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Climate-Smart Agriculture: Climate change, agriculture and food security
Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) addresses the dual challenges of food security and climate change by promoting integrated management practices that enhance productivity while preserving natural resources. It recognizes the need for adaptations at various levels, from farm practices to market interventions, and aims to create synergies among multiple stakeholders. CSA is not merely a set of practices but a comprehensive approach that contributes to sustainable development goals and seeks to align policies that support resilience in agricultural systems.
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Climate-Smart Agriculture: Climate change, agriculture and food security
- 1. Climate-Smart Agriculture Climatechange, agriculture and food security Aslihan Arslan EPIC – FAO Centre for Development Innovation, WUR – September 17, 2014
- 2. Outline I. Agriculture II. Climate Change III. Food Security IV. Overview of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) V. Evolution of CSA VI. CSA at various levels VII. References
- 3. Population & Agriculture • World’s population will reach 9 billion by 2050 •FAO estimates that agricultural production will have to increase by 60% by then •Agriculture should undergo a significant transformation to feed the growing global population •Climate change adds extra challenges in reaching this goal – esp. developing countries where food insecurity & poverty are prevalent
- 4. Pressures on Agriculture FAO, 2009.
- 5. Agriculture and foodsecurity
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- 7. Climate change impactson crop production
- 8. Climate Change Fourpotential yield outcomes for maize in 2045 under RCP 8.5† Source: Müller and Robertson (2014). Source: Müller and Robertson (2014). Excludes CO2 effects
- 9. Climate Change Simulatedimpacts for the four climate scenarios: global average for major crops in 2050 wrt reference 5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 Wheat Rice Coarse grains Oil seeds Sugar CR5 IPSL/LPJ HADGEM2/LPJ IPSL/DSSAT HADGEM2/DSSAT Source: Shocks from IFPRI as interpreted for use in the ENVISAGE model, Nelson et al. (2014).
- 10. Food Security “Foodsecurity exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.” -World Food Summit, 1996
- 11. Food and Nutrition Security Food Availability Food production Storage and processing of food Transport and distribution Food trade Food Access Intra-household distribution of food Income Markets Food Utilization Food preparation Nutrition knowledge Cultural traditions Health care Child care Illness management Clean drinking water Sanitation & Hygiene Stability Energy saving cookstoves In food availability: Natural and man-made disasters Accumulation of stocks Diversification In food access: Seasonal vs. constant job Diversification Livelihood & coping strategies Safety nets In food utilization: Constant access to health care Clean drinking water & sanitation Burchi et al., 2011 Food Security
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- 14. Overview of CSA CSA seeks to… Enhance food security Mitigate climate change Preserve natural resource base and vital ecosystem services Transition to agricultural production systems
- 15. Overview of CSA CSA seeks to… Enhance food security Mitigate climate change Preserve natural resource base and vital ecosystem services Transition to agricultural production systems More productive
- 16. Overview of CSA CSA seeks to… Enhance food security Mitigate climate change Preserve natural resource base and vital ecosystem services Transition to agricultural production systems More productive Use inputs more efficiently
- 17. Overview of CSA CSA seeks to… Enhance food security Mitigate climate change Preserve natural resource base and vital ecosystem services Transition to agricultural production systems More productive Use inputs more efficiently Less variability and more stability in outputs
- 18. Overview of CSA CSA seeks to… Enhance food security Mitigate climate change Preserve natural resource base and vital ecosystem services Transition to agricultural production systems More productive Use inputs more efficiently Less variability and more stability in outputs More resilient to risks, shocks and long-term climate variability
- 19. Overview of CSA Addresses the complex interrelated challenges of food security, development and climate change, and identifies integrated options that create synergies and reduce trade-offs Recognizes that these options will be shaped by specific country contexts and capacities as well as socio-economic and environmental situations Assesses the interactions between sectors and the needs of different stakeholders Identifies barriers to adoption (esp. for farmers), and provides appropriate solutions in terms of policies, strategies, actions and incentives
