Chapter8.coding
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Here is my coding of the passage about Amanda: 1. Getting pregnant 2. Uncertainty 3. Settling down 4. Lifestyle 5. Uncertainty 6. Lifestyle 7. Uncertainty 8. Uncertainty
![Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data
2
Since coding is an important and sometime most difficult phase of qualitative data
analysis, this chapter has been devoted to the coding phase. Several examples are
provided to illustrate how coding is done. However, the coding method shown is not the
only way to go about coding qualitative data as there are several other methods.
Let us repeat what was discussed in Chapter 7 about coding. Coding is the process
of examining the raw qualitative data which will in the form of words, phrases, sentences
or paragraphs) and assigning CODES or labels. Strauss and Corbin (1990) identified the
following types of coding: Axial coding and Open Coding (see Figure 8.1).
Data
[from a Transcript]
OPEN CODING
Code or Label words and phrases found in
the transcript or text
AXIAL CODING
Create Themes or Categories by grouping
codes or labels given to words and phrases
PREAMBLE
WHAT IS CODING?](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/chapter8-coding-130622180653-phpapp01/85/Chapter8-coding-2-320.jpg)
![Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data
19
support the analysis of audio and video data. Among the popular software used in
analysing qualitative data is NVivo, Nudist and an open source software called Weft
QDA [We will not be discussing the use of these software in this course]. You can
download Weft QDA and try it out. http://www.pressure.to/qda/
Coding is the process of examining the raw qualitative data which will in the form
of words, phrases, sentences or paragraphs) and assigning CODES or labels.
Open Coding – You “sweep” through the data and mark (by circling or
highlighting) sections of the text selected codes or labels.
Eventually, you have a large number of codes and you will find it necessary to
sort them into some sort of order or into groups and this is called axial coding.
The way codes are developed and the timing of this process will depend on
whether your research project and your approach is inductive or deductive.
Most typically, when coding, researchers have some codes already in mind and
are also looking for other ideas that seem to arise out of the data.
SUMMARY
KEY WORDS
Coding
Open coding
Axial coding
Hierarchical
Non-Hierarchical
Meanings
Reflexive
Categories
Descriptive codes
Analytic codes
Conditions
](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/chapter8-coding-130622180653-phpapp01/85/Chapter8-coding-19-320.jpg)
Chapter8.coding
- 1. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 1 CCChhhaaapppttteeerrr 888::: CCCOOODDDIIINNNGGG OOOFFF QQQUUUAAALLLIIITTTAAATTTIIIVVVEEE DDDAAATTTAAA CHAPTER OVERVIEW Preamble What is coding? What to look for when you are coding Example #1: Coding Example #2: Coding Example #3: Coding Example #4: Coding Computer software Key Terms Summary References CONTENTS Chapter 1: Introduction to Qualitative Research Chapter 2: Qualitative Data Collection Method Chapter 3: Ethnography Chapter 4: Case Study Chapter 5: Action Research Chapter 6: Other Qualitative Methods Chapter 7: Qualitative Data Analysis Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES When you have completed this chapter you will be able to: Discuss the techniques of coding qualitative data Apply data coding techniques when analysing qualitative data
- 2. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 2 Since coding is an important and sometime most difficult phase of qualitative data analysis, this chapter has been devoted to the coding phase. Several examples are provided to illustrate how coding is done. However, the coding method shown is not the only way to go about coding qualitative data as there are several other methods. Let us repeat what was discussed in Chapter 7 about coding. Coding is the process of examining the raw qualitative data which will in the form of words, phrases, sentences or paragraphs) and assigning CODES or labels. Strauss and Corbin (1990) identified the following types of coding: Axial coding and Open Coding (see Figure 8.1). Data [from a Transcript] OPEN CODING Code or Label words and phrases found in the transcript or text AXIAL CODING Create Themes or Categories by grouping codes or labels given to words and phrases PREAMBLE WHAT IS CODING?
