Chronology of Ancient Indian History.pdf

La Excellence
Project Setu
A Brief Chronology
of Ancient Indian
History
ప్ర
ా చీన భారత దేశ చరితా

History
History
Proto
History
Pre-
History
Evidences
Archeologica
l Evidences
/Artefacts
Inscription
s/
Epigraphy
Coins/
Numismatics
Literature
Accounts
of
Foreigners

Palaeolithic
Period (2 million
BC – 10,000 BC)
Mesolithic Period
(10,000 BC –
8,000 BC)
Neolithic Period
(8000 BC – 2000
BC)
❑ Important Palaeolithic sites
are Kaladgi Basin,
Bhimbetka, Hunsgi, Kurnool
Caves and Narmada Valley,
❑ Tools made up of limestone
❑ Fire was discovered
❑ Microliths were found at
Brahmagiri, Narmada and
Gujarat
❑ Domestication of animals
and Cattle rearing were
started in this period
❑ Significant climatic change
happened
❑ Wheel discovered and
agriculture was started
in this period
❑ Inamgaon is an
early Neolithic village
❑ The major megalithic
Sites are Brahmagiri
and Adichanallur
Chronology

Indus Valley
Civilization (BC
2700 – BC 1900)
Chalcolithic
Period (4000 BC –
1,500 BC)
Iron Age (BC 1500
– BC 200)
❑ This was established around
3300 BC.
❑ It flourished between 2700 BC
and 1900 BC (Mature Indus
Valley Civilization).
❑ It started declining around
1900 BC and disappeared
around 1400 BC.
❑ It is also known as the
Copper Age and
considered part of the
Bronze Age.
❑ It was running parallel
with IVC
❑ Vedic Period and Arrival of Aryans
❑ Basic books of Hinduism, Vedas
were composed in this period.
❑ Rise of Jainism and Buddhism
❑ Mahajanapadas
❑ Magadha empire– Bimbisara of
Haryanka Kula
❑ Sishunaga dynasty – Kalasoka
(Kakavarnin)
❑ Nanda empire – Mahapadma-
Nanda, Dhana-Nanda
❑ Persians – Greek arrival: Alexander
327 BC

Mauryan Empire (324-
187 BC)
Post Mauryan Empire
Sangam Age (300 BC –
300 AD)
Gupta Empire (300AD –
800AD)
322–298 BCE- Chandragupta
298–272 BCE- Bindusara
268–232 BCE – Ashoka
Succeeded by-
❑ Satavahanas (235-100BC)
❑ Sunga (181-71 BC)
❑ Kanva (71-27BC)
❑ Indo-Greeks, Parthians (180BC-45AD)
❑ Sakas (90BC-150AD)
❑ Kushanas (78AD)
❑ Chola
❑ Cheras
❑ Pandyas
❑ This was an ancient
Indian empire
❑ Considered golden age
of Indian Literature
❑ Samudra Gupta of the
Gupta Empire is known
as Indian Napoleon
Post Sangam age-
Kalabras

The fall of Imperial Guptas,
Magadha and its capital,
Pataliputra
❑ Vardhana Dynasty
❑ Mukharis
❑ Hunas
❑ Pushyabhutis
❑ Gaudas
❑ Varman
❑ Maitrakas
❑ Also, Rajputs, Senas and
Chauhans succeeded later.
Post-Gupta or
Contemporary
Gupta
Vakatakas
Pallavas
Chalukyas
Rastrakutas
(775-975AD)
Pushbhuti
Dynasty
Cholas
South Indian Kingdoms
Chola Empire:
(9th Cent. AD -
13th Cent. AD):
Founded by
Vijayalaya, the
Chola empire
adopted a
maritime policy.
Temples became
cultural and
social centres and
Dravadian
languages
flourished.
The Southern
Kingdoms:
(500AD- 750AD):
Empire of
Chalukyas, Pallavas
& Pandya
flourished.
Zoroastrians
(Parsis) came to
India.
The famous
Chinese
traveller Hieun
Tsang visited
India during
Emperor
Harshawardha
na's reign.
But his
kingdom
disintegrated
into small
states even as
Hunas invaded.

Paleolithic Mesolithic Neolithic Chalcolithic
✓ Stone tools
✓ Hunting gathering
✓ Functional
specialization
based on gender
✓ Small rock tools
✓ Painting as an art in
the caves
✓ Bhimbetka- MP
✓ Hunting gathering
with domestication
of animals
✓ Settled life
✓ Agriculture as an
economic activity
✓ Burzaham- J&K
✓ Death and Birth
as major social
events
✓ Stone and
copper tools
✓ Settled
agriculture
✓ Social
Difference in
the society
Pre Historic Cultures of India

Pre- Historic Sites in India
Bhimbetka Homo Sapiens' Cave 500
painted Rock Shelters
(MH)(Prominently Mesolithic
site)
Inamgaon Statue of mother Goddess (MH)
Bagor and
Adamgarh
Earliest evidences of
Domestication of animal
(Rajasthan)
Chirand Serpant cult (Bihar)
Burzahom Pit-dwelling and domestic dog
was buried with their masters in
grave.
Megaliths of
South India
Burials

Indus Valley Civilization
Harappa- Fist Excavation-
1921- Dayaram Sahani
✓ Flourished between 2500-
1500BC
✓ But 2200-1800BC was its
mature period
✓ It covered the present
Pakistan & North western
and western part of India.

Important Sites of IVC
Site Excavated by Location Important Findings
Harappa Daya Ram
Sahini in 1921
Situated on the bank of river Ravi in
Montgomery district of Punjab
(Pakistan).
✓ Sandstone statues of Human
anatomy
✓ Granaries
✓ Bullock carts
Mohenjodaro
(Mound of Dead)
R.D Banerjee in
1922
Situated on the Bank of river Indus
in Larkana district of Punjab
(Pakistan).
✓ Great bath
✓ Granary
✓ Bronze dancing girl
✓ Seal of Pasupathi Mahadeva
✓ Steatite statue of beard man
✓ A piece of woven cotton
Sutkagendor Stein in 1929 In southwestern Balochistan
province, Pakistan on Dast river
✓ A trade point between Harappa
and Babylon
Chanhudaro N.G Majumdar
in 1931
Sindh on the Indus river ✓ Lipstick- Imported
✓ Footprint of a dog chasing a cat

