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CODON BIAS
- 1. CODON BIAS FUNDAMENTALS OFMOLECULAR BIOLOGY SECOND SEMESTER,2016 MASOCHON RAINGAM ID:48102
- 2. CODON BIAS Arethere universally preferred or universally avoided codons? How codon bias arise ? And why?
- 3. GENETIC CODE CODON: Thetriplets of bases are called codons. The genetic code is redundant/degenerate 20 amino acid is coded by 64 different codons 43(61 codons encoding for amino acids plus 3 stop codons) Single amino acid is coded by more than one codon This redundancy increases the resistance of genes to mutation: The third codon letters (wobble bases) can often be interchanged without affecting the primary sequence of the protein product . Wobble hypothesis.
- 4. GENETIC CODE Thereare no universally preferred or universally avoided codons. Out of 64 codons ,59(64-stop codons and AUG) are interesting for studying codon bias.
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- 6. CODON BIAS:EXAMPLE Differencesin the frequency of occurrence of synonymous codons in coding DNA.
- 7. CODON BIAS:EXAMPLE AAA &AAG codes for lysine
- 8. CODON BIAS Thegenetic code is generally conserved among organisms, but strength of codon bias varies between organisms and across genes within each genome The choice of which codons are frequent and which are rare is generally consistent across genes within each genome. The hypothesis that different organisms have distinct codon biases is known as the genome hypothesis of codon bias.(Richard Grantham)
- 9. SOME ORGANISMS DISPLAYBIASED CODON USAGE; OTHERS DO NOT. Helicobacter pylori and humans -little evidence of translational selection. E coli, the yeast, the nematode C. elegans, and the fly Drosophila melanogaster, show a marked codon bias due to selection.
- 10. CORRELATION OF CODONBIAS WITH BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS Significant correlations have been found between codon bias and various biological parameters such as gene expression level, gene length, gene translation, initiation signal protein ,amino acid composition ,protein structure ,tRNA abundance ,mutation frequency and pattern, and GC composition
- 11. HOW CODON BIASESARISE IS A MUCH DEBATED AREA OF MOLECULAR EVOLUTION. Nature of the codon usage-tRNA optimization : It is not clear whether codon usage drives tRNA evolution or vice versa. POSSIBLE EXPLANATIONS FOR CODON BIAS: Mutational bias Selection
- 12. SELECTIONIST EXPLANATION Selectionistexplanation: Codon bias contributes to the efficiency and/or the accuracy of protein expression and is thus generated and maintained by selection(positive selection). The exact cause of selection for translationally optimal codons is unclear Selective causes of the codon bias may be: Translation efficiency Translation accuracy Gene function and possibly on fitness
- 13. CODON BIAS ANDTRANSLATIONAL ACCURACY CORRELATION An early study by Precup & Parker : They looked at the frequency of misincorporation of lysine into the AAU and AAC asparagine codons by experimentally constructing a series of derivatives of the gene encoding the coat protein of the bacteriophage MS2 . This study showed that the choice of a codon strongly affect (four- to nine fold) the frequency Of misincorporation.
- 14. CODON BIAS ANDTRANSLATIONAL ACCURACY CORRELATION Akashi and by Stoletzki & Eyre-Walker demonstrated that selection on translational accuracy seems to play a role in codon bias in D. melanogaster and E. coli. THEORY: If selection on codon bias acts to increase translational accuracy, it should act more strongly on codons that encode the functionally most important amino acids. Result: sites that encode more conserved amino acids are also more biased in terms of codon usage
- 15. CODON USAGE CANALSO AFFECT THE SPEED OF TRANSLATION ELONGATION Sorensen et al. measured elongation rates directly in vivo. They showed that the insertion of short strings of either rare codons or frequent codons significantly affects the rate of elongation. OBSERVATION:The rate of amino acid incorporation at the frequent codons was almost six times faster than the rate at the rare codons. Will the increase in speed of elongation lead to a noticeable increase in the speed of translation?
- 16. CODON BIAS CORRELATIONWITH GENE FUNCTION AND FITNESS Carlini & Stephan manipulated the sequence of the alcohol dehydrogenase (Adh) gene in Drosophila by replacing 1 to 10 preferred codons with unpreferred ones while maintaining the amino acid sequence of the protein . They showed that these relatively small changes in codon bias affect both the expression of the ADH gene as well as the ability of the flies carrying the altered genes to tolerate ethanol. These studies directly demonstrate the strong effect codon bias may have on gene function and possibly on fitness.
- 17. MUTATIONAL BIAS EXPLANATION MUTATIONAL EXPLANATION/NEUTRAL EXPLANATION: Codon bias exists because of non randomness in the mutational patterns. Some codons are more mutable and thus would have lower equilibrium frequencies, also known as “rare” codons
- 18. MUTATIONAL BIAS Ifthe unequal codon-usage is due to biases in mutation patterns, then the expectation is that the magnitude and the direction of the bias will be more or less the same for all codon families and for all genes, regardless of function or expression levels
- 19. MUTATIONAL BIAS Mutationalbiases are known to differ between organisms, possibly leading to differences in the patterns of codon bias across organisms.
- 20. CORROBORATION OF THEMUTATIONAL BIASIS Several studies have shown that the most significant parameter explaining codon bias differences between different organisms is the level of GC content/composition. GC content is likely to be determined mostly by genome-wide processes rather than by selective forces acting specifically on coding regions.
- 21. MUTATIONAL BIAS 1.Mutational pressuresalone cannot explain why the more frequent codons ( preferred codons) are those that are recognized by more abundant tRNA molecules . This correlation was detected through direct measurements of tRNA levels (also been detected based on the tRNA gene copy numbers) in the bacteria Escherichia coli and Mycoplasma capricolum and in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae .
- 22. TRNA CONCENTRATION CORRELATES TOCODON BIAS
- 23. MUTATIONAL BIAS :LIMITATION 2.The mutational model also does not easily account for within-genome variation in codon bias. Codon bias correlates most strongly with the level of gene expression
- 24. CORRELATIONS BETWEEN GENEEXPRESSION AND CODON BIAS
- 25. CORRELATIONS BETWEEN GENEEXPRESSION AND CODON BIAS It has been shown using large scale gene expression data, in large number of bacteria and yeast that genes that interact functionally and thus likely need to be expressed at similar levels tend to have correlated levels of codon bias.
- 26. CORRELATIONS BETWEEN GENEEXPRESSION AND CODON BIAS May be the relationship between codon bias and gene expression is due to differences in mutational biases in genes transcribed at different levels. However, studies in D. melanogaster and C. elegans suggest that this is unlikely .In both of these organisms most of the optimal codons contain a cytosine or a guanine in the third position. As a result, the GC content of synonymous sites in these organisms correlates positively with levels of gene expression but the same is not true for the GC content of introns that are also transcribed.
- 27. SELECTION OR MUTATIONALBIAS? Co-relation between more commonly used codons and the abundant tRNAs, as well as the high codon bias of the highly expressed genes, fit well with the selectionist explanation for codon bias. HOW? Genes using the codons that are recognized by more abundant tRNA molecules may be translated more efficiently and with fewer mistakes than genes that use less frequent codons. Thus, selection may favor the use of the more frequent codons.
- 28. SELECTIONIST OR MUTATIONALBIAS? Codon bias of highly expressed genes: Selection is expected to be stronger for genes that are expressed at higher levels, fitting well with the observed correlation between levels of gene expression and levels of codon bias.