- 3. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 3 Open Coding – You “sweep” through the data and mark (by circling or highlighting) sections of the text selected codes or labels. For example, you circle words or phrases describing the behaviour of the head of department. Axial Coding – Eventually, you have a large number of codes and you will find it necessary to sort them into some sort of order or into groups and this is called axial coding. Two common types of axial coding are: Non-hierarchical or Hierarchical Non-Hierarchical: For example, in a study a the researcher asked a group of adults how they take a break from their normal work. The responses are grouped are grouped as follows in a non-hierarchical manner (also called flat coding). CODES / LABELS Hierarchical: Here you find that several codes group together as types or kinds of something. You need to put some of the codes or labels into a group of their own or make them sub-codes, i.e. a hierarchical arrangement of codes, like a tree, a branching arrangement of sub-codes. Ideally, codes in a tree relate to their parents by being 'examples of...', or 'contexts for...' or 'causes of...' or 'settings for...' and so on. For example, a researcher was doing a study on friendship‟ and asked a group of adults their views on the topic and the following is the classification. take a holiday, go out for a walk, read a book, watch TV, take a nap, wander round the garden, work out at the gym, go for a drink with friends, go for a drive, play a computer game, follow a hobby, do voluntary work Adults taking a break from work THEME / CATEGORY
- 4. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 4 THEME / CATEGORY CODES / LABELS Friendship types Close friend Sporting Club Non-club Work Changes in Friendship Making new friends New same sex friends New different sex friends Losing touch Becoming sexual relationship the data into meaningful analytical units (i.e., segmenting the data). When you locate meaningful segments, you code them. Coding is defined as marking the segments of data with symbols, descriptive words, or category names. To recap, whenever you find a meaningful segment of text in a transcript, you assign a code or label to signify that particular segment. You continue this process until you have segmented all of your data and have completed the initial coding. Next, you find relationships between the codes or labels and group them into themes or categories. During coding, you must keep a master list (i.e., a list of all the codes that are developed and used in the research study). Then, the codes are reapplied to new segments of data each time an appropriate segment is encountered. Most typically, when coding, you usually have some codes already in mind and are also looking for other ideas that seem to arise out of the data. According to Charmaz (2003), you should ask the following questions about the data you are coding: Sub-codes Sub-codes WHAT TO LOOK FOR WHEN YOU ARE CODING
- 5. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 5 What is going on? What are people doing? What is the person saying? What do these actions and statements take for granted? How do structure and context serve to support, maintain, impede or change these actions and statements? Lewins, Taylor. & Gibbs, (2005) provide a more detailed list of the kinds of things that can be coded (see Table 8.1). The examples of each kind tend to be descriptive because it makes it is easier to explain the phenomena. However, when you are coding it is advisable to move from descriptive codes to more analytic ones as quickly as possible. What can be coded Examples 1 Behaviours, specific acts Seeking reassurance, Bragging 2 Events – short once in a lifetime events or things people have done that are often told as a story. Wedding day, day moved out of home for university, starting first job 3 Activities – these are of a longer duration, involve other people within a particular setting Going clubbing, attending a night course, conservation work 4 Strategies, practice or tactics Being nasty to get dumped, Staying late at work to get promotion 5 States – general conditions experienced by people or found in organisations Hopelessness “I‟ll never meet anyone better at my age” settling for someone who is not really suitable 6 Meanings – A wide range of phenomena at the core of much qualitative analysis. Meanings and interpretations are important pars of what directs participants actions. The term „chilling out‟ is used by young people to mean relaxing and not doing very much a. What concepts do participants use to understand their world? What norms, values, and rules guide their actions b. What meaning or significance it has for participants, how do they construe events, what are the feelings Jealousy “ I just felt why did she get him” c. What symbols do people use to understand their situation? What names do they use for objects, events, persons, roles, setting and equipment? A PhD is referred to as „a test of endurance‟ (because finishing a PhD is a challenge) 7 Participation – adaptation to a new setting or involvement About new neighbours “In my new house I have to keep my
- 6. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 6 music down at night as the neighbours have young children”. 8 Relationships or interaction Seeing family “ Now my sister lives in the next road she visits more and we‟ve become much closer. 9 Conditions or constraints Lose of job (before financial difficulties), moving away (before lost contact with old friends) 10 Consequences Confidence gets dates, positive attitude attracts opportunities 11 Settings – the entire context of the events under study University, work place, housing estate 12 Reflexive – researcher‟s role in the process, how intervention generated the data Probing question “How did you feel when he said that?” Table 8.1: Types of phenomena that can be coded Refer to this EXAMPLE in which a researcher interviewed several staff in an office and asked this question: “What specific problems that needed immediate action in your organisation”? The following are some of the responses to the question. Try to code the data and compare your themes / categories with the themes / categories provided below: LEARNING ACTIVITY a) What is coding? b) What is the difference between open and axial coding? c) What do you look for when coding data? d) Lewins, Taylor. & Gibbs (2005) provide a list of phenomena that is often coded. What are they? Are there others? EXAMPLE #1: CODING QUALITATIVE DATA