Site Excavated by Location Important Findings
Amri N.G Majumdar in 1935 On the bank of Indus river ✓ Antelope evidence
Kalibangan Ghose in 1953 Rajasthan on the bank of
Ghaggar river
✓ Fire altar
✓ Camel bones
✓ Wooden plough
Lothal R.Rao in 1953 Gujarat on Bhogva river near
Gulf of Cambay
✓ First manmade port
✓ Dockyard
✓ Rice husk
✓ Fire altars
✓ Chess playing
Surkotada J.P Joshi in 1964 Gujarat ✓ Bones of horses
✓ Beads
Banawali R.S Bisht in 1974 Hisar district of Haryana ✓ Beads
✓ Barley
✓ Evidence of both pre-
Harappan and Harappan
culture
Dholavira R.S Bisht in 1985 Gujarat in Rann of Kachchh ✓ Water harnessing system
✓ Water reservoir

Town Planning and Structures
✓ The city is divided into two parts, the city on raised platform,
Known as Upper citadel and the lower town known as lower
citadel.
✓ Grid system followed in arrangement of houses and roads.
✓ Usage of Burnt bricks, a remarkable feature of Harappan.
✓ Great Bath, served as ritual bathing, found in upper citadel of
Mohenjo-Daro.
✓ A large granary in Mohenjo-Daro and six granaries in Harappa.
✓ Two roomed barracks in Harappa, which possibly
accommodated labourers.
✓ Drainage system was another remarkable feature of the
civilization

Economy during IVC
Agriculture Trade
✓ The crops grown were wheat, Barley,
peas, seasum, mustard. And in
Lothal, people started producing
rice. Indus people were the first to
produce cotton.- Sindan
✓ Though there were structures used
to store water- Gabarbands or nalas,
but channel or canal irrigation seems
to have been absent.
✓ Indus valley people had both short and long-distance
trade, and also foreign trade.
✓ They used boats and bullock-carts for transportation.
EKA
✓ No use of metallic currency, but practised barter
system of exchange.
✓ Developed uniform system of weights and measures.
✓ Seals and sealings were used in trade, as marks of
ownership meant to guarantee the quality of the
product.

Domestication of Animals
✓ Some form of Mixed farming was practised in
Harappan Civilization.
✓ Domestication of animals on large scale-
Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep and Pigs
✓ Dogs and cats were domesticated.
✓ Humped bulls were favoured and kept asses
and camels, which were used as beasts of
burden.
✓ There was an ambiguous evidence of Horse
reported from Surkotada, Mohenjo-Daro and
from Lothal.
✓ Harappans were well known of Elephants
and rhinoceros.
Society
✓ The society seems to be stratified based on class.
✓ Based on the settlement patterns, location of
granaries, objects found in Burials, one can say
strongly there existed social inequalities.
✓ People of Indus were beauty conscious-this is reflected
in the dressing styles and ornaments used.
✓ Different hair styles were practised by men and
women. Ornamentation made up of precious and
semi-precious stones were used by men and women.
✓ Merchants and priests were important class of this
period.
✓ Though there was worship of mother goddess, it is
not so clear, whether the society is matriarchal or not
Harappan script
✓ They invented the art of writing, but the script is not yet deciphered.
✓ The script is not alphabetical but mainly pictographic.
✓ It is written from right to left; a practise very common to that region in the later times

Religion and Religious practices
✓ Presence of some structures with ritual significance indicate the existence
of collective worship.
✓ Great Bath, Mohenjo-Daro had a great ritual significance. Prevalence of
cults of fertility and mother goddess worship.
✓ They worshiped tree spirits-Pipal tree was worshipped.
✓ On the seals, a famous deity, who has been identified as proto-Shiva was
found.
✓ The deity is surrounded by animals like goats, elephant, tiger and antelope.
✓ There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship.
✓ Numerous stone symbols of female sex organs (yoni worship), besides
those of phallus, have been discovered. Fertility cult was main feature.
✓ The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal,
Kalibangan and Harappa.
✓ They believed in ghosts and evils forces and used amulets as protection
against them.
✓ Disposal of the dead has been an important religious activity. Dead bodies
were generally placed in the north-south direction

Technology and crafts
✓ The Harappan culture belongs to the Bronze
age.
✓ They are acquainted with Bronze, which is an
alloy of copper and Tin.
✓ They got copper from Khetri mines in
Rajasthan, although it could also be brought
from Baluchistan.
✓ Tin, they got from Afghanistan.
✓ Bronze smiths constituted an important
group of artisans in the Harappan society.
✓ Weavers wove cloth of wool and cotton.
✓ Brick-laying was an important craft.
✓ Boat making, Bead-making, seal making and
terracotta manufacture were also important
crafts.
✓ Pottery wheel was in full use.
✓ Goldsmiths made jewellery made up of silver,
gold and precious stones was found

Decline of IVC
✓ Aryan Invasion theory, supporting evidence
from Mohenjo-Daro multiple wounded dead
bodies at one place (theory refuted)
✓ Destruction of sites due to floods,
(MohenjoDaro was destroyed by floods not less
than 7 times)
✓ Tectonic forces and earthquakes (Evidence from
Kalibangan)
✓ Fire (Evidence from Rakhigarhi)
✓ Malaria (Evidence from Mohenjo-Daro)
✓ Ecological changes due to deforestation, desert
expansion etc. (most accepted theory).

Chalcolithic Cultures
Chalcolithic cultures were pastoral and based on
farming, generally rural in nature.
They used copper and stone blades and pottery and also
low grade iron in the later period. Their settlements
were sedentary or semi-sedentary.
In the northwestern and western regions of India, the
early farming cultures are associated with the
Chalcolithic cultures rather than the Neolithic cultures.
The southern part of India has not produced cultural
evidence of a fullfledged chalcolithic culture.
Perforated and spouted vessels have been found in some
sites. Copper bronze tools like chisels and flat axes occur
at these sites.
Stone tools continued to be used in this area. Black on
red ware pottery is found.
These people survived through animal rearing and
agriculture.
Millets, pulses and horse gram were cultivated, and
fruits, leaves and tubers were collected.