- 20. Overview of CSA Seeks to create enabling environments through a better alignment of policies, investments and institutions Strives to achieve multiple objectives with the understanding that priorities need to be set and collective decisions made on different benefits and trade-offs Prioritizes the strengthening of livelihoods (esp. those of smallholders) by improving access to services, knowledge, resources (including genetic resources), financial products and markets Addresses adaptation and builds resilience to shocks, especially those related to climate change
- 21. Overview of CSA Considers climate change mitigation as a potential secondary co-benefit, especially in low-income, agricultural-based populations Seeks to identify opportunities to access climate-related financing and integrate it with traditional sources of agricultural investment finance
- 22. Evolution of CSA 2009 Food Security and Agricultural Mitigation in Developing Countries: Options for Capturing Synergies 2010 “Climate-smart” Agriculture: Policies, Practices and Financing for Food Security, Adaptation and Mitigation 2013 Climate-smart Agriculture Sourcebook 2014 FAO Success Stories on Climate-smart Agriculture
- 23. Links to PreviousApproaches CSA contributes to the achievement of sustainable development goals: economic, social and environmental Uses green economy’s need for more resource efficiency and resilience Sustainable intensification: focuses on availability dimension of food security (CSA covers also accessibility, Sustainable development Sustainable intensification Green Economy Climate-Smart Agriculture utilization and stability)
- 24. Evolution of CSA So what’s new about it ? Harmonization and synchronization of practices and policies Objective of avoiding contradictory and conflicting policies by internally managing trade-offs and synergies CSA is a new approach to guide the needed changes of agricultural systems to address food security and climate change Not a new agricultural system or a set of practices
- 25. Overview of CSA How to address the multiple demands placed on agriculture? Create synergies between food security, adaptation and climate change mitigation Main objective: Pathway towards enhanced food security and development goals ALL AGRICULTURAL SECTORS CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE Adaptation Mitigation Synergies Productivity & income increase
- 26. Agriculture CSA requirescoordination across agricultural sectors… Fisheries Livestock Forestry Crops
- 27. CSA & Synergies Concepts of mitigation and adaptation Mitigation Adaptation I attack the problem I act in response to the impacts of the problem …can and should be both implemented Decrease GHG sources Increase sinks of GHG Risk management Strenghtening institutions Trainings Investments in rural economy Decrease sources Increase sinks
- 28. CSA & Synergies Main differences between adaptation and mitigation Longer-term effect Shorter-term effect Especially motivated with countries less vulnerable to CC “victims” not always responsible for causing CC Global Local Causes of climate change Effects of climate change Mitigation Objectives Spatial scale Time scale Equity Adaptation Same final common target: Sustainable development
- 29. Various levels ofCSA Farm level Landscape Markets Regional, national global policies
- 30. Farm Level Atfarm level, CSA can aim at improving: Crop Management Soil Manage ment Water Management Livestock and Pasture Manage ment
- 31. Conventional Agricultural Conversion of energy sources from human to fossil fuel dependent machinery. Increased use of fertilizer, pesticides and herbicides (dependent on fossil fuels) generally very inefficiently applied. Expansion of agricultural land area through deforestation and conversion from grasslands to cropland. Increased specialization in ag production and marketing systems. Emphasizing improved and hybrid crop varieties • Use of energy efficient technologies for agricultural power (irrigation or tillage). • Increased efficiency of fertilizer /inputs and wider use of organic fertilizer. • Intensification on existing land as main source of production increase rather than expansion to new areas. • Greater diversification in production, input and output marketing systems. • Valuing the resilience of traditional varieties •Energy •Inputs •Land use •System •Varieties Intensification Climate Smart Agriculture
- 32. Farm Level CropManagement: Conservation Agriculture and Soil-Water Conservation improved and sustained productivity, increased profits and food security while preserving and enhancing the 3 main principles of CA: “approach to managing agro-ecosystems for minimal soil disturbance, permanent soil cover, and crop rotations/associations • Ongoing international debate on the effects of CA on yields and resilience. • Need to customize & modify the 3 principles to various agro-ecological systems • Need to explicitly account for climate change impacts resource base and the environment” Conservation agriculture (e.g cover crops, intercropping, fallowing, alley cropping,no till, legume rotation) Other soil and water conservation (e.g. ridging, shelterbelts, terracing, bunding, agro-forestry, woodlots, taungya, stone lines, strip cropping, vetiver, animal traction, drainage ditches) 89.7-90.9 % 61.4-70% Source: Knowler, 2003. Positive net present values (NPV) for conservation agriculture and other soil and water conservation practices at the farm-level from a total sample of 130 studies.
