Chapter 2 - The first source of syariah [The Quran]

Chapter 2:
The First Source of Syariah
(The Quran)
Reference:
Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence by
Prof. Mohammad Hashim Kamali,
3rd edition (2005)

Made by:
Nor Izzuddin Bin Norrahman
Lecturer
Management, Banking and Islamic Finance
Astin College

Content
• Introduction
• Characteristics of Qur’anic Legislation
– The Definitive (qat’i) and the Speculative (zanni)
– Brevity and Detail (al-ijmal wa'l-tafsil)
– The Five Values
– Ratiocination (ta'lil) in the Qur’an
– Inimitability (i'jaz) of the Qur’an
– Occasions of Revelation (asbab al-nuzul)

• Being the verbal noun of the root word qara'a
(to read), 'Qur’an' literally means 'reading' or
'recitation'.
• It may be defined as 'the book containing the
speech of God revealed to the Prophet
Muhammad in Arabic and transmitted to us
by continuous testimony, or tawatur'.
• It is a proof of the prophecy of Muhammad,
the most authoritative guide for Muslims, and
the first source of the Shari’ah.

• The revelation of the Qur’an began with the
Sura al-'Alaq (96:1) starting with the words
'Read in the name of your Lord‘
• Ending with the ayah in sura al-Ma’idah (5:3):
'Today I have perfected your religion for you
and completed my favour toward you, and
chosen Islam as your religion.

• There are 114 suras and 6235 ayat of unequal
length in the Qur’an.
• The shortest of the suras consist of four and
the longest of 286 ayat.
• Each chapter has a separate title.
• The longest suras appear first and the suras
become shorter as the text proceeds.
• Both the order of the ayat within each sura,
and the sequence of the suras, were re-
arranged and finally determined by the
Prophet in the year of his demise.

• The contents of the Qur’an are not classified
subject-wise.
• The ayat on various topics appear in
unexpected places, and no particular order
can be ascertained in the sequence of its text.
EXAMPLE? WHY?

Example…
• the command concerning salah appears in the second
sura, in the midst o other ayat which relate to the
subject of divorce (al-Baqarah, 2:228-248).
• In the same sura, we find rules which relate to wine-
drinking and war, followed by passages concerning the
treatment of orphans and the marriage of unbelieving
women (al-Baqarah, 216-211)
• Similarly the ayat relating to the pilgrimage of hajj
occur both in sura al-Baqarah (196-2O3) and sura al-
Hajj (22:26-27).
• Rules on marriage divorce and revocation (rij'ah) are
found in the suras al-Baqarah, al-Talaq, and al-Nisa.

Why…
• From this a conclusion has been drawn that
the Qur’an is an indivisible whole and a guide
for belief and action which must be accepted
and followed in its entirety.
• Hence any attempt to follow some parts or
the Qur'an and abandon others will be totally
invalid.

Wahyu
• The Qur’an consists of manifest revelation (wahy
zahir), which is defined as communication from
God to the Prophet Muhammad, conveyed by the
angel Gabriel, in the very words of God.
• Visible revelation differs from internal revelation
(wahy batin) in that the latter consists of the
inspiration (ilham) of concepts only
– God inspired the Prophet and the latter conveyed the
concepts in his own words.
– All the sayings, or ahadith, of the Prophets fall under
the category of internal revelation, and as such they
are not included in the Qur’an.

Words
• The Qur’an explicitly states that it is all communicated
in pure and clear Arabic (al-Nahl, 16:3o).
• Although the ulema are in agreement that words of
non-Arabic origin occur in the Qur'an, they are,
nevertheless, words which were admitted and
integrated into the language of the Arabs before the
revelation of the Qur’an.
• To give just a few examples, words such as :
– qistas (scales - occurring in the Sura al-Isra', 17:35) [Greek]
– ghassaq (intense cold) in Sura al-Naba' (78:2 5) [Turkish]
– sijjil (baked clay - in al-Hijr,15:74) [Persian]

Translation
• Since the Qur’an consists of manifest
revelation in Arabic, a translation of the
Qur’an into another language, or its
commentary whether in Arabic or other
languages, are not a part of the Qur’an.

The revelation
• Qur’an was revealed piecemeal over a period
of twenty-three years in relation to particular
events.
• The Qur’an itself explains the rationale of
graduality (tanjim) in its revelation as follows:
– 'The unbelievers say, why has not the Qur’an been
sent down to him [Muhammad] all at once. Thus
[it is revealed] that your hearts may be
strengthened, and We rehearse it to you gradually,
and well-arranged' [al-Furqan, 23:32].

• Graduality in the revelation of Qur’an afforded
the believers the opportunity to reflect over it
and to retain it in their memories.
• Revelation over a period of time also
facilitated continuous contact and renewal of
spiritual strength so that the hostility of the
unbelievers toward the new faith did not
weaken the hearts of the Muslims.