Vedic Period
Sources:
1. Zend Avesta- an Iranian text records
names of Aryan Gods like Indra, varuna
etc.
2. Hittitte inscription in Anatolia
3. Kassitte inscription in Iraq and Mittani
inscription in Syria.
About Aryans-
✓ They arrived in India around 1500 BC,
though there is an on going debate.
✓ The region where the Aryans settled in
India was called Sapta Sindhu (also referred
to as the Brahmavarta) Indus +5 + Ghaggar
✓ The period when the Aryans first settled in
India, is known as Early Vedic Period (1500
BC to 1000 BC). It is also called as Rigvedic
period, as it is believed that it is being
related to this period.
✓ The Aryans were the first people in India to
know the use of iron

Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period
The caste system was flexible and based on profession rather
than birth
The caste system became more rigid in this period with birth
being the main criteria
There was no concept of Shudra or untouchables Shudras became a mainstay in the Later Vedic period. Their sole
function was to serve those of the upper-castes
Women were allowed a greater degree of freedom in this
period. They were allowed to participate in the political
process of the time to a certain extent
Women were restricted from their participation in society by
being relegated to subordinate and docile roles
Kingship was fluid as the kings were elected for a fixed period
by the local assembly known as Samiti
As society became more urbanized in this period, the need for
stable leadership was realized. Thus the absolute rule of the
Kings became more and more prominent
Early Vedic society was pastoralist and semi-nomadic in
nature
Society became more settled in nature. It became centred
around agriculture in general
In the Early Vedic Period, the barter system was more
prevalent with little to no monetary value transaction being
part of the exchange
Although the barter system was still in practice, it was largely
replaced by the exchange of gold and silver coins known
as Krishnala
Rigveda. This text is cited as the earliest text from this period Yajurveda. Samaveda
Atharvaveda

Brahmanas ✓ Related to conduct of various ceremonies.
✓ It is a prose version of the Vedas.
✓ 108 in number, Satapatha Brahmana most
famous dealing with rituals connected with
Agricultural production.
✓ Gopada Brahmana- most voluminous.
✓ Aithreya Brahmana- about Viswamitra and
non-aryan tribes
Aranyakas ✓ Forest texts written mainly for hermits and
students living in jungle. Concluding
portions of Brahmanas.
✓ Consider as the link between Brahmana
and Upanishad.
Upanishads 108 in number also known as Vedantas.
Deals with metaphysics
Vedangas 6 essential elements to understand Vedas
Upavedas Dhanurveda (Warfare)- Rig Veda
Gandhavra Veda (Music)-Sama Veda
Sthapatyaveda (Architecture)-Yajur Veda
Ayurveda (Medicine)-Atharva Veda
Vedic Literature- Sruti/ Smriti
Rig Veda ✓ First text in world literature.
✓ Theme is prayer addressed to gods.
✓ Gayatri mantra part of it.
✓ 1017 hymns into 10 mandalas.
✓ Reciter called hotri
Sama
Veda
✓ First text to deal with Indian music.
✓ Main theme is Chchedus.
✓ Reciter called Udgatar.
✓ It deals with rhythm and sound of
each hymn
Yajur
Veda
✓ Deals with rituals and ceremonies
✓ Reciter called Adhvaryu
Adarvana
Veda
✓ By non-Aryans
✓ Themes- witchcraft, sorcery.
✓ Deals with Ayurveda,
Ganithashastra. Rekhaganita
✓ Brahmin never recites this.
✓ Most secular of all the vedas.

Vedas Upanishads
Vedas were composed over a time period ranging from
1200 to 400 B.C.E
The Upanishads were written over a time period ranging
from 700 to 400 B.C.E
Vedas focused on ritualistic details, uses and traditions. Upanishads focused on Spiritual enlightenment.
Vedas means knowledge in Sanskrit. It is known as
“Apauruseya” meaning not of man.
Upanishad is derived from the words upa (near) and
shad (to sit). It is derived from the concept of sitting near
the feet of the teacher.
There are 4 different Vedas – Rigveda, Samaveda,
Yajurveda, Atharvaveda.
More than 200 Upanishads have been discovered. Each
Upanishad is associated with a certain Veda. There are
14 Upanishads which are most well known or most
important – Katha, Kena, Isa, Mundaka, Prasna, Taittiriya,
Chhandogya, Brihadaranyaka, Mandukya, Aitareya,
Kaushitaki, Svetasvatara and Maitrayani.
All the 4 Vedas are compositions of different texts. Upanishads are in the last section of any Vedas.
Upanishads are a subcategory of a Veda.
Vedas are subclassified into 4 major text types – Samhitas
(Mantras), Aranyakas (Texts on rituals, sacrifices,
ceremonies), Brahmanas (it gives explanation of sacred
knowledge, it also expounds scientific knowledge of Vedic
Period) and the 4th type of text is Upanishads. The 3
types of texts dealt with ritualistic aspects of life.
Upanishads is one among the 4 major text types of
Vedas. Upanishads are texts on spiritual knowledge and
philosophy. Upanishads originated from each branch of
Vedas. Upanishads deals with the philosophical aspects
of life

Upanisahds
Imp Upanishads Imp Points
Katho Upanishad Dialogue between Nachiketa and
Yama on the concept of death
Eso Upanishad Deals with creation
Jabala Upanishad Varna Ashrama Dharmas
Brihadoranyaka
Upanishad
Yagnavalkya– Transmigration of
Soul
Mundako
Upanishad
Satyameva Jayate adopted from
this.
Chandogya
Upanishad
Childhood of Krishna
Keno Upanishad Talks about Uma or Parvati
Swetas Swataro
Upanishad
Defines Shiva for the first time
Vedangas-
Known as limbs of Vedas
Compiled during Sutra period.
Hence it is called Sutra literature
There are six in number:
(A) Shiksha- Phonetics of Science of
Pronunciation; Study of origin of
words
(B) Kalpa- Rituals and ceremonies
(C) Vyakarana - Grammar, Written
by Panini
(D) Nirukta – Etymology (Origin of
words)
(E) Chhanda – Metrics, rules of
poetic composition
(F) Jyotisha- Astronomy

Mahajanapadas-
✓ Mahajanapadas were formed
sixth century BC onward.
✓ The most prominent feature of
Mahajanapadas is the formation
of states.
✓ With the rise of Mahajanapadas,
the political history of North
India became clearer.
✓ 16 Mahajanapadas had both
republics and monarchies

Name Capital Modern Facts about 16 Mahajanapadas
Anga Champa Munger and
Bhagalpur
•Anga Mahajanapada finds reference in the Mahabharata and Atharva Veda
•During the rule of Bimbisara, it was taken over by Magadha Empire.
•It is situated in present-day Bihar and West Bengal.
Magadha Girivraja|
Rajagriha
Gaya and
Patna
•Magadha finds mention in the Atharva Veda which conveys that Magadha
was semi-Brahmanical habitation.
•It was located in present-day Bihar close to Anga, divided by river Champa.
•Later, Magadha became a centre of Jainism and the first Buddhist Council was
held in Rajagriha.
Kasi Kasi Banaras •It was located in Varanasi. This city got its name from rivers Varuna and Asi as
cited in the Matsya Purana.
Vatsa Kausambi Allahabad •Vatsa is also known as Vamsa
•This Mahajanapada followed the monarchical form of governance. The capital
is Kausambi. This was a central city for economic activities.
•There was a prosperous trade and business scenario in the 6th century BC.
After the rise of Buddha, the ruler Udayana made Buddhism a state religion.
Kosala Sravasti Eastern Uttar
Pradesh
•It was located in modern Awadh region of Uttar Pradesh.
•Its capital was Sravasti
Saurasena Mathura Western Uttar
Pradesh
•This place was a centre of Krishna worship at the time of Megasthenes. Also,
there was a dominant followership of Buddha here.
Panchala Ahichchatra
and Kampliya
Western Uttar
Pradesh
•Its capital for northern Panchala was Ahichchatra and Kampilaya for its
southern regions.
•It was situated in present-day western Uttar Pradesh.
•Later the nature of governance shifted from monarchy to republic.