- 33. Farm Level CropManagement Diversify crop types and varieties, including crop substitution, Develop new crop varieties, including hybrids, to increase the tolerance, resistance and suitability (research) Promote seed banks so as to help farmers diversify crops and crop varieties Increase livelihood diversification, including off-farm income sources
- 34. Farm Level CSAcan also involve changing a production system entirely: Maize System Livestock system or Integrated Crop & Livestock system
- 35. Landscape Approach Objective:Need to achieve food security and climate change mitigation and adaptation goals without compromising environment DEFINITION integrated multidisciplinary process where trade-offs and synergies are carefully assessed and appropriate landscape-scale management interventions are identified and implemented. recognizes that the root causes of problems may not be site-specific and that a development agenda requires multi-stakeholder interventions to negotiate and implement actions. combines natural resources management with environmental and livelihood considerations places human well-being and needs at the centre of the land use decision-making process, respects rights and cultural values
- 36. Landscape Approach Example:Ecosystem services of peatlands of the Ruoergai Plateau The Ruoergai peatland pastures on the Tibetan Plateau: a major milk and meat producing area in China FAO, CSA Sourcebook, Module 2, p 68, 2013
- 37. Landscape Approach •Herders fenced parts of the winter pastures near their winter houses to create hay meadows to supply supplementary fodder to animals and decrease grazing pressures on the peatlands in spring. Farm level • Pilot projects by national and international organizations supported peatland restoration by replanting vegetation (forage cultivation), rewetting (ditch blocking) and establishing co-management systems. Community and local level • The Provincial People’s Congresses of Gansu and Sichuan approved Wetland Conservation Regulations in 2007 and 2010 to promote the conservation of biodiversity and enhance the livelihood of local communities. Regional level • The government of China has encouraged the ecological restoration of degraded rangelands and forage cultivation in winter pastures to reduce grazing pressure on peatlands in winter and spring. The national level FAO, CSA Sourcebook, Module 2, p 68, 2013
- 38. Market Approach CSAcan also be a market approach: Such as introducing sustainable value chains to help farmers in a competitive sector.
- 39. Policy level Example:Disaster Risk Management Develop early warning systems Invest in infrastructure to protect against asset loss Protect equipped areas from flood damage and maintain drainage outlets Support the meteorological department in collecting, analysing & disseminating weather/climate info Strengthen community and municipality capacities in disaster management Align national development, climate change and agricultural policies to minimize contradictions and harness synergies
- 40. Key Messages Climate-smart agriculture is not a new agricultural system, nor a set of practices. It is a new approach, a way to guide the needed changes of agricultural systems, given the necessity to jointly address food security and climate change. CSA brings together practices, policies and institutions that are not necessarily new but are used in the context of climatic changes. Addresses multiple challenges faced by agriculture and food systems simultaneously and holistically, which helps avoid counterproductive policies, legislation or financing.