- 29. MAJOR CODON PREFERENCEMODEL The current accepted model Also known as mutation-selection-drift balance model This model proposes that selection favors the major (or preferred) codons over minor codons. However, mutational pressure and genetic drift allow the minor codons to persist Factors effecting Selectivity: Levels of gene expression and functional constraint may determine the intensity of selection on silent sites for a certain gene
- 30. POPULATION GENETICS STUDIESINTO THE MUTATION-SELECTION-DRIFT BALANCE MODEL D. melanogaster: selection in favor of unpreffered(1 gene out of 18 shows selection on synonymous site) D. simulans: major codon preference. D. sechellia: Predominantly in favor of preferred codons.However, small number of genes selection favor unpreferred codons, indicating that sometimes selection may act on codon bias for reasons other than to enhance the efficiency or accuracy of translation.
- 31. POPULATION GENETICS STUDIESINTO THE MUTATION-SELECTION-DRIFT BALANCE MODEL
- 32. MAJOR CODON PREFERENCEMODEL Example: Selection on silent sites in ribosomal genes that are more highly expressed and more functionally constrained may be stronger than selection on the silent sites of less constrained and/or less highly expressed genes. Under this mutation selection-drift balance model, codon bias is the result of positive selection for mutations that increase the frequency of major codons (preferred mutations) and purifying selection against mutations that decrease the frequency of major codons (unpreferred mutations)
- 33. CONCLUSION? Changes tosynonymous sites are not neutral. Codon usage is affected by selection. Still……….
- 34. MANY PROBLEMS YETTO BE SOLVED 1. Is the strength of selection on codon bias constant? 2. What determines the choice of major codons? 3. How do shifts in codon bias between different organisms take place? 4. How much of codon bias is determined by selection on efficiency and accuracy of translation and how much by additional and sometimes even contradictory selective pressures?
- 35. IS THE STRENGTHOF SELECTION ON CODON BIAS CONSTANT? Selection for the maintenance of codon bias has been shown to be weak. However, still unresolved is whether selection on silent sites is constant and whether this selection remains weak once a gene’s codon bias is perturbed to a level much lower or much higher than its equilibrium. Evidence indicates that even a small number of mutations from preferred to unpreferred codons may result in significant phenotypic consequences.
- 36. WHAT DETERMINES THECHOICE OF MAJOR CODONS? Differences in codon bias between organisms can be predicted based on the composition of intragenic sequences. BUT Genome-wide patterns of substitution explains only the codon usage in the genes showing low levels of codon bias within the genome. It is still unclear is what determines which of the synonymous codons will be used as major and minor codons. In Drosophila and C. elegans most major codons end in either a cytosine or a guanine even though both genomes are AT rich
- 37. HOW DO SHIFTSIN CODON BIAS OCCUR? would require a large number of genes to change at a large number of sites. Possible when: organisms undergo long periods of reduced selection followed by an increase in selection. Insertion of a new gene into a genome to which this gene is crucial for survival.
- 38. WHAT IS THEEXACT NATURE OF SELECTION ON CODON BIAS? Exact relative contribution of selection for efficiency and for accuracy of translation remains unclear. Selection favouring unpreffered codons . What drives selection in these genes has not been determined. Specific codons may be selected for or against for reasons other than their effect on the efficiency and accuracy of translation. Codon bias may be a mechanism by which levels of gene expression are regulated
- 39. WHAT IS THEEXACT NATURE OF SELECTION ON CODON BIAS? First , codon bias could only determine gene expression levels if elongation rather than initiation is the rate-limiting step of translation. Lu et al: in yeast over 70% of gene expression regulation occurs at the level of transcription. Thus the contribution of codon bias to expression regulation appears to be, at best, secondary.
- 40. LIMITING FACTOR FORCODON USAGE ANALYSIS lack of sequence information. large sample size is required. scarcity of software designed to aid the analysis of codon usage. Not much research has been done on tRNA.
- 41. CODON USAGE ANALYSISDATABASES GCUA(Graphical Codon Usage Analysis) Codon Usage Database) Codon Usage Bias(CUB-DB) Gene INFINITY Sequence Manipulation suite(SMS)
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