Name Capital Location Facts about 16 Mahajanapadas
Kuru Indraprastha Meerut and SE
Haryana
•The area around Kurukshetra was apparently the site for Kuru
Mahajanapada.
•It moved to a republic form of governance.
Matsya Viratnagar Jaipur •It was situated to the west of the Panchalas and south of the Kurus.
•The capital was at Viratanagar It is situated around present-day Jaipur.
Chedi Sothivati Jaipur •This was cited in the Rigveda. The capital was Sothivati.
•It located in the present-day Bundelkhand region.
Avanti Ujjaini or
Mahismati
Malwa and
Madhya
Pradesh
•Avanti was significant in relation to the rise of Buddhism.
•The capital of Avanti was located at Ujjaini or Mahismati.
•It was situated around present-day Malwa and Madhya Pradesh.
Gandhara Taxila Rawalpindi •The capital was at Taxila. Gandhara is cited in the Atharva Veda
•The people were highly trained in the art of war.
•It was significant for international commercial activities.
Kamboja Pooncha Rajori and
Hajra
•The capital of Kamboj is Poonch. It is situated in present-day Kashmir
•Several literary sources mention that Kamboja was a republic.
Ashmaka or
Assaka
Pratisthan/
Paithan
Bank of
Godavari
•The capital of this Mahajanapada was located at Pratisthan or Paithan.
•It was located on the bank of Godavari.
Vajji Vaishali Bihar •It is the capital of Vajji was Vaishali. The main races residing in this
Mahajanapadas were Licchavis, Vedehans, Jnatrikas and Vajjis
Malla Kusinara Deoria and
Uttar Pradesh
•It finds a reference in Buddhist and Jain texts and Mahabharata. Malla was a
republic. Their capital was Kusinara situated around present-day Deoria and
Uttar Pradesh.

Rise of Magadha- Reasons
✓ Advantages geographical location with both Rajgir and Pataliputra situated at strategic locations.
✓ Abundance of natural resources, such as iron, enabled Magadhan rulers to equip with effective weapons.
✓ The alluvial soil of the Gangetic plains and sufficient rainfall were they conductive for agriculture produces.
✓ Rise of town and use of metallic money boosted trade and commerce.
✓ The princess could levy tolls and accumulate wealth to pay and maintain their army.
✓ Use of elephants on a large scale in wars with its proximity to ancient Kalinga.
✓ Unorthodox character of Magadhan society
✓ Contribution of several enterprising and ambitious rulers
1. Haryankas 2. Shisunagas 3. Nandas 4. Mauryas
Bibisara-
Founder
Won over
Ujjain- Avanti
Mahapadma
Nanada- Ekrat
Chandra Gupta
Maurya
Ajatarsatru-
Policy of
Expansion
Alexander
Invasion- Didn’t
move east
wards

Iranian and Macedonian Invasions
Cyrus (558 – 530 B.C)
Darius I (522 – 486 B.C.)
Effects of Persian Invasion:
✓ Impetus to Indo-Iranian Trade
✓ Provided impetus to Alexander’s invasion
✓ Introduced Kharosthi script.
✓ Mauryan sculpture was influenced by Persian style,
especially bell-shaped capital and Ashokan
inscriptions.
Greek - Alexander’s invasion-326 BC
Battle of Hydapses:
✓ Between Porus and Alexander.
✓ Alexander was impressed by Porus courage and
strength and reinstated him on the throne.
Effects of Alexander’s Invasion:
✓ Opening of land and sea route between India
and Europe.
✓ Gandhara school of Architecture was
introduced
✓ Ground for establishment of Indo-Bactrian and
Parthian States.

Sources to Mauryan Empire
Literary sources Archaeological Sources
(i) Kautilaya’s ‘Arthashastra’
(ii) Megasthenese’s ‘Indica’
(iii) Visakha Datta’s ‘Mudra Rakshasa’: although it was written during Gupta
Period, it describes how Chandragupta Maurya got Chanakya’s assistance to
overthrow Nandas.
(iv) Puranas
(v) Buddhist text Jatakas portrays a general picture of socio-economic
conditions of Mauryan Period.
(vi) Buddhist chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa describe the part played by
Ashoka in spread in Buddhism to Sri Lanka.
(vii)Tibetan Buddhist text Divyavadana gives information about Ashoka and his
efforts to spread Buddhism.
(i) Punch marked coins
(ii) Wooden palace of
Chandragupta Maurya in
Pataliputra (iii) Northern Black
Polished Ware (NBPW)
Ashokan Edicts and Inscriptions:
There are Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts
and Cave inscriptions located at
several places in the Indian
subcontinent.

✓ The inscriptions are mostly in Prakrit
language and Brahmi script.
✓ In North western region they are written
in Prakrit language & Khroshti and
Aramaic script.
✓ In Afghanistan they are written in Aramaic
script and Greek language.
✓ At Sabhazgarhi and Manshera the script is
Khroshti
✓ At Kandhar, the edicts found are bilingual.
Ashokan Edicts and Inscriptions:
There are Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts and Cave inscriptions
located at several places in the Indian subcontinent.
James Prinsep, a British antiquary and colonial
administrator was the first person to decipher Ashoka’s
edicts. These Ashoka’s inscriptions are the first tangible
evidence of Buddhism.
Major Rock Edict XIII
✓ Mentions victory over Kalinga.
✓ Mentions Ashoka’s Dhamma victory over Greek Kings Antiochus of
Syria (Amtiyoko), Ptolemy of Egypt (Turamaye), Magas of Cyrene
(Maka), Antigonus of Macedon (Amtikini), Alexander of Epirus
(Alikasudaro).
✓ Also mentions Pandyas, Cholas, etc.
✓ The thirteenth rock edict which was issued at the end of the Kalinga
war gives a vivid picture of the change of Ashoka from an aggressive
and violent warrior to a great lover and preacher of peace.
✓ The direct and immediate effect of the Kalinga war was the
conversion of Ashoka to Buddhism.