• Furthermore, in view of the widespread illiteracy
of the Arabs at the time, had the Qur’an been
revealed all at once, they would have found it
difficult to understand. The Qur’anic legislation
concerning matters which touched the lives of
the people was therefore not imposed all at once.
• It was revealed piecemeal so as to avoid hardship
to the believers.
• Example:
– The ban on the consumption of alcohol affords an
interesting example of the Qur’anic method of
graduality in legislation, and throws light on the
attitude of the Qur’an to the nature and function of
legislation itself.

Makki & Madani
• The Qur’an was revealed in two distinct
periods of the Prophet's mission in Mecca and
Madinah respectively.
• The larger part of the Qur’an, that is nineteen
out of the total of thirty parts, was received
during the first twelve and a half years of the
Prophet's residence in Mecca.
• The remainder of the Qur'an was received
after the Prophet's migration to Madinah over
a period of just over nine and a half years.

• A sura is considered to be Makki if its
revelation had begun in Mecca, even if it
contained ayat that were later revealed in
Madinah.
• The Qur’an consists of eighty-five Meccan and
twenty-nine Madinan suras.
• The differences of content and style that are
observed in each are reflective of the
prevailing circumstances of each period.

• Meccan part or the Qur'an is mainly devoted
to matters of belief, the Oneness of God
(Tawhid), the necessity of the prophethood of
Muhammad, the hereafter, disputation with
the unbelievers and their invitation to Islam.

• Madinese part of the Qur’an also comprised legal rules
and regulated the various aspects of life in the new
environment of Madinah.
• Since the Madinese period signified the formation of
the ummah and of the nascent Islamic state, the
Qur’anic emphasis was shifted to principles regulating
the political, legal, social and economic life of the new
community.
• During this period Islam expanded to other parts of
Arabia, and the Qur’anic response to the need for rules
to regulate matters of war and peace, the status and
rights of the conquered people as well as the
organisation of the family and principles of
government feature prominently in the Madinese part
of the Qur’an.

• The knowledge of the Meccan and the
Madinese contents of the Qur’an gives one an
insight into the context and circumstances in
which the ayat were revealed; it is particularly
relevant to the understanding of the incidence
of abrogation (naskh) in the Qur’an. To
distinguish the abrogating (al-nasikh) from the
abrogated (al-mansukh) portions of the text
depends on determining the chronological
order in the revelation of the relevant ayat.

• With regard to distinguishing the Makki from
the Madani contents of the Qur’an, the ulema
have applied three different criteria:
– The time of the revelation
– The place of revelation
– The nature of the audience

Preservation
• During the lifetime of the Prophet, the text of the
Qur’an was preserved not only in memories, but
also in inscriptions on such available materials as
flat stones, wood and bones, which would explain
why it could not have been compiled in a bound
volume.
• Initially the first Caliph, Abu Bakr, collected
theQur'an soon after the battle of Yamamah
which led to the death of at least seventy of the
memorisers of the Qur'an.

• Zayd b. Thabit, the scribe of the Prophet, was
employed on the task of compiling the text which
he accomplished between 11 and 14 Hijrah.
• But several versions and readings of this edition
soon crept into use.
• Hence the third Caliph, 'Uthman, once again
utilized the services of Zayd to verify the accuracy
of the text and compiled it in a single Volume. All
the remaining variations were then destroyed.
• As a result only one authentic text has remained
in use to this day.

Guidance
• In the sense that legal material occupies only a
small portion of the bulk of its text, the Qur’an is
not a legal or a constitutional document.
• The Qur’an calls itself huda, or guidance, not a
code of law. Out of over 6,200 ayat, less than
one-tenth relate to law and Jurisprudence, while
the remainder are largely concerned with matters
of belief and morality, the five pillars of the faith
and a variety of other themes.
• Its ideas of economic and social justice, including
its legal Contents, are on the whole Subsidiary to
its religious call.

• There are close to 350 legal ayat in the Qur’an,
most of which were revealed in response to
problems that were encountered.
• Some were revealed with the aim of repealing
objectionable customs such as infanticide, usury,
gambling and unlimited polygamy.
• Others laid down penalties with which to enforce
the reforms that the Qur’an had introduced.
• But on the whole, the Qur’an confirmed and
upheld the existing customs and institutions of
Arab society and only introduced changes that
were deemed necessary.

• There are an estimated 140 ayat in the Qur’an on
devotional matters such as salah, legal alms (zakah), siyam
(fasting), the Pilgrimage of hajj, jihad, charities, the taking
of oaths and penances (kaffarat).
• Another seventy ayat are devoted to marriage, divorce, the
waiting period of 'iddah, revocation (rij'ah), dower,
maintenance, custody of children, fosterage, paternity,
inheritance and bequest.
• Rules concerning commercial transactions (mu'amalat)
such as sale, lease, loan and mortgage, constitute the
subject of another seventy ayat.
• There are about thirty ayat on crimes and penalties such as
murder, highway robbery (hirabah), adultery and false
accusation (qadhf).
• Another thirty ayat speak of justice, equality, evidence,
consultation, and the rights and obligations of citizens.
• There are about ten ayat relating to economic matters
regulating relations between the poor and the rich,
workers' rights and so on.

