual Memory
Background
Demand Paging
Process Creation
Page Replacement
Allocation of Frames
Thrashing
Operating System Examples
Silberschatz, Galvin 10.1 and Gagne Ó2002 Operating System

Background
Virtual memory – separation of user logical memory
from physical memory.
Only part of the program needs to be in memory for
execution.
Logical address space can therefore be much larger than
physical address space.
Allows address spaces to be shared by several processes.
Allows for more efficient process creation.
Virtual memory can be implemented via:
Demand paging
Demand segmentation

Virtual Memory That is Larger Than Physical
Memory

Demand Paging
Bring a page into memory only when it is needed.
Less I/O needed
Less memory needed
Faster response
More users
Page is needed Þ reference to it
invalid reference Þ abort
not-in-memory Þ bring to memory

Transfer of a Paged Memory to Contiguous Disk
Space

Valid-Invalid Bit
With each page table entry a valid–invalid bit is
associated
(1 Þ in-memory, 0 Þ not-in-memory)
Initially valid–invalid but is set to 0 on all entries.
Example of a page table snapshot.
Frame # valid-invalid bit
1
1
1
1
0
0
0

page table
During address translation, if valid–invalid bit in page
table entry is 0 Þ page fault.

Page Table When Some Pages Are Not in Main
Memory

Page Fault
If there is ever a reference to a page, first reference will
trap to
OS Þ page fault
OS looks at another table to decide:
Invalid reference Þ abort.
Just not in memory.
Get empty frame.
Swap page into frame.
Reset tables, validation bit = 1.
Restart instruction: Least Recently Used
block move
auto increment/decrement location

Steps in Handling a Page Fault

What happens if there is no free frame?
Page replacement – find some page in memory, but not
really in use, swap it out.
algorithm
performance – want an algorithm which will result in
minimum number of page faults.
Same page may be brought into memory several times.

Performance of Demand Paging
Page Fault Rate 0 £ p £ 1.0
if p = 0 no page faults
if p = 1, every reference is a fault
Effective Access Time (EAT)
EAT = (1 – p) x memory access
+ p (page fault overhead
+ [swap page out ]
+ swap page in
+ restart overhead)

Demand Paging Example
Memory access time = 1 microsecond
50% of the time the page that is being replaced has been
modified and therefore needs to be swapped out.
Swap Page Time = 10 msec = 10,000 msec
EAT = (1 – p) x 1 + p (15000)
1 + 15000P (in msec)

Process Creation
Virtual memory allows other benefits during process
creation:
- Copy-on-Write
- Memory-Mapped Files

Copy-on-Write
Copy-on-Write (COW) allows both parent and child
processes to initially share the same pages in memory.
If either process modifies a shared page, only then is the
page copied.
COW allows more efficient process creation as only
modified pages are copied.
Free pages are allocated from a pool of zeroed-out
pages.

Memory-Mapped Files
Memory-mapped file I/O allows file I/O to be treated as routine
memory access by mapping a disk block to a page in memory.
A file is initially read using demand paging. A page-sized portion
of the file is read from the file system into a physical page.
Subsequent reads/writes to/from the file are treated as ordinary
memory accesses.
Simplifies file access by treating file I/O through memory rather
than read() write() system calls.
Also allows several processes to map the same file allowing the
pages in memory to be shared.

Memory Mapped Files

Page Replacement
Prevent over-allocation of memory by modifying page-fault
service routine to include page replacement.
Use modify (dirty) bit to reduce overhead of page
transfers – only modified pages are written to disk.
Page replacement completes separation between logical
memory and physical memory – large virtual memory can
be provided on a smaller physical memory.

Need For Page Replacement

Basic Page Replacement
1. Find the location of the desired page on disk.
2. Find a free frame:
- If there is a free frame, use it.
- If there is no free frame, use a page replacement
algorithm to select a victim frame.
3. Read the desired page into the (newly) free frame.
Update the page and frame tables.
4. Restart the process.

Page Replacement

Page Replacement Algorithms
Want lowest page-fault rate.
Evaluate algorithm by running it on a particular string of
memory references (reference string) and computing the
number of page faults on that string.
In all our examples, the reference string is
1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

Graph of Page Faults Versus The Number of
Frames

First-In-First-Out (FIFO) Algorithm
Reference string: 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per
process)
4 frames
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
1
2
5
3
4
9 page faults
1
2
3
1
2
3
5
1
2
4
5 10 page faults
4 4 3
FIFO Replacement – Belady’s Anomaly
more frames Þ less page faults

FIFO Page Replacement

FIFO Illustrating Belady’s Anamoly

Optimal Algorithm
Replace page that will not be used for longest period of
time.
4 frames example
1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
1
2
3
4
6 page faults
4 5
How do you know this?
Used for measuring how well your algorithm performs.

Optimal Page Replacement

Least Recently Used (LRU)
Algorithm
Reference string: 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
1
2
3
5
5
4 3
Counter implementation
4
Every page entry has a counter; every time page is
referenced through this entry, copy the clock into the
counter.
When a page needs to be changed, look at the counters to
determine which are to change.