Ashokan Dhamma
✓ Ashoka’s Dhamma was different from Buddhism.
✓ Dhamma propagated the tenets of tolerance as well as
moral and ethical conducts.
✓ Its broad objective was to preserve the social order as
with the expansion of Mauryan Empire the population
had become heterogeneous, diverse and multi-racial.
✓ It ordained that people should obey their parents, pay
respect to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks and show
mercy to slaves and servants.
✓ He held that if people behaved well, they would attain
Swarga (heaven).
Chandra Gupta Maurya
(Jainism)
Bindusara
(Aajivika Sect)
Ashoka
(Buddhism)
Later Mauryas

Mauryan administration
The Mauryan government was a centralized bureaucracy with king as fountainhead of all the
powers. However, he was assisted by the council of ministers i.e. mantri parishad.
According to Kautilya / Chanakya,
There are 7 elements of states (Saptanga theory):
1. Raja (the king)
2. Mitra (Friend)
3. Durg (fort)
4. Amatya (the secretaries)
5. Janapada(territory)
6. Kosha (the treasure)
7. Sena (Army)

Local Government-
Megasthenese gives an account of the committee
system of administering the municipalities in the
cities. There were 6 committees of five members
each. The functions of these six committees were:
1. Industrial Arts.
2. Entertainment of Foreigners.
3. Registration of Births & Deaths.
4. Trade & Commerce.
5. Public sale of manufactured goods.
6. Collection of taxes on the articles sold
Economy:
1. State took active participation in economy
2. Shudras were involved in agriculture for the
first time
3. Crown land was called Sita
4. There were provisions for irrigation by the
state
5. The normal taxation rate was one sixth of
the produce
6. The weight and measures were regulated by
the states
Two very important developments; Monitisation of economy –introduction of metallic
coins,First coin Punch Mraked coins-no script(silver/copper) and Emergence of Guilds

Army:
1. The most striking feature of Mauryan
administration was maintenance of a
huge army.
2. Kautilya permitted all the four varnas to
serve in the army
3. According to Pliny, Mauryas maintained
an army of six lakh soldiers.
4. Mauryan also maintained a Navy.
Causes for decline:
• Highly centralized administration.
• Pacific policy of Ashoka
• Financial crisis- Bureaucracy expanded but
the income remained constant.
• Neglect of North-West frontier.
• Negation of folk and State Oppression of
Sunga Revolt represent People’s revolt

Megalithic Age
Megalith means Big Stone.
• The Information about this period mainly comes from Graves and these
graves are called Megaliths because they are encircled by big pieces of
stones.
• Prominent pottery- Black and Red ware
• Cultural phase flourished in Peninsula between 1000 BC -100 AD. This
shows overlap with Sangam Age which is roughly 200 BC- 300 AD.
• Evidence of Iron Object reflect Iron Age in Peninsula
• Unique Feature- Evidence of Horse Burial from Jaunpuri.
• Megaliths are spread across the Indian subcontinent.
• The majority of megalithic sites are found in Peninsular India,
concentrated in the states of Maharashtra (mainly in Vidarbha), Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.

Sangam Age
It’s part of Iron Age Period.
The Sangam period or age, or
the third Sangam period, is
the period of history of
ancient Tamil Nadu, Kerala
and parts of Sri Lanka
spanning from c. 6th century
BCE to c. 3rd century CE.
It was named after the famous
Sangam academies of poets
and scholars centered in the
city of Madurai

Sangam Age
The First Sangam, is
believed to be held
at Madurai, attended by
gods and legendary
sages. No literary work of
this Sangam is available.
The Second Sangam was
held at Kapadapuram,
only Tolkappiyam survives
from this.
The Third Sangam was
also held at Madurai. A
few of these Tamil literary
works have survived and
are a useful sources to
reconstruct the history of
the Sangam period.

Post Mauryan Period
In eastern India, central India and the
Deccan, this period saw number of native
rulers such as Shungas, the Kanvas and
the Satavahanas.
In north-western India, this period
witnessed a number of ruling dynasties
from central Asia.
The important regional kingdoms:
1. Satavahanas.
2. Shungas
3. The Kanvas.
4. Indo-Greeks or Bactrians
5. Sakas
6. The Parthians
7. The Kushans

Satavahas
(2BC - 3AD)
The Satavahanas also
referred to as the
Andhras in the Puranas,
were an ancient Indian
dynasty based in the
Deccan region.

Socio-Economic Conditions
1. Matriarchal Society
2. Caste System not well
established, Chaturvarna
System
3. Ashta Dasa Profession
4. Dress and passtimes
5. Joint Family system
6. Cremation as a end ritual
7. Social Evils – Sati
1. Introduction of land grant
system in South India
2. Tech for agri production-
Udakayantra, Ghatikayantra
3. Silver and Gold Coins
4. Srenis
5. Many traders and
specialization in occupations
Sources to study
Satavahanas-
1. Hala- Gadhasaptasati
2. Nasik Inscrption of
Gautamibalasri
3. Nanaghat Inscription of
Naganika
4. Strabo- Greek Historian
5. Amaravati Insciption of
Dhimika

Religious Conditions
✓ Kings- Brahmanism
✓ Queens- Buddhism and
Jainism
✓ Puranic Traditions
✓ Bhagavatism
✓ Visiting pilgrimage
Places
✓ Vedic Rituals
✓ Chaityakavaada
Cultural Contribution
1. Amaravati School of Sculpture
2. Ajanta – Ellora Cave Painting
Tradition
3. Stupas, Chaityas- Nagarjuna
Konda
4. Sanskrit got patronage, Prakrit
was official language
5. Hala- Gadhasaptapadi- Navasaras
6. Gunadya- Bruhadkatha- Paisachi
Langugae
7. Music and Dance Traditions

The Ikshvakus -
1. Feudatories of Satavahanas
2. Veeragal System
3. Bramhanism and Buddhism
4. Earliest Temples in Indian History
5. Sculptors Style of Architecture
6. Mandata Sculpture- Jaggayyapeta
7. First Sanskrit Inscription
8. Puranic Gods- Worship of idols
9. Sri Parvata University- Nagarjuna
konda
Cultural
Contribution –
✓ Temple Building
Activity
✓ Nagarjuna,
Buddhaghosa-
Buddhism
✓ First Sanskrit
Inscription in South
India
✓ Buddhist Stupas
✓ Temples
✓ Amaravati School of
Art