CHARACTERISTICS OF
QUR’ANIC LEGISLATION

•The Definitive (qat’i) and the
Speculative (zanni)
•Brevity and Detail (al-ijmal wa'l-tafsil)
•The Five Values
•Ratiocination (ta'lil) in the Qur’an
•Inimitability (i'jaz) of the Qur’an
•Occasions of Revelation (asbab al-
nuzul)
Characteristics Of
Qur’anic Legislation

The Definitive (qat’i) and the
Speculative (zanni)

Definitive (qat’i)
• A definitive text is one which is clear and specific; it has only one
meaning and admits of no other interpretations. A ruling of the
Qur’an may be conveyed in a text which is either unequivocal and
clear, or in language that is open to different interpretations.
– Example:
• 'In what your wives leave, your share is ahalf, if they leave no child" (al-Nisa',
4:12)
• 'The adulterer, whether a man or a woman, flog them each a hundred stripes'
(al-Baqarah, 2:196)
• The quantitative aspects of these rulings, namely one half, one
hundred, and eighty are self-evident and therefore not open to
interpretation.
• The rulings of the Qur’an on the essentials of the faith such as salah
and fasting, the specified shares in inheritance and the prescribed
penalties, are all qat’i their validity may not be disputed by anyone,
everyone is bound to follow them, and they are not open to ijtihad.

Speculative (zanni)
• The speculative ayat of the Qur’an are, on the other hand,
open to interpretation and ijtihad.
• The best interpretation is that which can be obtained from
the Qur’an itself, that is, by looking at the Qur’an as a
whole and finding the necessary elaboration elsewhere in a
similar or even a different context.
• The Sunnah is another source which supplements the
Qur’an and interprets its rulings.
• When the necessary interpretation can be found in an
authentic Hadith, it becomes an integral part of the Qur’an
and both together carry a binding force.
• Next in this order comes the Companions who are
particularly well-qualified to interpret the Qur'an in light of
their close familiarity with its text, the surrounding
circumstances, and the teachings of the Prophet.

• An example of the zanni in the Qur’an:
– 'Prohibited to you are your mothers and your
daughters' (al-Nisa 4:23)
– The text is definitive in regard to the prohibition of
marriage with one’s mother and daughter and there is
no disagreement on this point. However, the word
banatukum ('your daughters') could be taken for its
literal meaning, which would be a female child born to
a person either through marriage or through zina, or
for its juridical meaning. In the latter sense
'banatukum' can only mean a legitimate daughter.

• To give another example of zanni in the Qur’an, we may refer to the
phrase yunfaw min al-ard ('to be banished from the earth') which
occurs in sura al-Ma’idah (5:33).
• The phrase spells out the penalty for highway robbery (hirabah), or
according to an alternative but similar interpretation, for waging
war on the community and its legitimate leadership.
• Banishment (nafy) in this ayah can mean exile from the place the
offence is committed in the first place. This is, in fact, the obvious
meaning of the phrase, and the one which has been adopted by the
majority of the ulema.
• But the Hanafi jurists maintain that the phrase means
imprisonment, not exile.
• According to the Hanafis, a literal approach to the interpretation of
this phrase does not prove to be satisfactory: if one is to be literal,
then how can one be banished from the face of the earth by any
method but death?
• Nafy, or exile, on the other hand, is a penalty other than killing.
Furthermore, if the offender is to be banished from one place to
another within the Muslim territories, the harm is not likely to be
prevented as he may commit further offences.

• ‘Ijtihadi’ or opinions is not only permissible but is
encouraged. For the Shari’ah does not restrict the
liberty of the individual to investigate and express
an opinion.
• They may be right or they may be wrong, and in
either case, the diversity of opinion offers the
political authority a range of choice from which to
select the view it deems to be most beneficial to
the community.
• When the ruler authorizes a particular
interpretation of the Qur’an and enacts it into
law, it becomes obligatory for everyone to follow
only the authorized version .

Zanni Khas & Zanni ‘Amm
• The ulema are in agreement that the specific (Khass) of
the Qur’an (and of Sunnah) is definitive, but they are in
disagreement as to whether the general ('Amm) is
definitive or speculative.
• The Hanafis maintain that the ‘Amm is definitive and
binding: but the Malikis, Shafi’is and Hanbalis hold that
the ‘Amm by itself is speculative and open to
qualification and specification. We need not, at this
point, go into the details of the ‘Amm and the Khass as
we shall have occasion to return to this subject later.
• Suffice it here to explain how the ‘Amm and khass may
be related to qat’i' and zanni.