- 7. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 7 Table 8.2 Reponses of subjects in an office The responses to the question: “What specific problems that needed immediate action in your organisation”? There is not enough space for everyone Our office furniture is dated and needs replacing We nee a better cleaning service for the office We need more objective recruitment and hiring standards We need objective performance appraisal and reward system We need consistent application of policy There are leadership problems Unproductive staff should not be retained Each department stereotypes of other departments Decisions are often based on inaccurate information We need more opportunities for advancement here Our product is not consistent because there are too many styles There is too much gossiping and criticising Responsibilities at various levels are unclear We need a suggestion box There is a lot of “us and them” sentiment here. There is a lack of attention to individual needs. There is favouritism and preferential treatment of staff. More training is needed at all levels. There need to better assessment of employee ability and performance can be more objectively based. Training is needed for new employees. Many employees are carrying the weight of other untrained employees. This off ice is “turf” oriented. There is a pecking order at every level and within every level. Communication needs improving. Certain departments are put on a pedestal. There are too many review levels for our products. Too many signatures are required. There is a lot of overlap and redundancy. The components of our office work against one another rather than a team. We need more computer terminals
- 8. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 8 THE DATA IS CODED INTO THE FOLLOWING CATEGORIES: CATEGORIES DATA Management Issues There are leadership problems We need a suggestion box There is a lack of attention to individual needs. There is favouritism and preferential treatment of staff. Decisions are often based on inaccurate information We need consistent application of policy Physical Environment We nee a better cleaning service for the office Our office furniture is dated and needs replacing We need more computer terminals There is not enough space for everyone We need more objective recruitment and hiring standards We need objective performance appraisal and reward systems Non-productive staff members should not be retained There need to be better assessment of employee ability and performance so that promotions can be more objectively based Employee Development More training is needed at all levels Training is needed for new employees Many employees are carrying the weight of other untrained employees We need more opportunities for advancement here Intergroup and Interpersonal Relations The office is “turf” oriented There is a lot of “us and them” sentiment here
- 9. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 9 There is pecking order at every level and within every level Communication needs improving There is too much gossiping and criticising Certain departments are put on a pedestal Each department has stereotypes of the other departments Work Structure There are too many reviews for our product Too many signatures are required Responsibilities at various levels are unclear The components of our office work against one another rather than as a team There is a lot of overlap and redundancy Our product is not consistent because there are too many styles LEARNING ACTIVITY Try coding this short passage about Terry in Example #2.
- 10. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 10 The example below show the coding of a short passage of text about a Terry moving out of his parents home and becoming independent. Terry “When you move into your own home, you're alone. There is no bustle of people around the house. I miss having someone to chat to when I get home. I put the TV or some music so there’s some background noise, the silence makes me feel so alone. Sometimes I will be sat watching trash TV and thinking I should be out doing something rather than watching this rubbish. I read a lot but sometimes I am too tired and just want to veg out. But it's been good to move out of mum and dad’s as it's not healthy to rely on them as they won't last forever. I become independent and made my own decisions. It's good they still there when I need them. It's good to have some distance as when I was at home I was arguing a lot with my dad and that was what made me decide it was time to go.” EXAMPLE #2: CODING QUALITATIVE DATA
- 11. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 11 In Example #2, to help the analyst mark up the page, the text has been printed using double spacing, so that it is possible to write code ideas and code labels between the lines. DESCRIPTIVE CODING AND NOTES.
- 12. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 12 The analyst has read the text carefully and circled what seem to be key terms or key events or actions. A short note of what these are has been written besides the circling. These are the start of descriptive, or what grounded theorists refer to as open coding. An initial coding list from this might be: Own home Lonely Independence Moving out of parents Conflict Dependence Desire for company These terms summarise the events and actions noted by the coding in Example #2, and some are more analytical, i.e. not merely describing something that happened or was said. They could form the start of a coding list that could be used to mark-up the rest of this transcript and other similar cases.
- 13. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 13 DESCRIPTIVE AND ANALYTIC CODING WITH NOTES. Using the sample data, a wide margin is used, so that code labels and other comments can be written there. Print out your transcriptions in whatever way supports your preferred approach to coding the text.
- 14. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 14 The codes used are still essentially descriptive but begin to move away from simply summarising what the respondent has said. Using brackets to the right of the transcribed text, they also code much larger chunks or passages of text. This form of coding is most useful when you go on to make retrievals, i.e. gather together all the text about one topic – that is to say, all the text that is coded the same way. With larger chunks, the retrieved text is less likely to be decontextualised. The analyst has also used a highlighter to identify words that refer to feelings and these words suggest that the passage about living alone is actually about the emotions and feelings associated with living alone. Read the passage of text below about Amanda finding out she was pregnant. Look at the list of codes below and decide which code sums up what is being talked about in each line of the text (you may use a code more than once). List of codes 1. Breaking up 2. Getting pregnant 3. Insecurity 4. Lifestyle 5. Moving in together 6. Not wanting to move 7. Proposal 8. Settling down 9. Uncertainty LEARNING ACTIVITY Try coding this short passage about Amanda. EXAMPLE #3: CODING QUALITATIVE DATA
- 15. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 When I found out I was pregnant, I wasn‟t sure if I wanted to get married and he … wasn‟t the settling down kind. He was old enough to bring up a child but I knew he … wasn‟t ready to. He was in the Navy he liked the life and preferred going off with … his friends and that bothered me. At first I hoped something would happen so I … didn‟t have the baby and I wanted him to marry me ‟cause he wanted to not … because I was pregnant. Anyway when the baby was born we broke up and I have … seen him a couple of times but he has phoned lots and says he will marry me. He … wanted me to marry him and go and live with him, but I didn‟t want to leave home. He leaves the Navy in 6 months so I‟m getting the flat ready for him to move in. But … I still worry he‟ll go off with his friends and won‟t be able to give up the life. COMPARE your answer with the possible answer below. You may have chosen to use different codes from the ones we used, this does not mean you are wrong as you may have a very good reason for selecting that code. Often the same text can be coded in two or more different ways.
- 16. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 16 ANSWER: CODES When I found out I was pregnant, I wasn‟t sure if I wanted to get married and he … Getting pregnant wasn‟t the settling down kind. He was old enough to bring up a child but I knew he … Settling down wasn‟t ready to. He was in the Navy he liked the life and preferred going off with … Lifestyle his friends and that bothered me. At first I hoped something would happen so I … Uncertainty didn‟t have the baby and I wanted him to marry me ‟cause he wanted to not … Insecurity because I was pregnant. Anyway when the baby was born we broke up and I have … Breaking up seen him a couple of times but he has phoned lots and says he will marry me. He … Proposal wanted me to marry him and go and live with him, but I didn‟t want to leave home. Not wanting to move He leaves the Navy in 6 months so I‟m getting the flat ready for him to move in. But … Moving in together I still worry he‟ll go off with his friends and won‟t be able to give up the life. Insecurity You may have chosen to use different codes from the ones we used, this does not mean you are wrong as you may have a very good reason for selecting that code. Often the same text can be coded in two or more different ways. LEARNING ACTIVITY Try coding this short passage about Karen.