Indo- Greeks The Sakas Pratihars Kushanas
First to issue gold coins in
India and can be definitely
attributed to a king.
In 58 B.C, King of Ujjain
defeated Sakas and he
took title ‘Vikramaditya’.
They moved from
Parthia, Iran, to India.
They are the nomadic tribes of
north-central Asia.
King Menander, earlier
Known as Milinda was
converted to Buddhism.
An era started with 58
B.C by Vikramaditya.
Like the Sakas they
became integral part of
Indian polity & society.
Kanishka is the most popular
Kushan King. He started an era
called saka era, 78 A.D.
The questions of Milinda
to Nagasena, Buddhist
monk was recorded in
form of book known as
Milinda Panho.
First ever long
inscription was issued in
Sanskrit. Earlier
inscriptions were issued
in Prakrit.
In the reign of
Gondophernes St.
Thomas is said to have
come to India for the
propagation of
Christianity.
Strengthened the idea of
divine origin of Kingship.
Introduced Satrap system.
Military governorship
Introduced Hellenistic art
features in the region,
giving rise to Gandhara art
of Buddhism
First to issue Gold coins
They emphasized on
proper irrigation to the
region, which was
manifested through the
repair of Sudarshan lake,
by Rudradaman.
Mathura school of art-
Mahayana Buddism.
Literature: 1. Avaghosha,
wrote Buddhacharita and
Saundarananda. 2. Avadanas,
compositions of Mahayana
Buddhism.

Kanvas
Sungas
Saatavah
anas
Chedi Dynasty
✓ After Mauryas, the Chedi dynasty
emerged in the Kalinga region,
i.e. modern Odisha
✓ The capital city of this dynasty
was Sisupalgarh
✓ The important ruler of this
dynasty was Kharavela.
✓ Kharavela patronized Jainism and
the Hatigumpha inscription gives
a reference of his victories

Sungas Kanvas Satavahanas
Ruled around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty
was established by Pushyamitra shunga
with capital at Pataliputra.
The Kanva dynasty was founded by
Vasudeva Kanva. Kanva dynasty had a
ruling phase from 72 BCE to 28 BCE.
According to Matsya purana, Satavahanas
dynasty was ruled by 30 kings for 400
years.
The dynasty founded by simukha
Pushyamitra shunga erected Bharhut
stupa. They revived the caste system, and
the social norms based on varna order got
strengthened
Sunga dynasty was the emergence of
various mixed castes and the
integration of foreigners into Indian
society.
Satavahanas were brahmanized tribe.
The famous satavahana King,
Gautamiputra Satakarni, claims to have
established the four-fold varna system
Shreni-dharma, a professional code of
conduct, became the basis of the social
order. Guilds played an important socio-
economic and religious role
The language of Sanskrit gained more
prominence during the rule of the
Shunga kings. Even some Buddhist
works of this time were composed in
Sanskrit.
They issued lead, potin copper and
Bronze coins. The coins of this dynasty are
called as Karshapanas.
They used Sanskrit language, and a variant
of Brahmi script as Royal language. It is
argued, that the famous Kalidasa’s play
Malavikagnimitra was composed during
this period. Manu smriti, which was
compiled in the later period, composed
during this period.
The official language of Satavahanas was
Prakrit. Followed Brahmi script.
Prakrit text, Gathasaptasati is attributed
to the satavahana King called Hala.

Guptas
✓ After the decline of
Mauryas, it was Gupta
dynasty in Magadha
which was able to
carve a large empire.
✓ Although the empire
was smaller as
compared to the
Mauryan Empire, yet it
consisted of a greater
part of Northern India

Sources to study Gupta Period
Inscriptions:
1. Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta
2. Udayagiri cave inscription and Sanchi inscriptions of
Chandragupta-II
3. Mehrauli Iron pillar inscription of Chandragupta-II
4. Bilsad, Mandsor, Damodarpur copper plate
inscription of Kumaragupta.
5. Junagadh and Bhitari pillar inscription of
Skandagupta.
Literature sources:
1. Nitisara of Kamandaka
2. Devichandraguptam of
Visakhadutta
3. Mrichchakatika of Sudraka

Polity
✓ With the decline of Mauryan Empire, the unity and integrity
of India shattered. The central authority disappeared and
regional principalities emerged everywhere.
✓ This trend was reversed by emergence of Gupta rulers in
4th Century AD. They ruled over extensive empire with their
capital at Pataliputra.
✓ Therefore, the Gupta age witnessed political unification of
India after long period of more than 500 years after the
decline of Mauryans.
✓ A number of strong and efficient rulers came to power
during Gupta period. For example, Chandragupta I,
Samudragupta, Chandragupta II and Skandgupta ruled over
extensive empires.
1. The empire was divided into divisions
called bhukth, and each bhukti was
placed under the charge of an uparika.
2. The bhuktis were divided into districts
(vishayas), which were placed under
the charge of a vishayapati.
3. In eastern India, the vishayas were
divided into vithis, which again were
subdivided into villages.
4. The village headman gained in
importance in Gupta times, managing
village affairs with the assistance of
elders.
5. With the administration of a village or
a small town, leading local elements
were associated.
6. No land transactions could be effected
without their consent.

Art and Culture-
✓ Samudragupta and Chandragupta-II were patrons of art and
literature.
✓ Samudragupta was represented on the coins as playing veena.
✓ Mostly Guptan art is religious in nature.
✓ Two-meter-high bronze image of the Buddha, which was
recovered from sultanganj near Bhagalpur.
✓ 25-meter copper image of Buddha, as mentioned by Fa-hien,
but it is not traceable now.
✓ Beautiful images of Buddha were made at Sarnath and
Mathura.
✓ Most of the paintings in Ajanta, depict various events in the
life of Buddha, were from Guptan period.
✓ For the first time, mages of Vishnu, shiva and other Hindu
gods were found.
✓ Few temples made of brick in Uttar Pradesh- Bhitargaon in
Kanpur, Bhitari in Ghazipur; and a stone temple were found.
Buddhist university at Nalanda was set up

Economy
✓ Gupta age was full of economic prosperity. According to Chinese traveller Fa-hien Magadh,
the power centre of Gupta empire was full of cities and its rich people.
✓ In ancient India, the Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins which were called ‘dinaras’ in
their inscriptions.
Science and Technology
✓ In mathematics, a work called Aryabhatiya was written by Aryabhata in age. Aryabhatta displayed
an awareness of both the zero system and the decimal system. A Gupta inscription of 5th century
AD from Allahabad suggests that decimal system was known in India.
✓ The Gupta age craftsmen distinguished themselves by their work in iron and bronze. For
example, iron pillar found at Mehrauli in Delhi manufactured in the 4th century AD has not
gathered any rust over the subsequent fifteen centuries which is a great tribute to the
technological skill of the craftsmen.