Zanni ‘Amm
• content of the 'Amm by referring to the Qur’anic ruling
which provides: 'Forbidden to you (in marriage) are
your mothers, your daughters, your sisters, your
father's sisters and your mother's sisters' (al-Nisa',
4:23).
• This is a general ruling in that mothers, daughters,
sisters, etc. are all 'Amm as they include, in the case of
‘mother’ not only the real mother but also the step-
mother and even the grandmother.
• Similarly, ‘daughters’ can include real daughters,
stepdaughters, granddaughters and even illegitimate
daughters.

Zanni ‘Amm
• The application of these terms to all of their various
• meanings is qat’i according to the Hanafis, but is zanni
according to the majority of ulema.
• Whenever the zanni of the Qur’an is explained and
clarified by the Qur’an itself or by the Sunnah, it may
become qat’i', in which case the clarification becomes
an integral part of the original ruling.
• On the subject of prohibited degrees in marriage, there
is ample evidence both in the Qur’an and the Sunnah
to specify and elaborate the 'Amm of the Qur’an on
this subject.
• Similarly, when the Qur’an or the Sunnah specifies a
general ruling of the Qur’an, the part which is so
specified becomes qat’i'.

Zanni Khas
• Broadly speaking, the Khass is definitive. When, for example, the
Qur’an (al-Nur, 24:4) prescribes the punishment of eighty lashes for
slanderous accusation (qadhf), the quantitative aspect of this
punishment is specific (Khass) and not susceptible to any
speculation.
• But then we find that the same passage (al-Nur, 24:4) prescribes a
supplementary penalty for the slanderous accuser (qadhif) where it
reads: 'Never accept their testimony, for they are evildoers
(fasiqun), except for those who repent afterwards and make
amends.'
• This text is clear and definitive on the point that the qadhif is to be
disqualified as a witness, but then an element of doubt is
introduced by the latter portion of the text which tends to render
ambiguous the precise scope of its application.
• Having enacted both the principal and the supplementary penalties
for slanderous accusers and fasiqun it becomes questionable
whether the qadhif should qualify as a witness after repentance.

Zanni Khas
• Does the text under discussion mean that the
concession is only to be extended to the fasiqun
and not necessarily to slanderous accusers?
• If the answer is in the affirmative, then once the
qadhif is convicted of the offence, no amount of
repentance will qualify him as an upright witness
again.
• The whole confusion is due to uncertainty in the
meaning of a pronoun, namely al-ladhina (i.e.
'those') which is not known to refer to all or only
part of the preceding elements in the text.

Zanni Khas
• Although in principle the Khass is qat’i’ and, as such, is not
open to speculative interpretation, there may be
exceptions to this general rule. For example, the penance
(kaffarah) of a false oath according to a textual ruling of the
Qur’an (al-Ma’idah, 5:92) is of three types, one of which is
to feed ten poor persons.
• This is a specific ruling in the sense that 'ten poor persons'
has only one meaning. But even so, the Hanafis have given
this text an alternative interpretation, which is that instead
of feeding ten poor persons, one such person may be fed
ten times. The majority of ulema, however, do not agree
with the Hanafis on this point.
• Be that as it may, this example will serve to show that the
scope of ijtihad is not always confined to the 'Amm but that
even the Khass and definitive rulings may require
elaboration which might be based on speculative
reasoning.

Zanni Khas (Mutlaq & Muqayyad)
• The absolute (Mutlaq) and the qualified (Muqayyad)
are also classified as the sub-varieties of Khass. But
these too can be related to the qat’i’ zanni division in
at least two ways.
• Firstly, that somewhat like the ‘Amm, the absolute is
speculative in regard to the precise scope of its
application.
• Secondly, the qualification of the absolute, the grounds
on which it is qualified and the nature of the
relationship between the qualified and the qualifier are
not always a matter of certain knowledge.

• The absolute in the Qur’an is sometimes qualified on
speculative grounds, which is why the jurists are not in
agreement over the various aspects of qualifying the
Mutlaq.
• Suffice it here to give an illustration: there are two separate
rulings on the subject of witnesses in the Qur’an, one of
which is absolute and the other qualified in regard to the
attributes of the witness.
• First it is provided with regard to the transaction of sale to
'bring witnesses when you conclude a sale – washhidu idha
tabaya tum' (al-Baqarah, 2:282). In this ayah, the witness is
not qualified in any way whatsoever. But elsewhere we find
in a reference to the subject of revocation in divorce (rijah),
the command to 'bring two just witnesses' (al-Talaq, 65:2).

• The ulema have on the whole related these
two ayat to one another and the conclusion is
drawn that the qualified terms of the second
ayah must also be applied to the first, which
would mean that witnesses must be upright
and just whether it be a case of a commercial
transaction or of revocation in divorce.