LRU Page Replacement

LRU Algorithm (Cont.)
Stack implementation – keep a stack of page numbers in
a double link form:
Page referenced:
move it to the top
requires 6 pointers to be changed
No search for replacement

Use Of A Stack to Record The Most Recent Page
References

LRU Approximation Algorithms
Reference bit
With each page associate a bit, initially = 0
When page is referenced bit set to 1.
Replace the one which is 0 (if one exists). We do not know
the order, however.
Second chance
Need reference bit.
Clock replacement.
If page to be replaced (in clock order) has reference bit = 1.
then:
set reference bit 0.
leave page in memory.
replace next page (in clock order), subject to same
rules.

Second-Chance (clock) Page-Replacement
Algorithm

Counting Algorithms
Keep a counter of the number of references that have
been made to each page.
LFU Algorithm: replaces page with smallest count.
MFU Algorithm: based on the argument that the page
with the smallest count was probably just brought in and
has yet to be used.

Allocation of Frames
Each process needs minimum number of pages.
Example: IBM 370 – 6 pages to handle SS MOVE
instruction:
instruction is 6 bytes, might span 2 pages.
2 pages to handle from.
2 pages to handle to.
Two major allocation schemes.
fixed allocation
priority allocation

Fixed Allocation
Equal allocation – e.g., if 100 frames and 5 processes,
give each 20 pages.
Proportional allocation – Allocate according to the size of
process.
size of process
total number of frames
m
s =
p
i i
S s
m
i
= å
=
a p s
i
allocation for
= = ´
S
i i
64 5
=
=
=
= ´ »
64 59
64
10
127
10
137
127
= ´ »
137
m
i
s
s
2
a
1
a
2

Priority Allocation
Use a proportional allocation scheme using priorities
rather than size.
If process Pi generates a page fault,
select for replacement one of its frames.
select for replacement a frame from a process with lower
priority number.

Global vs. Local Allocation
Global replacement – process selects a replacement
frame from the set of all frames; one process can take a
frame from another.
Local replacement – each process selects from only its
own set of allocated frames.

Thrashing
If a process does not have “enough” pages, the page-fault
rate is very high. This leads to:
low CPU utilization.
operating system thinks that it needs to increase the degree
of multiprogramming.
another process added to the system.
Thrashing º a process is busy swapping pages in and
out.

Thrashing
Why does paging work?
Locality model
Process migrates from one locality to another.
Localities may overlap.
Why does thrashing occur?
S size of locality total memory size

Locality In A Memory-Reference Pattern

Working-Set Model
D º working-set window º a fixed number of page
references
Example: 10,000 instruction
WSSi (working set of Process Pi) =
total number of pages referenced in the most recent D
(varies in time)
if D too small will not encompass entire locality.
if D too large will encompass several localities.
if D = ¥ Þ will encompass entire program.
D = S WSSi º total demand frames
if D m Þ Thrashing
Policy if D m, then suspend one of the processes.

Working-set model

Keeping Track of the Working Set
Approximate with interval timer + a reference bit
Example: D = 10,000
Timer interrupts after every 5000 time units.
Keep in memory 2 bits for each page.
Whenever a timer interrupts copy and sets the values of all
reference bits to 0.
If one of the bits in memory = 1 Þ page in working set.
Why is this not completely accurate?
Improvement = 10 bits and interrupt every 1000 time
units.

Page-Fault Frequency Scheme
Establish “acceptable” page-fault rate.
If actual rate too low, process loses frame.
If actual rate too high, process gains frame.

Other Considerations
Prepaging
Page size selection
fragmentation
table size
I/O overhead
locality

Other Considerations (Cont.)
TLB Reach - The amount of memory accessible from
the TLB.
TLB Reach = (TLB Size) X (Page Size)
Ideally, the working set of each process is stored in the
TLB. Otherwise there is a high degree of page faults.

Increasing the Size of the TLB
Increase the Page Size. This may lead to an increase
in fragmentation as not all applications require a large
page size.
Provide Multiple Page Sizes. This allows
applications that require larger page sizes the opportunity
to use them without an increase in fragmentation.

Program structure
int A[][] = new int[1024][1024];
Each row is stored in one page
Program 1 for (j = 0; j A.length; j++)
for (i = 0; i A.length; i+
+)
A[i,j] = 0;
1024 x 1024 page faults
Program 2 for (i = 0; i A.length; i++)
for (j = 0; j A.length; j+
+)
A[i,j] = 0;
1024 page faults

I/O Interlock – Pages must sometimes be locked into
memory.
Consider I/O. Pages that are used for copying a file from
a device must be locked from being selected for eviction
by a page replacement algorithm.

Reason Why Frames Used For I/O Must Be In
Memory

Operating System Examples
Windows NT
Solaris 2

Windows NT
Uses demand paging with clustering. Clustering brings
in pages surrounding the faulting page.
Processes are assigned working set minimum and
working set maximum.
Working set minimum is the minimum number of pages
the process is guaranteed to have in memory.
A process may be assigned as many pages up to its
working set maximum.
When the amount of free memory in the system falls
below a threshold, automatic working set trimming
is performed to restore the amount of free memory.
Working set trimming removes pages from processes that
have pages in excess of their working set minimum.

Solaris 2
Maintains a list of free pages to assign faulting processes.
Lotsfree – threshold parameter to begin paging.
Paging is peformed by pageout process.
Pageout scans pages using modified clock algorithm.
Scanrate is the rate at which pages are scanned. This
ranged from slowscan to fastscan.
Pageout is called more frequently depending upon the
amount of free memory available.

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Galvin-operating System(Ch10)

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