Chap.01.Revised

Psychologists as “parenting experts” John B. Watson Rigid feeding schedules Traditional parenting makes children emotionally weak Benjamin Spock Urged open displays of affection Avoid too much conflict over weaning and toilet training The Internet Web site “Experts” Perspectives on Development

Nature versus Nurture Idealists or Rationalists Plato, Descartes Some knowledge is inborn Jean-Jacques Rousseau All human beings are naturally good Seek experiences that help promote growth Empiricists John Locke Tabula Rasa All knowledge is created from experience Environmental factors change development

Nature versus Nurture G. Stanley Hall Milestones were dictated by inborn developmental plan Identify norms John Watson Behaviorism Children can be trained through manipulation of the environment “Little Albert”

Internal and External Influences Maturation Genetically programmed sequential patterns of change Universal Sequential Relatively impervious to environmental influences

Continuity-Discontinuity Issue Continuity Quantitative change Discontinuity Stages of development Qualitative change

Internal and External Influences Timing of Experience Experience may be needed to trigger genetic programs Critical periods Goslings Sensitive periods A time when a particular experience can be best incorporated into the maturational process

Internal and External Influences Behavior Genetics Study of identical and fraternal twins Adopted children studies Heredity affects a broad range of behaviors Height, body shape, tendency towards obesity General intelligence Spatial visual ability Reading disability Alcoholism, schizophrenia, depression Temperament – emotionality, activity, sociability

Internal and External Influences Gene-Environment Interaction Child’s genetic heritage may predict something about environment Heritage may affect the way a child behaves with other people Children’s interpretations of their experiences are influenced by genetic tendencies

Internal and External Influences Internal Models of Experience A set of core ideas about the world, him/herself, relationships with others – through which all subsequent experiences are filtered Aslin’s Model of Environmental Influence 5 models of possible gene-environment interaction (see next slide)

Aslin’s Model of Environmental Influence Aslin’s Model

The Ecological Perspective Ecology – context in which each child develops Urie Bronfenbrenner Children are raised in a complex social ecology Patterson’s research on origins of antisocial behavior Parents using poor discipline Rejection by peers Academic difficulties Deviant peer group Culture is a large influence Individualism versus collectivism

Vulnerability and Resilience Vulnerabilities Difficult temperament, physical abnormality, allergies, alcoholism Protective factors High intelligence, good coordination, easy temperament Facilitative environments encourage development Children high in protective factors show resilience even in difficult environments

Theories of Development Psychoanalytic Theories Behavior is governed by unconscious as well as conscious processes. Sigmund Freud Libido Defense mechanisms Personality Structure Id, ego, superego Psychosexual Stages Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital

Psychoanalytic Theories Eric Erikson Psychosocial stages Children are influenced by cultural demands that are age related Children must interact in a positive way with the environment for a healthy personality to form Trust versus Mistrust Caregivers must be responsive and loving Mistrust may lead to difficulty in forming intimate relationships as an adult

Cognitive-Developmental and Information-Processing Theory Jean Piaget Adaptation - the nature of the human organism is to adapt to its environment Assimilation Accommodation Equilibration Stage theory of cognitive development All children go through the same kinds of sequential discoveries about their world Children must progress through 4 distinct stages

Cognitive-Developmental and Information-Processing Theory Lev Vygotsky Complex forms of thinking have their origins in social interactions Scaffolding Guiding the child’s learning by a skilled social partner through modeling and structure Zone of Proximal Development That range of tasks which are too hard to do for the child by themselves but that they can do with the help of a skilled social partner

Cognitive-Developmental and Information-Processing Theory Information Processing Theory Explains how the mind manages information Uses computer models to explain learning Explicit theories about memory formation Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory - Identified both age-related and individual differences in information processing

Figure 1.4 Information Processing Research

Learning Theory Classical Conditioning - Ivan Pavlov Influences emotional responses Operant Conditioning – B.F. Skinner Operant conditioning Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Punishment

Learning Theory Social Cognitive Theory – Albert Bandura Observational learning or modeling Can be used for learning both abstract concepts and concrete skills Intrinsic reinforcement Internal reinforcers such as pride Does not indicate developmental changes that accompany age

Comparing Theories Assumptions Active or passive? Nature or nurture? Stability or change? Usefulness Generate predictions? Heuristic value? Practical value? Eclectic Approach

Questions to Ponder? Examine your own childhood What are three influential factors from your childhood environment that helped to shape who you are today? What are three important biological or genetic traits that helped to shape who you are today?

Research Designs and Methods Four Goals for the scientific study of human development Describe Predict Understand Influence

Age-Related Changes Cross-Sectional Designs Cross-sectional research is very useful because it is relatively quick to do Can give indications of possible age differences or age changes Cohort – age-related differences due to grouping by age

Age-Related Changes Longitudinal Designs Only by studying the same children over time (that is, longitudinally), can developmentalists identify consistencies (or changes) in behavior across age Study of individuals or groups over a long period of time Can identify individual differences and compare them to group differences

Age-Related Changes Sequential Designs Allow for comparison of cohorts while incorporating some degree of individual differences.

Figure 1.5 A Hypothetical Sequential Study of Attention Span

Identifying Relationships Between Variables Naturalistic Observations Observe people in their normal environments Observer bias Have limited generalizability Case Studies In-depth examinations of single individuals Extremely useful in making decisions about individuals Frequently the basis of important hypotheses about unusual developmental events

Identifying Relationships Between Variables Correlations Number ranging from -1.00 to +1.00 Describes the strength of a relationship between two variables Positive correlation High scores on one variable are usually accompanied by high scores on the other Negative correlation Two variables that move in opposite directions

Limits of Correlations They do not reveal causal relationships That is, one variable does not cause another to occur

Experiments Control Group Dependent variable Experimental Group Independent variable Quasi-experiments

CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH Ethnography Extensive study of one culture Direct comparison of two or more cultures Fernald & Morikawa (1993) 30 Japanese mothers and infants were compared to 30 American mothers and infants

Protection of animal rights and human subjects Protection from harm Informed consent Confidentiality Knowledge of results Deception RESEARCH ETHICS

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Chap.01.Revised

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Chap.01.Revised