• This is the settled law, but to relate this to our
discussion over the qat’i’ and the zanni, it will be noted
that determining the precise scope of the first ayah is
open to speculation. Does the requirement of
witnesses apply only to sale or to all commercial
transactions?
• To enter a detailed discussion on this point might seem
out of place in the face of the fact that notwithstanding
the clear terms of the Qur’anic injunction, the rules of
fiqh as developed by the majority of ulema, with the
exception of the Zahiris, do not require any witnesses
either in sale or in the revocation of divorce.

• The ulema have, of course, found reasons in
support of their rulings both from within and
outside the Qur’an. But even the bare facts we
have discussed so far are enough to show that
the Mutlaq and Muqayyad are susceptible to
speculative reasoning.

Mantuq Vs Mafhum
• Furthermore, the ulema have deduced the
rules of Shari'ah not only from the explicit
word of the Qur’an,, which is referred to as
the mantuq,
• but also from the implicit meanings of the text
through inference and logical construction,
which is referred to as the implied meaning,
or mafhum.

Mantuq Vs Mafhum
• the deduction of the rules of Shari'ah by way
of inference from the implied meaning of a
text partakes in speculative reasoning and
ijtihad.
• Naturally, not all the ahkam deduced in this
way can be classified as zanni. The implied
meaning of a text can often command the
same degree of authority as the explicit ruling
of the same text.

Mantuq Vs Mafhum
• But the implied meaning of this text does not
command the same degree of certainty as the
clear words thereof, which is why the ulema
are not in agreement on it.

Conclusion of Qat’I and Zanni
• In the discussion of the qat’i and zanni, the Qur’an and
Sunnah are seen as complementary and integral to one
another.
• The reason is that the speculative of the Qur’an can be
made definitive by the Sunnah and vice versa.
• The zanni of the Qur'an may be elevated into qat’i’ by
means of corroborative evidence in the Qur’an itself or
in the Sunnah.
• Similarly, the zanni of the Sunnah may be elevated into
qat’i’ by means of corroborative evidence in the
Sunnah itself or in the Qur’an.
• And then the zanni of both the Qur’an and Sunnah may
be elevated into qat’i by means of a conclusive ijma’,
especially the ijma of Companions.

Brevity and Detail (al-ijmal wa'l-tafsil)

Brevity and Detail (al-ijmal wa'l-tafsil)
• Being the principal source of the Shari’ah, the
Qur'an lays down general guidelines on almost
every major topic of Islamic law.
• While commenting on this point, Abu Zahrah
concurs with Ibn Hazm's assessment that
'every single chapter of fiqh finds its Origin in
the Qur'an, which is then explained and
elaborated by the Sunnah'.

• The often-quoted declaration that 'We have
neglected nothing in the Book' (al-An'am,
6:38) is held to mean that the ru'us al-ahkam,
that is, the general of law and religion, are
exhaustively treated in the Qur’an.
• The Qur’an is mainly concerned with general
principles is borne out by the fact that its
contents require a great deal of elaboration,
which is often provided, although not
exhaustively, by the Sunnah.

• For example:
– The ayah reads: 'O you who believe, obey God and
obey the Messenger, and those of you who are in
authority; and if you have a dispute concerning any
matter refer it to God and to the Messenger . ..' (al-
Nisa', 4:58).
– 'Obey God' in this ayah refers to the Qur’an as the first
source,
– ‘Obey the Messenger' refers to the Sunnah of the
Prophet,
– 'and those of you who are in authority' authorises the
consensus of the ulema.
– The last portion of the ayah ('and if you have a
dispute. . .') validates qiyas. For a dispute can only be
referred to God and to the Messenger by extending
the rulings of the Qur’an and Sunnah through analogy
to similar cases.

• In this sense one might say that the whole body of
usul al-fiqh is a commentary on this single Qur’anic
ayah.
• Al-Shatibi further observes that wherever the Qur’an
provides specific details it is related to the exposition
and better understanding of its general principles.

Example of general principals:
• The Qur’anic legislation on civil, economic,
constitutional and international affairs is, on the
whole, confined to an exposition of the general
principles and objectives of the law. With regard
to civil transactions, for example, the nusus of the
Qur’an on the fulfillment of contracts, the legality
of sale, the prohibition of usury, respect for the
property of others, the documentation of loans
and other forms of deferred payments are all
concerned with general principles.

Example of detail principals:
• In the sphere of crimes and penalties, the
Qur’anic legislation is specific with regard to
only five offences:
– Murder,
– theft,
– highway robbery,
– Zina
– Slanderous accusation.

• As for the rest, the Qur’an authorises the
community and those who are in charge of their
affairs (i.e. the ulu al-amr) to determine them in
the light of the general principles of Shari’ah and
the prevailing conditions of society.
• Once again the Qur’an lays down the broad
principles of penal law when it provides that 'the
punishment of an evil is an evil like it' (al-Shura,
42:40), and 'when you decide to punish then
punish in proportion to the offence committed
against you' (al-Nahl, 16:126).