- 41. Thank you! http://www.fao.org/climatechange/climatesmart/en/ www.fao.org/climatechange/epic
- 43. References Burchi,F., Fanzo, J. & Frison, E. 2011. The role of food and nutrition system approaches in tackling hidden hunger. International Journal Environ. Res. Public Health. Grainger-Jones, E. 2011. Climate-smart smallholder agriculture: what’s different? IFAD occasional paper No.3. Rome. (available at http://www.ifad.org/pub/op/3.pdf). FAO. 2009. Profile for Climate Change. FAO. 2013. Climate-smart agriculture sourcebook. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 2010. Assessing the environmental impacts of consumption and production: priority products and materials. UN-Water. 2010. Climate change adaptation: the pivotal role of water. UN-Water policy brief. (available at http://www.unwater.org/downloads/unw_ccpol_web.pdf) Nelson et al., “Climate change effects on agriculture: Economic responses to biophysical shocks” PNAS, 2014. Vol 111(9): http://www.pnas.org/content/111/9/3274
- 44. CSA among otherconcepts of `green‘ agriculture From farm-based to comprehensive development concepts Conservation agriculture The EX-Ante Carbon balance Tool EX-ACT Training Workshop www.fao.org/tc/exact Sustainable land management Agroecology Organic farming Macro Micro Farming technics Area - based management Climate smart agriculture Multi-function planning and policies Value chain
Editor's Notes
- #5 The agriculture, intended in the FAO sense of agriculture, forestry and fisheries, is under duress from a variety of sources that can be classified as be socio-economic trends and environmental challenges. In particular, the population increase concomitant with climate change calls for a transformation of the agricultural system in order to provide a basis for economic growth, spearhead poverty reduction and achieve food security. It is important to note that population and income growth will drive an ever- increasing demand, especially in developing countries
- #6 870 million people are estimated to be undernourished. Billion are malnourished lacking essential micronutrients. 60% of the malnourished are actually food producers, smallholders and pastoralists with 20% living in cities and 20% landless rural people. For poor producers food, and hence agriculture, is more than just a basic need, but it is the single support they have for maintaining their livelihood. This is all reflected in the macroeconomic level. In many of the countries suffering undernourishment, agriculture is an important, if not the major, part of the economy. Therefore, Agricultural policies are the basis for achieving food security and improving livelihoods. An effective combination of sustainable agriculture and climate change policies can boost green growth, protect the environment and contribute to the eradication of hunger and poverty.
- #7 The footnote 4 is needed here
- #8 Water is the prime channel through which the impacts of climate change on the world’s ecosystems and on the livelihoods of societies will be felt. Climate change will have an impact on every element in the water cycle (UN-Water, 2010). Agriculture will be affected by increased evaporative demand, changes in the amount of rainfall and variations in river runoff and groundwater recharge, the two sources of water for irrigation.
- #9 GCMs and GGCM operate at detailed spatial aggregation. More differences between crop models than across the two GCMs.
- #10 GCMs and GGCM operate at detailed spatial aggregation. More differences between crop models than across the two GCMs.
- #12 The four dimensions of food security. CSA takes into account the four dimensions of food security, availability, accessibility, utilization and stability. Still, the entry point and the emphasis is on production, on farmers, on increasing productivity and income, and on ensuring their stability. As such it is centered on the key dimension of food security, availability, which is associated with stability. It also has much to do with raising and stabilizing incomes of smallholders, and thus with accessibility to food. Diversification of production is a powerful way to increase efficiency and resilience; it is also an essential path towards more balanced and nutritious diets.
- #13 Source: Adapted from Gustavsson et al. 2011
- #14 FAO CSA 2010 definition: Agriculture that sustainably increases productivity, resilience (adaptation), reduces/removes GHGs (mitigation), and enhances achievements of national food security and development goals.