Literature:
✓ In the court of Chandragupta-II, there were nine poets called as ‘Navaratna’. This was mentioned in
Jyotirvidabharana, a treatise attributed to Kalidasa.
✓ The court language of the Guptas was Sanskrit. Ornate style of Sanskrit is used in the writings, a
deviation from the traditional Sanskrit writing.
✓ Some scholars were: Amarsimha, Sanskrit grammarian and poet who wrote Amarkhosha. Dhanvantri,
wrote Ayurveda, Varahamira wrote Brihat Samhita, deals with architecture, temples, planets etc.
✓ Devichandraguptam of Visakhadutta, deals with King Ramagupta and his wife Dhruva devi, got
abducted by the Sakas. Then Chandragupta-II attack Sakas and get her and will marry her after killing
his brother king Ramagupta.
✓ Mrichchakatika of Sudraka, it is dated to early 5th century A.D. It deals with love relationship between
young man, charudatta and vasantasena, a rich courtesan in the Gupta period. It is an entertainment
play. Kathasaritasagra by somdev, written in 11th century, adopted from Gunadya’s Brihatkatha.

Most popular writer of this period was Kalidasa. His surviving works are three plays, two epics
and two shorter poems. They are:
1. Malavikagnimitra: It is a love affair between King Agnimitra of shunga dynasty and a servant girl
Malavika.
2. Abhijnanshakuntalam: It is a story between King Dushyant who on a hunting trip meets
Shakuntala, adopted daughter of a sage, and marries her.
3. Vikramorvasiyam: It is a story between a mortal king pururavas and celestial nymph Urvasi.
✓ This period saw the compilation of two epics Ramayana and Mahabharat.
✓ The period also witnessed scientific works: Aryabhata wrote Aryabhattiyam, which introduced
decimal system; Varahamira’s Romaka sidhanta.
✓ Brahmagupta: Precede newton in theory of gravitation. His Works: Brahmaspotaka siddanta
and Kandakadyaka

Causes of decline of Gupta
empire:
1. Hun invasion which made
north-west vulnerable.
2. System of land grants and
feudatories who declared
independence.
3. Financial crisis.

Vakataka Dynasty (250AD- 500AD)
✓ The Satavahanas in peninsular India were succeeded by
the Vakatakas (local power) who ruled the Deccan for
more than two and a half centuries.
✓ The Vakatakas were the contemporaries of the Guptas
in northern India.
✓ In the Puranas, the Vakatakas are referred to as
the Vindhyakas.
✓ Many of the Buddhist caves, Viharas and Chaityas at
Ajanta were executed under Harisena, last ruler’s reign.
Ajanta is a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1983.
✓ With the death of Harisena, the rule of the Vakatakas
ended and the Nalas, the Kadambas, the Kalachuris and
Yashodharman of Malwa occupied their territory.

Rashtrakutas-
The Northern Kingdoms:
(750 AD - 1206 AD):
The Rashtrakutas became
powerful, Pratiharas ruled in
Avanti and Palas ruled
Bengal. The period also saw
emergence of Rajput clans.

Amoghavarsha I (814- 878 A.D.)
✓ The greatest king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty was Amoghavarsha I son of Govinda III.
✓ Amoghavarsha I set up a new capital at Manyakheta (now Malkhed in Karnataka State) and Broach became
the best port of the kingdom during his reign
✓ Amoghavarsha was converted into Jainism by Jinasena, a Jaina monk.
✓ Suleman, an Arab merchant, in his account called Amoghavarsha I as one of the four greatest kings of the
world, the other three being the Caliph of Bagdad, the king of Constantinople and the emperor of China.
Art and Culture-
✓ The art and architecture of the Rashtrakutas can be found at Ellora and Elephanta.
✓ The most remarkable temple Kailasanatha temple at Ellora was built by Krishna.
✓ Kavirajamarga composed by Amogavarsha’s was the first poetic work in the Kannada language.
✓ Pampa was the greatest of the Kannada poets and Vikramasenavijaya is his famous work.
✓ Santipurana was another great work wrote by Ponna another famous Kannada poet.

Palas of Bengal
Gopala founded the dynasty in 750 AD.
He was a chieftain or military general who was elected as king by notable men of the area to prevent
anarchy.
The Pala period is also known as a ‘Golden Era’ in Bengali history.
They built magnificent monasteries and temples: Somapura Mahavihara (in Bangladesh), Odantapuri
Monastery.
They also patronised Buddhist centres of learning like Nalanda University and the Vikramshila
University.
During this time, the Bengali language developed. The first Bengali literary work Charyapada is
attributed to this period. It was written in an Abahatta (the common ancestor of Bengali, Assamese,
Odia and Maithili.
Sanskrit scholars were also patronised by the Pala kings. Gaudapada composed Agama Shastra during
the time of the Palas.
The Pala art (art seen in Bengal and Bihar during the Pala regime) influence is seen in the art of
Nepal, Sri Lanka, Burma and Java.

Pushyabhuti Dynasty
Founder: Narvardhana
Capital city: Thaneswar and Kanauj Harsha Vardhana (606 AD- 647 AD)
✓ Greatest ruler also called Siladitya and started Harsha Era in 606 AD.
✓ Defeated Gauda Sasanka (desecrated bodi tree) who had killed his brother in
law Grihavarma.
✓ He was defeated by Pulikeshi second of Chalukyas in battle of Narmada.
✓ He was converted to Mahayana Buddhism by Hieun Tsang, who wrote Si-yu-Ki
(Experience of traveller).
✓ He also conducted Dharmayatras like Ashoka.
✓ He himself scholar wrote Naganandam, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika.
✓ Banabhatta his court poet wrote Harshacharita, Parvati Parinayam and
Kadambari.
Kanauj Assembly:
Harsha organized a
religious assembly at
Kanauj to honour the
Chinese pilgrim Hiuen
Tsang. To propagate
doctrines of Mahayana
Buddhism.
Participations of people
from many religions in
Assembly.