• In the area of ritual performances (ibadat) such as salah, fasting and
hajj, on the other hand, although these too are meant to be
unchangeable, the Qur’an is nevertheless brief, and most of the
necessary details have been supplied by the Sunnah.
• An explanation for this is that ritual performances are all of a
practical, or 'amali, nature and require clear instructions which are
best provided through practical methods and illustration.
• With regard to salah, legal alms (zakat) and hajj, for example, the
Qur'an simply commands the believers to ‘perform the salah, and
pay the zakat' and states that 'pilgrimage to the house is a duty,
that God has imposed on mankind' (al-Nahl, 116:44 and Al-'Imran,
3:97, respectively).
• With regard to salah, the Prophet has ordered his followers to
'perform salah the way you see me performing it', and regarding
the hajj he similarly instructed people to 'take from me the rituals
of the hajj.

• The Qur’an also contains detailed rules on family matters,
the prohibited degrees of relationship in marriage,
inheritance and specific punishments for certain crimes.
• These are, for the most part, associated with human nature
and regulate the manner in which man's natural needs may
be fulfilled.
• The basic objectives of the law regarding these matters are
permanent. They are, however, matters which lead to
disputes.
• The purpose of regulating them in detail is to prevent
conflict among people.
• The specific rulings of the Qur’an in these areas also took
into consideration the prevalence of certain entrenched
social customs of Arabia which were overruled and
abolished.
• The Qur’anic reforms concerning the status of women, and
its rules on the just distribution of property within the
family could, in view of such customs, only be effective if
couched in clear and specific detail.

The Five Values
• As a characteristic feature of Qur'anic legislation,
it may be stated here that commands and
prohibitions in the Qur’an are expressed in a
variety of forms which are often open to
interpretation and ijtihad.
• The question as to whether a particular
injunction in the Qur’an amounts to a binding
command or to a mere recommendation or even
permissibility cannot always be determined from
the words and sentences of its text.

• Broadly speaking, when God commands or
praises something, or recommends a certain form
of conduct, or refers to the positive quality of
something, or when it is expressed that God loves
such-and-such, or when God identifies something
as a cause of bounty and reward, 
– all such expressions are indicative of the legality
(mashru’iyyah) of the conduct in question which
partakes in the obligatory and commendable.
• If the language of the text is inclined on the side
of obligation (wujub), such as when there is a
definite, demand or a clear emphasis on doing
something, the conduct is question in obligatory
(wajib), otherwise it is commendable (mandub).

• This style of Qur’anic legislation, and the fact
that it leaves room for flexibility in the
evaluation of its injunctions, is once again in
harmony with the timeless validity of its laws.
• The Qur’an is not specific on the precise value
of its injunctions, and it leaves open the
possibility that a command in the Qur’an may
sometimes imply an obligation, a
recommendation or a mere permissibility.

• The Qur’an does not employ the categories
known as the five values (al-ahkam al-
hamsah) which the fuqaha' have attempted to
specify in juristic manuals.
• When an act is evaluated as obligatory, it is
labeled fard or wajib; when it is absolutely
forbidden, it is evaluated as haram. The
shades of values which occur between these
two extremes are primarily religious in
character and provide a yardstick which can
be applied to any type of human conduct.

• But only the two extremes, namely the wajib and
haram, incorporate legal commands and
prohibitions. The rest are largely non-legal and
non-justiciable in a court of law.
• The Qur’an thus leaves open the possibility,
although not without reservations, of enacting
into haram what may have been classified by the
fuqaha' of one age as merely reprehensible, or
makruh.
• Similarly, the recommendable, or mandub, may
be elevated into a wajib if this is deemed to be in
the interest of the community in a different stage
of its experience and development.

Ratiocination (ta'lil) in the Qur’an

• Literally ta’lil means 'causation', or 'search for
the causes', and refers to the logical
relationship between the cause and effect.
• But the ulema of jurisprudence tend to use
ta’lil and its derivative 'illah, for different
purposes.

• In its juridical usage, 'illah (i.e. effective cause)
does not exactly refer to a causal relationship
between two phenomena; it rather means the
ratio of the law, its value and its purpose.
• Broadly speaking, 'illah refers to the rationale
of an injunction, and in this sense, it is
synonymous with hikmah, that is, the purpose
and the objective of the law.

• There is another Arabic word, namely sabab,
which is synonymous with 'illah, and the two
are often used interchangeably.
• Yet the ulema of usul tend to use sabab in
reference to devotional matters (ibadat) but
use 'illah in all other contexts.

• The authority of the Qur’an as the principal source of
the Shari’ah is basically independent of ratiocination.
• The believers are supposed to accept its rulings
regardless of whether they can be rationally explained.
• Having said this, however, there are instances where
the Qur’an justifies its rulings with a reference to the
benefits that accrue from them, or the objectives
which they may serve.
• Such explanations are often designed to make the
Qur’an easier to understand.