- #15 CSA integrates the three dimensions of sustainable development (economic, social and environmental) by jointly addressing food security and climate challenges. It is composed of three main pillars: 1. sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes; 2. adapting and building resilience to climate change; and 3. reducing and/or removing greenhouse gases emissions, where possible. The magnitude, immediacy and broad scope of the effects of climate change on agricultural systems create a compelling need to ensure comprehensive integration of these effects into national agricultural planning, investments and programmes. Developing policies & insts Mobilizing finance
- #16 CSA, which seeks to enhance food security while contributing to mitigate climate change and preserving the natural resource base and vital ecosystem services requires the transition to agricultural production systems that are more productive, use inputs more efficiently, have less variability and greater stability in their outputs, and are more resilient to risks, shocks and long-term climate variability. More productive and more resilient agriculture requires a major shift in the way land, water, soil nutrients and genetic resources are managed to ensure that these resources are used more efficiently. Making this shift requires considerable changes in national and local governance, legislation, policies and financial mechanisms. This transformation will also involve improving producers’ access to markets. By reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of land and/or agricultural product and increasing carbon sinks, these changes will contribute significantly to the mitigation of climate change.
- #17 CSA, which seeks to enhance food security while contributing to mitigate climate change and preserving the natural resource base and vital ecosystem services requires the transition to agricultural production systems that are more productive, use inputs more efficiently, have less variability and greater stability in their outputs, and are more resilient to risks, shocks and long-term climate variability. More productive and more resilient agriculture requires a major shift in the way land, water, soil nutrients and genetic resources are managed to ensure that these resources are used more efficiently. Making this shift requires considerable changes in national and local governance, legislation, policies and financial mechanisms. This transformation will also involve improving producers’ access to markets. By reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of land and/or agricultural product and increasing carbon sinks, these changes will contribute significantly to the mitigation of climate change.
- #18 CSA, which seeks to enhance food security while contributing to mitigate climate change and preserving the natural resource base and vital ecosystem services requires the transition to agricultural production systems that are more productive, use inputs more efficiently, have less variability and greater stability in their outputs, and are more resilient to risks, shocks and long-term climate variability. More productive and more resilient agriculture requires a major shift in the way land, water, soil nutrients and genetic resources are managed to ensure that these resources are used more efficiently. Making this shift requires considerable changes in national and local governance, legislation, policies and financial mechanisms. This transformation will also involve improving producers’ access to markets. By reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of land and/or agricultural product and increasing carbon sinks, these changes will contribute significantly to the mitigation of climate change.
- #19 CSA, which seeks to enhance food security while contributing to mitigate climate change and preserving the natural resource base and vital ecosystem services requires the transition to agricultural production systems that are more productive, use inputs more efficiently, have less variability and greater stability in their outputs, and are more resilient to risks, shocks and long-term climate variability. More productive and more resilient agriculture requires a major shift in the way land, water, soil nutrients and genetic resources are managed to ensure that these resources are used more efficiently. Making this shift requires considerable changes in national and local governance, legislation, policies and financial mechanisms. This transformation will also involve improving producers’ access to markets. By reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of land and/or agricultural product and increasing carbon sinks, these changes will contribute significantly to the mitigation of climate change.
- #20 CSA, which seeks to enhance food security while contributing to mitigate climate change and preserving the natural resource base and vital ecosystem services requires the transition to agricultural production systems that are more productive, use inputs more efficiently, have less variability and greater stability in their outputs, and are more resilient to risks, shocks and long-term climate variability. More productive and more resilient agriculture requires a major shift in the way land, water, soil nutrients and genetic resources are managed to ensure that these resources are used more efficiently. Making this shift requires considerable changes in national and local governance, legislation, policies and financial mechanisms. This transformation will also involve improving producers’ access to markets. By reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of land and/or agricultural product and increasing carbon sinks, these changes will contribute significantly to the mitigation of climate change.
- #21 As seen in the previous slides, CSA has many components. It is not a single specific agricultural technology or practice that can be universally applied. It is an approach that requires site-specific assessments to identify suitable agricultural production technologies and practices. This approach does the following main 10 tasks listed here. In essence, CSA brings together practices, policies and institutions that are not necessarily new but are used in the context of climatic changes, which are unfamiliar to farmers, herders and fishers.
