Concepts and theories of educational admin and planning

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
COURSE CODE: EDA 811:
COURSE TITLE: CONCEPT AND THEORIES OF EDUCATIONAL
ADMINISTRATION AND PLANNING

INTRODUCTION
EDA 811: Concepts and theories of Educational Administration and
Planning is a first semester year one, two credit, and 700 level Core Course. It will be available
for all students offering M.ED Administration and Planning. It will also be suitable as ‘One-of”
course for anyone who does not intend to complete a National Open University of Nigeria
(NOUN) qualification, but wants to learn the Concepts and theories of Educational
Administration and Planning course.
This course will expose you to an understanding of many of the Concepts and Theories in
Educational Administration and Planning. It will assist you to be able to apply these theories to
the tasks and roles that you perform as School heads and Administrative Executives in the
educational setting.
The course will consist of 19 units which includes Course Guide, definition of Administration,
concept of importance of motivation and communication in and administration, meaning and
classification of organizations, Theories and Administration, Decision making, School
Organization, Administration, Exercise of Power, Authority, Responsibility and Delegation,
Administration and Student Services, Discipline and Students Control, School Community
relations, Educational Planning, its approaches methodologies and tools and the practice and
applications of all these to the educational setting in Nigeria.
This Course Guide tells you briefly what the course is about, what course materials you will be
using and how you can work your way through these materials. It suggests some general
guidelines for the amount of time you are likely to spend on each unit of the course in order to
complete it successfully.
It also gives you some guidance on your tutor-marked assignments, which will be made available
in the assignment file. There are regular tutorial classes that are linked to the course. You are
advised to attend these sessions.
WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE
The overall aim of EDA 811; Concepts and Theories of Educational Administration and
Planning is to introduce specific definitions, and acquaint you with the important concepts in
Educational Administration and Planning. The context in which Administration is been practiced
will also be explained. The organization which forms the bedrock of any administrative practice
will be examined, the types of organizations, principles of organization, techniques in
organization and organizational conflict. The historical trends in the development of
Administration, highlighting the theories in the areas of personnel management, bureaucracy,
scientific management and human relations. These developments later found relevance in the area
of education.
The understanding of these Concepts and Theories in Educational Administration; and planning
is vital because it serves as a framework for the practice of Administration and the planning of
educational programmes and other school activities. From time to time the Educational
Administrator needs to make decisions, which will interpret the policies and programmes of the
educational system in the country. During this course, you will learn about the school as an
organization, school administration which will spell out the task and roles of the administrator,
including the control of student services, and the type of relationships that the Administrator
needs to cultivate with the students, parents and the community at large.

The course will also expose you to an understanding of the concept of planning in Education, the
various approaches to educational planning such as social demand approach, manpower
approach, and cost-benefit approach. These are approaches that are applicable to educational
planning worldwide. Specific reference will be made to the relevance of these approaches for
meaningful educational development.
You will also learn the methodologies of planning education. The actual process of planning
within the Nigerian context will be broadly spelt out.
This course will also refresh your knowledge on organizational structure of Education in Nigeria,
the management and control of education. Finally you will learn to examine the tasks and
challenges that are ahead of future Educational Administrators.
COURSE AIMS
The aim of the course can be summarized as follows: this course aims to give you an
understanding of the meaning of the various concept of administration and planning. The theories
underlying the study of administration the practice of administration with the help of such
instrument like decision making, discipline and control of students, staff meeting and the use of
authority, power, responsibilities and delegation. The structure in which all these administrative
functions will find expression will also be explained. This will be achieved by aiming to:
Introduce you to the definition and meaning of the concept and theories of Educational
Administration and Planning.
Describe the various classifications of organizations and the principles underlying its
practice.
Outline the methods and tools employed, in decision making in an organization
Explain the practice of School Administration as its concerns both the students, staff,
parents and community as a whole.
Describe the concept of Educational Planning and its techniques and methodologies.
Outline the main constraint in Educational Planning.
Explain the organization, administration and control of education in Nigeria.
COURSE OBJECTIVE
To achieve the aims set out, the course sets overall objectives. Each unit also has specific
objectives. The unit objectives are always included at the beginning of a unit; you should read
them before you start working through the unit. You may want to refer to them during your
study of the unit to check on your progress.
You should always look at the unit objectives after completing a unit. In doing so you will be
sure that you have followed the instructions in the unit.

Below are the wider objectives of the course as a whole. By meeting these objectives
you
should have achieved the aims of the course as a whole.
On successful completion of the course you should be able to:
1. Define the concept of Administration.
2. Describe who is an Administrator.
3. Explain the meaning of Educational Administration.
4. Explain the term organization.
5. Differentiate between formal and informal organizations.
6. Specify the principle of organization.
7. Explain the scientific management theory.
8. Describe the human relations theory.
9. Discuss the Behaviouralist/Rationalist approach to administration.
10. Explain the theories of bureaucracy.
11. