![MIPS Assembly Language:
sll $2,$5, 2
add $2,$4,$2
lw $15,0($2)
lw $16,4($2)
sw $16,0($2)
sw $15,4($2)
jr $31
Compiler
Translating Languages
Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 11
Program (C Language):
swap(int v[], int k) {
int temp;
temp = v[k];
v[k] = v[k+1];
v[k+1] = temp;
}
A statement in a high-level
language is translated
typically into several
machine-level instructions
MIPS Machine Language:
00051080
00821020
8C620000
8CF20004
ACF20000
AC620004
03E00008
Assembler](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/01-introduction-240611045423-a3ed2574/85/Computer-Architecture-And-Design-Introduction-pdf-11-320.jpg)
Computer Architecture And Design-Introduction.pdf
- 1. Introduction • Computer Architecture And Design • Instructor: Dr. Elfurjani Mresa • Email: [email protected] Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 1
- 2. Presentation Outline • Welcome to EE434 • High-Level, Assembly-, and Machine-Languages • Components of a Computer System • Chip Manufacturing Process • Technology Improvements • Programmer's View of a Computer System Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 2
- 3. Which Textbook will be Used? • Computer Organization & Design: The Hardware/Software Interface – Fifth Edition – David Patterson and John Hennessy – Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 2014 • Read the textbook in addition to slides Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 3
- 4. Course Learning Outcomes • Towards the end of this course, you should be able to … ❑ Describe the instruction set architecture of a MIPS processor ❑ Analyze, write, and test MIPS assembly language programs ❑ Describe organization/operation of integer & floating-point units ❑ Design the datapath and control of a single-cycle CPU ❑ Design the datapath/control of a pipelined CPU & handle hazards ❑ Describe the organization/operation of memory and caches ❑ Analyze the performance of processors and caches • Required Background ❑ Ability to program confidently in Java or C ❑ Ability to design a combinational and sequential circuit Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 4
- 5. What is “Computer Architecture” ? • Computer Architecture = Instruction Set Architecture + Computer Organization • Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) – WHAT the computer does (logical view) • Computer Organization – HOW the ISA is implemented (physical view) • We will study both in this course Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 5
- 6. Next . . . • Welcome to EE434 • High-Level, Assembly-, and Machine-Languages • Components of a Computer System • Chip Manufacturing Process • Technology Improvements • Programmer's View of a Computer System Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 6
- 7. Some Important Questions to Ask • What is Assembly Language? • What is Machine Language? • How is Assembly related to a high-level language? • Why Learn Assembly Language? • What is an Assembler, Linker, and Debugger? Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 7
- 8. A Hierarchy of Languages Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 8 Application Programs High-Level Languages Assembly Language Machine Language Hardware High-Level Language Low-Level Language Machine independent Machine specific
- 9. Assembly and Machine Language • Machine language – Native to a processor: executed directly by hardware – Instructions consist of binary code: 1s and 0s • Assembly language – Slightly higher-level language – Readability of instructions is better than machine language – One-to-one correspondence with machine language instructions • Assemblers translate assembly to machine code • Compilers translate high-level programs to machine code – Either directly, or – Indirectly via an assembler Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 9
- 10. Compiler and Assembler Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 10
- 11. MIPS Assembly Language: sll $2,$5, 2 add $2,$4,$2 lw $15,0($2) lw $16,4($2) sw $16,0($2) sw $15,4($2) jr $31 Compiler Translating Languages Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 11 Program (C Language): swap(int v[], int k) { int temp; temp = v[k]; v[k] = v[k+1]; v[k+1] = temp; } A statement in a high-level language is translated typically into several machine-level instructions MIPS Machine Language: 00051080 00821020 8C620000 8CF20004 ACF20000 AC620004 03E00008 Assembler
- 12. Advantages of High-Level Languages • Program development is faster – High-level statements: fewer instructions to code • Program maintenance is easier – For the same above reasons • Programs are portable – Contain few machine-dependent details • Can be used with little or no modifications on different machines – Compiler translates to the target machine language – However, Assembly language programs are not portable Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 12
- 13. Why Learn Assembly Language? Many reasons: ❑ Accessibility to system hardware ❑ Space and time efficiency ❑ Writing a compiler for a high-level language Accessibility to system hardware ▪ Assembly Language is useful for implementing system software ▪ Also useful for small embedded system applications Space and Time efficiency ▪ Understanding sources of program inefficiency ▪ Tuning program performance ▪ Writing compact code Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 13
- 14. Assembly Language Programming Tools • Editor – Allows you to create and edit assembly language source files • Assembler – Converts assembly language programs into object files – Object files contain the machine instructions • Linker – Combines object files created by the assembler with link libraries – Produces a single executable program • Debugger – Allows you to trace the execution of a program – Allows you to view machine instructions, memory, and registers Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 14
- 15. Assemble and Link Process Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 15 Source File Source File Source File Assembler Object File Assembler Object File Assembler Object File Linker Executable File Link Libraries A program may consist of multiple source files Assembler translates each source file separately into an object file Linker links all object files together with link libraries
- 16. MARS Assembler and Simulator Tool Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 16
- 17. Next . . . • Welcome to EE434 • High-Level, Assembly-, and Machine-Languages • Components of a Computer System • Chip Manufacturing Process • Technology Improvements • Programmer's View of a Computer System Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 17
- 18. Components of a Computer System • Processor – Datapath – Control • Memory & Storage – Main Memory – Disk Storage • Input devices • Output devices • Bus: Interconnects processor to memory and I/O • Network: newly added component for communication Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 18 Computer Memory I/O Devices Input Output B U S Control Datapath Processor Disk Network
- 19. Opening the Box Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 19
- 20. Input Devices Logical arrangement of keys 0 1 2 3 c d e f 8 9 a b 4 5 6 7 Mechanical switch Spring Key Cap Contacts Membrane switch Conductor-coated membrane Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 20
- 21. Output Devices Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 21 Laser printing Rollers Sheet of paper Light from optical system Toner Rotating drum Cleaning of excess toner Charging Heater Fusing of toner
- 22. Memory Devices • Volatile Memory Devices – RAM = Random Access Memory – DRAM = Dynamic RAM • 1-Transistor cell + capacitor • Dense but slow, must be refreshed • Typical choice for main memory – SRAM: Static RAM • 6-Transistor cell, faster but less dense than DRAM • Typical choice for cache memory • Non-Volatile Memory Devices – ROM = Read Only Memory – Flash Memory Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 22
- 23. Arm provides read/write heads for all surfaces The disk heads are connected together and move in conjunction Track 0 Track 1 Recording area Spindle Direction of rotation Platter Read/write head Actuator Arm Track 2 A Magnetic disk consists of a collection of platters Provides a number of recording surfaces Magnetic Disk Storage Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 23
- 24. Magnetic Disk Storage Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 24 Track 0 Track 1 Sector Recording area Spindle Direction of rotation Platter Read/write head Actuator Arm Track 2 Disk Access Time = Seek Time + Rotation Latency + Transfer Time Seek Time: head movement to the desired track (milliseconds) Rotation Latency: disk rotation until desired sector arrives under the head Transfer Time: to transfer data
- 25. Example on Disk Access Time Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 25 ❖ Given a magnetic disk with the following properties Rotation speed = 5400 RPM (rotations per minute) Average seek = 9 ms, Sector = 512 bytes, Track = 200 sectors ❖ Calculate Time of one rotation (in milliseconds) Average time to access a block of 80 consecutive sectors ❖ Answer Rotations per second Rotation time in milliseconds Average rotational latency Time to transfer 80 sectors Average access time = 5400/60 = 90 RPS = 1000/90 = 11.1 ms = time of half rotation = 5.56 ms = (80/200) * 11.1 = 4.44 ms = 9 + 5.56 + 4.44 = 19 ms
- 26. Inside the Processor (CPU) • Datapath: part of a processor that executes instructions • Control: generates control signals for each instruction Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 26 A L U Registers Instruction Program Counter Instruction Cache Next Program Counter Data Cache Control Clock
- 27. Datapath Components • Program Counter (PC) – Contains address of instruction to be fetched – Next Program Counter: computes address of next instruction • Instruction and Data Caches – Small and fast memory containing most recent instructions/data • Register File – General-purpose registers used for intermediate computations • ALU = Arithmetic and Logic Unit – Executes arithmetic and logic instructions • Buses – Used to wire and interconnect the various components Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 27
- 28. Fetch - Execute Cycle Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 28 Infinite Cycle implemented in Hardware Fetch instruction Compute address of next instruction Generate control signals for instruction Read operands from registers Compute result value Writeback result in a register Instruction Decode Instruction Fetch Execute Writeback Result Memory Access Read or write memory (load/store)
- 29. Clocking Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 29 Operation of digital hardware is governed by a clock ◼ Clock period: duration of a clock cycle ◼ e.g., 250 ps = 0.25 ns = 0.25 ×10–9 sec ◼ Clock frequency (rate) = 1 / clock period ◼ e.g., 1/ 0.25 ×10–9 sec = 4.0×109 Hz = 4.0 GHz Clock (cycles) Data transfer and computation Update state Clock period
- 30. Next . . . • Welcome to EE434 • Assembly-, Machine-, and High-Level Languages • Components of a Computer System • Chip Manufacturing Process • Technology Improvements • Programmer's View of a Computer System Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 30
- 31. Chip Manufacturing Process Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 31 Silicon ingot Slicer Blank wafers 20 to 40 processing steps 8-12 in diameter 12-24 in long < 0.1 in thick Patterned wafer Dicer Individual dies Die Tester Tested dies Bond die to package Packaged dies Part Tester Tested Packaged dies Ship to Customers
- 32. Dramatic decrease in yield with larger dies Effect of Die Size on Yield Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 32 Defective Die Good Die 120 dies, 109 good 26 dies, 15 good Yield = (Number of Good Dies) / (Total Number of Dies) (1 + (Defect per area Die area / 2))2 1 Yield = Die Cost = (Wafer Cost) / (Dies per Wafer Yield)
- 33. Inside a Multicore Processor Chip Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 33
- 34. Next . . . • Welcome to EE434 • Assembly-, Machine-, and High-Level Languages • Components of a Computer System • Chip Manufacturing Process • Technology Improvements • Programmer's View of a Computer System Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 34
- 35. Technology Improvements • Processor transistor count: about 30% to 40% per year • Memory capacity: about 60% per year (4x every 3 years) • Disk capacity: about 60% per year • Opportunities for new applications • Better organizations and designs Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 35 Year Technology Relative performance/cost 1951 Vacuum tube 1 1965 Transistor 35 1975 Integrated circuit (IC) 900 1995 Very large scale IC (VLSI) 2,400,000 2005 Ultra large scale IC 6,200,000,000
- 36. Growth of Capacity per DRAM Chip • DRAM capacity quadrupled almost every 3 years – 60% increase per year, for 20 years Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 36
- 37. Processor Performance Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 37 Slowed down by power and memory latency Almost 50000x improvement between 1978 and 2012
- 38. Wafer of Pentium 4 Processors • 8 inches (20 cm) in diameter • Die area is 250 mm2 – About 16 mm per side • 55 million transistors per die – 0.18 μm technology – Size of smallest transistor – Improved technology uses • 0.13 μm and 0.09 μm • Dies per wafer = 169 – When yield = 100% – Number is reduced after testing – Rounded dies at boundary are useless Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 38
- 39. Classes of Computers • Desktop / Notebook Computers – General purpose, variety of software – Subject to cost/performance tradeoff • Server Computers – Network based – High capacity, performance, reliability – Range from small servers to building sized • Embedded Computers – Hidden as components of systems – Stringent power/performance/cost constraints Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 39
- 40. Computer Sales Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 40
- 41. tablets and smart phones versus PCs and traditional cell phones Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 41
- 42. Microprocessor Sales • ARM processor sales exceeded Intel IA-32 processors, which came second • ARM processors are used mostly in cellular phones • Most processors today are embedded in cell phones, digital TVs, video games, and a variety of consumer devices Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 42
- 43. The Processor Market Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 43 Millions of Units
- 44. Next . . . • Welcome to EE434 • Assembly-, Machine-, and High-Level Languages • Components of a Computer System • Chip Manufacturing Process • Technology Improvements • Programmer's View of a Computer System Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 44
- 45. Programmer’s View of a Computer System Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 45 Application Programs High-Level Language Assembly Language Operating System Instruction Set Architecture Microarchitecture Physical Design Level 0 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Increased level of abstraction Each level hides the details of the level below it Software Hardware Interface SW & HW
- 46. Programmer's View – 2 • Application Programs (Level 5) – Written in high-level programming languages – Such as Java, C++, Pascal, Visual Basic . . . – Programs compile into assembly language level (Level 4) • Assembly Language (Level 4) – Instruction mnemonics are used – Have one-to-one correspondence to machine language – Calls functions written at the operating system level (Level 3) – Programs are translated into machine language (Level 2) • Operating System (Level 3) – Provides services to level 4 and 5 programs – Translated to run at the machine instruction level (Level 2) Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 46
- 47. Programmer's View – 3 • Instruction Set Architecture (Level 2) – Interface between software and hardware – Specifies how a processor functions – Machine instructions, registers, and memory are exposed – Machine language is executed by Level 1 (microarchitecture) • Microarchitecture (Level 1) – Controls the execution of machine instructions (Level 2) – Implemented by digital logic • Physical Design (Level 0) – Implements the microarchitecture – Physical layout of circuits on a chip Chapter 1: Introduction Computer Organization And Design 47