- #22 As seen in the previous slides, CSA has many components. It is not a single specific agricultural technology or practice that can be universally applied. It is an approach that requires site-specific assessments to identify suitable agricultural production technologies and practices. This approach does the following main 10 tasks listed here. In essence, CSA brings together practices, policies and institutions that are not necessarily new but are used in the context of climatic changes, which are unfamiliar to farmers, herders and fishers.
- #23 As seen in the previous slides, CSA has many components. It is not a single specific agricultural technology or practice that can be universally applied. It is an approach that requires site-specific assessments to identify suitable agricultural production technologies and practices. This approach does the following main 10 tasks listed here. In essence, CSA brings together practices, policies and institutions that are not necessarily new but are used in the context of climatic changes, which are unfamiliar to farmers, herders and fishers.
- #24 The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has launched a brand new Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) Sourcebook, which aims to address knowledge gaps and support countries in the implementation of climate-smart approaches. The Sourcebook, which is a collaborative effort from various agencies and includes contributions from the Global Mechanism, was unveiled in Bonn at a side event focusing on the synergies between adaptation and mitigation in agriculture during the Thirty-eighth session of the Subsidiary Body for Sc The Sourcebook aims to help decision makers at a number of levels (including political administrators and natural resource managers) to understand the different options that are available for planning, policies and investments and the practices that are suitable for making different agricultural sectors, landscapes and food systems more climate-smart. The CSA is a reference tool for planners, practitioners and policy makers working in agriculture, forestry and fisheries at national and subnational levels. It indicates some of the necessary ingredients required to achieve a climate-smart approach to the agricultural sectors, including existing options and barriers. ientific and Technological Advice of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
- #25 CSA shares the objectives and guiding principles of sustainable development, green growth and sustainable intensification. Sustainable development: According to the Brundtland Commission in Our Common Future– Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) it is “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Recognizing the value of the environment, extending the time horizon and emphasizing the role of equity. The CSA approach is designed to identify and operationalize sustainable agricultural development within the explicit parameters of climate change. 2012 Rio+20 needed more concrete expression on sustainable development, making it more operational and guiding on how to integrate its three dimensions: economic, environmental and social. Therefore, the concept of green economy was developed. Definition is according to UNEP’s Green Economy Report:“An economy that results in improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities.” Sustainable intensification: encompassed in “Save and Grow” concept. Productive agriculture that conserves and enhances natural resources. Uses ecosystem approach that draws on nature’s contribution to crop growth and applies appropriate external inputs at the right time in the right amount to allow crop varieties resilient to climate change use nutrients, water and external inputs more efficiently. CSA is also tied to accessibility dimension of food security since it has to do with raising and stabilizing incomes of smallholders. CSA adds a more forward-looking dimension than sustainable intensification with more concern about future potential changes and the need to be prepared for them, which reflects CSA’s tie to sustainable development.
- #26 While to address climate change and food security through CSA would depend on practices, policies and institutions that are not new, the harmonization and synchronization needed of practices and policies to address these challenges is new. What is also new is the fact that the multiple challenges faced by agriculture and food systems are addressed simultaneously and holistically, which helps avoid counterproductive policies, legislation or financing.
- #28 Coordination across agricultural sectors (e.g. fisheries, livestock, forestry, and crops), such as with energy and water sector development, is essential to capitalize on potential synergies, reduce trade-offs and optimize the use of natural resources and ecosystem services. A key component of CSA is the integrated landscape approach that follows the principles of ecosystem management and sustainable land and water use. This approach also aims to strengthen livelihoods and food security, especially of smallholders, by improving the management and use of natural resources and adopting appropriate methods and technologies for the production, processing and marketing of agricultural goods across all sectors.