- 17. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 17 Read the passage of text below about Karen leaving home. Provide a code that summaries what is happening for each line of text in the boxes. CODES It was challenging, after living in Italy for 6 months and then I moved home before … I started university. I was used to doing things my own way when it suited me … and not having to tell people where I was going. I was living with friends and they … didn‟t care what I did or where I went. It was really hard to go back to sort of … thinking of others … ‟cause Mum and Dad wanted to know where I was going and … who with, which was a nightmare. My parents were strict but I had a lot of … freedom growing up, as long as I didn‟t overstep the boundaries. After I came … back from Italy they realised I was more independent and things changed and … they didn‟t try and stop me doing things anymore but they would still let know if … they didn‟t approve. COMPARE your answer with the possible answer below. You may have chosen to use different codes from the ones we used, this does not mean you are wrong as you may have a very good reason for selecting that code. Often the same text can be coded in two or more different ways. EXAMPLE #4: CODING QUALITATIVE DATA
- 18. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 18 ANSWER: CODES It was challenging, after living in Italy for 6 months and then I moved home before … Moving away I started university. I was used to doing things my own way when it suited me … Independence and not having to tell people where I was going. I was living with friends and they … Freedom didn‟t care what I did or where I went. It was really hard to go back to sort of … Moving back home thinking of others … ‟cause Mum and Dad wanted to know where I was going and … Control who with, which was a nightmare. My parents were strict but I had a lot of … Control freedom growing up, as long as I didn‟t overstep the boundaries. After I came … Boundaries back from Italy they realised I was more independent and things changed and … Growing up they didn‟t try and stop me doing things anymore but they would still let know if … Letting go they didn‟t approve. Disapproval The important point is that line-by-line coding helps you to focus on the content of the text in the line and helps you to focus on what it is about. When doing line-by-line coding there is a tendency to produce descriptive codes. However, some of those you have suggested may be more analytic or more theoretical. That's good. The next step is to try and develop such analytic codes and/or recode some of the descriptive codes you have used. Today, various types of software are available to assist in qualitative data analysis. Thus many researchers have replaced physical files and cabinets with computer based directories and files along with the use of word processors to write and annotate texts. Many analysts now also use dedicated computer assisted qualitative data analysis (CAQDAS) packages that not only make the coding and retrieval of text easy to do, but can add other functions like searching that computers do quickly but which takes humans ages to do or in some cases, which humans have never done. At first the focus of CAQDAS was on text since that was easy to handle on PCs, but now that much audio and video is in digital form too, software has been developed to COMPUTER-BASED QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
- 19. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 19 support the analysis of audio and video data. Among the popular software used in analysing qualitative data is NVivo, Nudist and an open source software called Weft QDA [We will not be discussing the use of these software in this course]. You can download Weft QDA and try it out. http://www.pressure.to/qda/ Coding is the process of examining the raw qualitative data which will in the form of words, phrases, sentences or paragraphs) and assigning CODES or labels. Open Coding – You “sweep” through the data and mark (by circling or highlighting) sections of the text selected codes or labels. Eventually, you have a large number of codes and you will find it necessary to sort them into some sort of order or into groups and this is called axial coding. The way codes are developed and the timing of this process will depend on whether your research project and your approach is inductive or deductive. Most typically, when coding, researchers have some codes already in mind and are also looking for other ideas that seem to arise out of the data. SUMMARY KEY WORDS Coding Open coding Axial coding Hierarchical Non-Hierarchical Meanings Reflexive Categories Descriptive codes Analytic codes Conditions
- 20. Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data 20 In coding, the researcher is looking for what is going on, what are people doing, what is the person saying, what do these actions and statements take for granted, how do structure and context serve to support, maintain, impede or change these actions and statements. In coding, the researcher is looking for behaviours, events, activities, states, strategies, meanings, participation, relationships, conditions, consequences, settings and reflexive. Computer software is used by researchers to facilitate qualitative data analysis. REFERENCES: Bernard. R. (1996) Qualitative Data, Quantitative Analysis. Cultural Anthropology Methods Journal, Vol. 8 no. 1, 9-11. Bogdan, R. & Biklen, S.K. (1998). Qualitative research for education. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Bryman, A. & Burgess, R. (1993). Analysing Qualitative Data. London: Routledge. Coffey, A., B. Holbrook and P. Atkinson (1996) 'Qualitative Data Analysis: Technologies and Representations', Sociological Research Online, vol. 1, no. 1. Gibbs, G R (2002) Qualitative Data Analysis: Explorations with NVivo. Buckingham: Open University Press. Lacey, A. & Luff, D. (2001). Trent focus for research and development in primary health care: An introduction to qualitative analysis. London: Trent Focus. Lewins, A., Taylor, C. & Gibbs, G. (2005). What is qualitative data analysis? School of Human & Health Sciences, University of Huddersfield. United Kingdome. Miles, M. & Huberman, A. (1984). Qualitative Data Analysis. London: Sage. Strauss, A. (1987). Qualitative analysis for social scientists. New York: Cambridge University Press. Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. London: Sage.