Example 1
• The context of encounters between members
of the opposite sex, the believers are enjoined
in sura al-Nur (24:30)
• 'to avert their glances and to guard their
private parts'.
• The text then goes on to provide that in doing
so they will attain greater chastity of character
and conduct.

Example 2
• In sura al-Hashr (59:7) the Qur'an regulates
the distribution of booty among the needy,
the orphans and the wayfarers 'so that wealth
does not merely circulate among the wealthy'.

• Those examples are instances in which the
text explicitly states the 'illah of the
injunctions concerned, on numerous other
occasions the jurists have identified the 'illah
through reasoning and ijtihad.

• The identification of 'illah in many of
• the following for example, is based on speculative
reasoning on which the ulema are not
unanimous:
– that arrival of the specified time is the cause (sabab or
'illah) of the prayer,
– that the month of Ramadan is the cause fasting,
– that the existence of the Ka'bah is the cause of hajj;
– that owning property is the cause of zakat,
– that theft is the cause of amputation of the hand,
– that traveling is the cause of shortening the prayer
– that intentional killing is the cause of retaliation.

• These and other similar conclusions with regard
to the assignment of 'illah have been drawn in
the light of supportive evidence in the Qur’an and
Sunnah, but even so many of them are disputed
by the ulema.
• These examples will in the meantime serve to
show the difference between the literal/logical
meaning of "illah' and its juridical usage among
the ulema of jurisprudence.

• The question arises as to whether the
incidence of ta’lil in the Qur’an gives the
mujtahid the green light to search into the
causes and reasons behind its injunctions, or
whether it exists simply to facilitate a better
understanding of the text.

• Ta’lil acquires a special significance in the
context of analogical deduction. ‘Illah is an
essential requirement, indeed the sine qua
non (Kemestian) of analogy.
• To enable the extension of an existing rule of
the Shari’ah to similar cases, the mujtahid
must establish a common ‘illah between the
original and the new case.

• Without the identification of a common 'illah
between two parallel cases, no analogy can be
constructed.
• To this it may be added that there is a variety of
qiyas, known as qiyas mansus al-‘illah, or qiyas
whose 'illah is indicated in the nass, in which the
'illah of the law is already identified in the text.
• When the ‘illah is so identified, there remains no
need for the mujtahid to establish the effective
cause of the injunction by recourse to reasoning
or ijtihad.

• In reality, however, this need not be the case.
One may attempt ta’lil while remaining totally
faithful to the divine origin and essence of the
Qur’an.
• To exercise ta’lil does not lessen either the
binding power or the holiness of the divine
injunctions. We may, for example, offer
various interpretations of the cause of
performing the salah or of giving zakah; but
whether we can understand the reason or not,
salah and zakah are still obligatory upon
Muslims.

Inimitability (i'jaz) of the Qur’an

Inimitability (i'jaz) of the Qur’an
LINGUISTIC
EXCELLENCE
ACCURATE
HISTORY
ACCURATE
PREDICTION
SCIENTIFIC
TRUTH
This is reflected in at
least four aspects of
the Qur’an.

Linguistic Excellence
• many scholars have pointed out that there
exists no piece of literature that can match the
literary excellence of the Qur’an with respect
to both content and form.
– Note: for example sura al-Baqarah (2:23) which
reads: 'If you are in any doubt about what We
have sent to Our servant, then bring a chapter like
it and call in your witnesses besides God, if you
are truthful.'
• It is neither poetry nor prose

Linguistic Excellence
• Its rhythm and its genre and word structure are
unique.
• It is the spiritual miracle of the prophethood of
Muhammad, who never learned to read or write,
and it is considered to have been far beyond his
own ability to produce a linguistic artefact of this
kind.
• In more than one place, the Qur’an challenges
those who deny its divine origin by asking them
to produce anything to match it.

Accurate History
• The second aspect of i’jaz in the Qur’an is its
narration of events which took place centuries
ago.
• The accuracy of the Qur’anic narratives
concerning such events is generally confirmed
by historical evidence.

Accurate Prediction
• The third aspect of i’jaz in the Qur’an is its
accurate prediction of future events, such as the
victory of the Muslims in the battle of Badr (al-
Anfal, 8:7),
• the conquest of Mecca (al-Fath, 48:27)
• and the eventual defeat of the Persians by the
Roman empire: The Romans were defeated in a
land near-by, but even after this defeat, they will
be victorious in a few years (fi bid’i sinin; literally
in a period lasting up to ten years)' (al-Rum,
30:2).

Accurate Prediction
• The Romans were defeated by the Persians
when the latter took Jerusalem in 614 A.D.
• But seven years later the Persians were
defeated when the Romans won the battle of
Issus in 622.

Scientific Truth
• The fourth aspect of i’jaz in the Qur’an is
manifested in its scientific truth concerning
the creation of man, the earth and the
planetary system.