Chalukyas Of Badami
Founder: Pulakesin first
Capital: Badami Pulakesin II:
The most important ruler of this dynasty was
Pulakesin II. The Aihole inscription issued by Ravikirti
gives the details of his reign.
Notable achievement of Pulakesin II was the defeat
of Harshavardhana on the banks of the river
Narmada and took title of Parameswara.
He sent ambassador to court of Persian King
Khusrau.
He was defeated and killed by Narasimha Varman I
of Pallavas.

Art and Architecture:
They developed the vesara style in the building of structural temples which reached its
culmination only under the Rastrakutas and the Hoysalas.
No cement or mortar was used stones were aligned together to form edifice.
• Two stage in temple construction Aihole group
• Meguti temple
• Vishnu temple
• Ladh khan temple
• Durga temple Pattadakal group
• Papanath temple
• Virupaksha temple
• Sangamesvara temple

Pallava of Kanchi
✓ Pallavas were the natives of Tondaimandalam. They
are also identical with the Pulindas mentioned in the
inscriptions of Asoka. Mahendravarman I (600 – 630
A.D.)
✓ Mahendravarman I was a follower of Jainism in the
early part of his career.
✓ He was converted to Saivism by the influence of the
Saiva saint, Thirunavukkarasar alias Appar.
✓ He assumed a number of titles like Gunabhara,
Satyasandha, Chettakari (builder of temples)
Chitrakarapuli, Vichitrachitta and Mattavilasa.

Administration:
✓ The Pallavas had a well-organized administrative system. The Pallava state was divided
into Kottams. The Kottam was administered by officers appointed by the king.
✓ Number of irrigation tanks were dug by the Pallava kings. The irrigation tanks at
Mahendravadi and Mamandoor were dug during the reign of Mahendravarman I.
✓ Land tax was the primary source of the government revenue. The Brahmadeya and
Devadhana lands were exempted from tax.
✓ The Pallava inscriptions throw much light on the village assemblies called sabhas and
their committees. They maintained records of all village lands, looked after local
affairs and managed temples.

Literature:
✓ Mahendravarman I composed the Sanskrit play
Mattavilasaprahasanam.
✓ The Devaram composed by Nayannars and the
Nalayradivyaprabandam composed by Alwars
represent the religious literature of the Pallava
period.
✓ Perundevanar was patronized by Nandivarman
II and he translated the Mahabharata as
Bharathavenba in Tamil.
✓ Dandin wrote Dasakumarcharita on birth of
Kartikeya.
✓ Bharavi wrote Kiratarjuniyyam.
Fine Arts:
✓ Music, dance and painting had also developed under
the patronage of the Pallavas.
✓ The Mamandur inscription contains a note on the
notation of vocal music.
✓ The Kudumianmalai inscription referred to musical
notes and instruments.
✓ The Alwars and Nayannars composed their hymns in
various musical notes.
✓ The Sittannavasal paintings belonged to this period.
✓ The commentary called Dakshinchitra was compiled
during the reign of Mahendravarman I, who had the
title Chitrakarapuli.

Pallava Art and Culture
It was a great age of temple building.
The Pallavas introduced the art of excavating temples from
the rock. Temple architecture developed in 4 stages
Mahendravarman Group
under Mahendravarman I
Bhairavakonda temple,
Ananteswara temple at
Undavalli
Mamalla group under
Narasimhavarman I
Seven pagodas and rathas at
Mahabalipuram
Rajasimha group under
Narasimhavarman II
Shore temple, kailasanath
and vaikuntaperumal at
Kanchi
Aparajit group under
Nandivarman
Mukteshwar and
Matangeswar temple at
Kanchi, Parshurameswar at
Gudimallam.

Western Chalukyas
✓ Ruled from Kalyani (973- 1200A.D)
✓ Followed the traditions of Rasthrakutas and vatapi
Chalukyas.
✓ Ruled Karnataka region and surrounding areas
✓ He built the city of Kalyan.
✓ Bilhana’s Vikramankadevacharita deals with
Somesvara I.
✓ Last ruler Tailapa III was defeated by Kalachuris. Their
temple architecture known as “Karanatadravida”.
✓ It is an extension of Badami chalukyan style.
✓ Temples of Ittagi were the finest examples of Art and
architecture.
✓ Ornamentation on the outer walls of the shrine and
presence of figure sculptures of heroes and loving
couples (Mithuna) were unique features of Kalyani
Chalukyas.

Cholas
Empire was founded by Vijayalaya, feudatory of Pallavas.
He captured Tanjore in 850 A.D.
Rajaraja I (985-1014 A.D)
✓ Formative period of “chola imperialism”
✓ He destroyed the chera navy at Trivandrum.
✓ He conquered Maldives Islands.
✓ Bought South- East Asia under his control.
Rajendra I (1014-1044 A.D)
✓ He followed annexation policy of his father.
✓ He defeated pala ruler Mahipala in 1022 A.D and
assumed title “Gangaikonda chola”
✓ Build a city near the mouth of Kaveri-
“Gangaikondachola”.
✓ He sent two diplomatic missions to China for political
as well as commercial purposes.
RajadhiRaja I (1044- 1052 A.D)
He earned the title “Jayamkonda
chola”.
He captured Kalyani, western
chalukyan capital and took the
title “Kalyanpuramkonda”.

Cholas were known for village administration:
(Uttrameruru inscriptions of Paranthaka provides for this)
1. Two assemblies -Ur, Sabha or Mahasabha.
2. Ur was a general assembly of the village.
3. Mahasabha was a gathering of adult men in Brahmana
villages. (agraharas)
4. Election system was present.
Society-
✓ It was organised based on Varnasrama model.
✓ Sub castes were proliferated – Kaikalla, Chetti, Cheek etc.
✓ Division of sub castes into Valangai and Idangai.
✓ Devadasi system was prevalent in the society.

Art and Culture
✓ Build great capitals -Tanjore,
Gangaikondacholapuram, Kanchi etc.
✓ Large households and large palaces.
✓ Introduced Dravidian temple architecture.
Dravidian temple architecture:
1. Garbhagriha – multiple storeys on chief-deity
room.
2. These storeys varied from 5 to 7 and known as
Vimana.
3. Mandapa with pillared hall.
4. Pillars are elaborately curved.
5. Courtyards surrounding the structure.
6. Gopurams- lofty gateways
Examples:
Kailasanath temple (Kanchi),
Brihadeshwara temple (Tanjore),
Gangaikondacholapuram temple
Angkor Wat, temple complex at Angkor, near
Siĕmréab, Cambodia, that was built in the 12th
century by King Suryavarman II (reigned 1113–c.
1150). The vast religious complex of Angkor
Wat comprises more than a thousand buildings,
and it is one of the great cultural wonders of the
world.

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