- #30 + benefices: mitigation expressed in eqco2 while hard to measure in one metric unit adaptation benefits + proactive/retroactive
- #31 CSA is not just improving a production system for adaptation and mitigation ! THIS IS THE STRUCTURE OF THE FOLLOWING 5 DAYS
- #32 Take into account that this are all related, and can be integrated
- #33 Ask for each the CSA equivalent of the concept/practice before revealing the right column
- #34 Site conservation agriculture de la FAO http://www.fao.org/ag/ca/8.html UNDERLINE the importance of rigorous analyses to assess CSA in each case!! Knowler
- #35 Not just improving practices in crop production= > Diversification to more resilient system is also CSA
- #36 If an arid area one switches from a fragile crop to a more resilient and adapted livestock system, it is also CSA.
- #37 LA differs from ecosystem approaches in that it may include multiple ecosystems.
- #38 CSA provides opportunities, but also presents considerable challenges. To seize these opportunities and meet these challenges, a more holistic, integrated approach in which all stakeholders participate actively is required. An integrated approach ensures greater efficiency in the use of resources and more sustainable management of natural and human-created processes in the landscape. Production systems must be incorporated into landscapes, in ways that capitalize on natural biological processes, recycle waste and residues and create integrated and diversified farming systems. This integration can greatly reduce the pressure on the natural resources and minimize the need for external inputs (e.g. energy, chemical fertilizers and pesticides) and other management interventions.
- #39 Throughout history, the peatlands on the Ruoergai Plateau have acted like sponges. They absorbed and retained water during periods when water supplies were abundant and slowly released water when it was scarce. In this way, the peatlands slowed down peak discharge, prevented erosion, reduced downstream flooding and guaranteed a steady supply of water to the Huanghe (Yellow) River, a water source that millions of people depend on. The introduction of livestock grazing 5 000 years ago completely changed the peatlands on the Ruoergai Plateau. At the same time, herders developed a complex system of land management, which included sharing grazing lands and their rotational use to prevent overgrazing and erosion. Peatland degradation increased dramatically with the construction of roads in the 1970s and the rising demand for food, fuel and rangeland. Overgrazing and the resulting decrease in the quality of pasture fuelled the demand for new rangeland. This led to increased pressure on untouched peatlands (Wiener et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2006; Gao et al., 2009), of which almost 50 percent were drained (Yang, 2000). Peatland degradation leads to increased GHG emissions. On the other hand, more moderate grazing may reduce methane emissions and carbon sequestration (Chen et al., 2008 and 2009).
- #42 Source: FAO 2012b The enabling environment dimension addresses the systemic impediments covering political commitment and vision, policy, legal and economic frameworks: national public sector budget allocations and processes; governance and power structures; and incentives and social norms. The organizational dimension includes public and private organizations, civil society and networks of organizations. It addresses strategic management functions, structures and relationships; operational capacities, human and financial resources; and knowledge and information resources and infrastructure. The individual dimension refers to the skill levels and attitudes of individuals. These can be addressed through facilitation, training and competency development (see FAO, 2010a).
- #43 Source: FAO 2012b The enabling environment dimension addresses the systemic impediments covering political commitment and vision, policy, legal and economic frameworks: national public sector budget allocations and processes; governance and power structures; and incentives and social norms. The organizational dimension includes public and private organizations, civil society and networks of organizations. It addresses strategic management functions, structures and relationships; operational capacities, human and financial resources; and knowledge and information resources and infrastructure. The individual dimension refers to the skill levels and attitudes of individuals. These can be addressed through facilitation, training and competency development (see FAO, 2010a).
- #46 different green conceptions, which follows the same path and in the end raises the same issues and means. The Green Economy focuses on the concept of sustainability within each sector whilst GEA has a higher focus upon the agriculture greening role in value chain and food security. GEA and Climate smart agriculture both present a lot of convergences and could be considered as targeting quite similar objectives with a small focus divergence towards Green economy for GEA and towards Climate change for Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA). CSA regroups these concepts, having a multi-functional purpose on all levels.