Scientific Truth
• The tenets thus inform us:
– 'We created man from an extract of clay, then We placed
him as a drop of semen in a secure resting-place. Then We
turned the drop into a clot; next We turned the clot into
tissue; and then We turned the tissue into bones and
clothed the bones with flesh' (al-Mu'minun, 23:12-14).
– That the earth was previously a part of the sun, and only
after it was separated from the sun did it become suitable
for human habitation (al-Anbiya', 21:30).
– That all life originated in water (al-Anbiya', 21:30).
– That originally the universe consisted of fiery gas (Ha-mim,
41: 11).
– That matter is made up of minute particles (Yunus, 10:62).
– That fertilisation of certain plants is facilitated by the wind
(al-Hijr, 15:22).

Scientific Truth
• Another manifestation of i’jaz in the Qur’an is
to be seen in its humanitarian, legal and
cultural reforms that were unprecedented in
the history of nations.
• Thus in the sphere of government, the ruler
and the ruled were both equally subjected to
adjudication under the rule of law

Occasions of Revelation
(asbab al-nuzul)

(asbab al-nuzul)
• Asbab al-nuzul deal with the phenomenology
of the Qur’an, and explain the events which
are related to the revelation of its particular
passages. The well-known asbab al-nuzul have
been related to us by reliable Companions.
• It is a condition for the reliability of such
reports that the person relating it should have
been present at the time or the occasion
which is relevant to a particular passage.

(asbab al-nuzul)
• The authenticity of such reports is subject to the
same rules as are applied to Hadith in general.
• In this way, reports from the Successors (tabi'un)
only which do not go back to the Prophet and his
Companions are considered to be weak (da'if).
• The knowledge of asbab al-nuzul is necessary for
anyone who wishes to acquire more than a
superficial knowledge of the Qur’an, and there
are at least two main reasons to explain this.

(asbab al-nuzul)
• First reason:
– knowledge of words and concepts is incomplete without
the knowledge of the context and the nature of the
audience.
– For a form of speech - a question for example - may also
convey other meanings such as elucidation, surprise, or
reprimand, etc. Similarly, a command may mean a mere
permissibility, a recommendation, or a threat, etc.,
depending on the circumstances in which it is issued and
the nature of the audience.
– An incidental meaning or a shade of expression may at
times reflect the main purpose of a particular text and this
cannot be known without the knowledge of the asbab al-
nuzul.
– Ignorance of the asbab al-nuzul may thus lead to the
omission or misunderstanding of a part or even the whole
of an injunction.

(asbab al-nuzul)
• Second reason:
– ignorance of asbab al-nuzal may lead to unwarranted
disagreement and even conflict. For the Qur'an comprises
passages which are in the nature of probability (zahir) and
ambiguity (mujmal).
– Such instances in the text can be clarified by reference to
the circumstances in which they were received.
– It is reported that in a conversation with 'Abd Allah ibn
‘Abbas, 'Umar ibn al-Khattab asked him:
• 'Why should there be disagreement among this ummah, all of
whom follow the same Prophet and pray in the direction of the
same qiblah?' To this Ibn 'Abbas replied, 'O Commander of the
Faithful, the Qur’an was sent down to us, we read it and we know
the circumstances in which it was revealed. But there may be
people after us who will read the Qur’an without knowing the
occasions of its revelation. Thus they will form their own opinion,
which might lead to conflict and even bloodshed among them.'

(asbab al-nuzul)
• Second reason:
– ‘Umar disagreed with Ibn 'Abbas for saying so at
first but, when the latter departed, ‘Umar
pondered over what he had said. He then sent for
Ibn ‘Abbas only to tell him that he agreed with his
view.

(asbab al-nuzul)
• Furthermore, the knowledge of asbab al-nuzul is
informative of the conditions of the Arab society at the
time.
• Their customary and linguistic usages and their
nuances of expression were naturally reflected in the
Qur’an.
• The peculiarities of Arab social customs often gave
exegesis of the Qur’anic text a perspective and offered
solutions to some of the doubts/ambiguities which
would otherwise be difficult to understand.
• The asbab al-nuzul take full cognizance of the
customary practices of Arabian society and the
relationship, if any, of such practices to Qur’anic
legislation.

(asbab al-nuzul)
• To give an example, the Qur’anic ayah:
– 'Our Lord punish us not, if we forget or make a mistake' (al-
Baqarah, 2:286),
• is held to be referring to unbelief, that is, when words
which partake in unbelief are uttered inadvertently.
• This is forgiven just as are words of unbelief that are
expressed under duress. However, the exemption here
is not extended to similar pronouncements, such as
statements of divorce, freeing of a slave, or sale and
purchase, for freeing a slave was not known in the
custom of the Arabs nor were the inhibitions over
oath-taking (ayman).
• The general support of this ayah is thus given a
concrete application in the light of the prevailing
custom.

Chapter 2 - The first source of syariah [The Quran]

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Chapter 2 - The first source of syariah [The Quran]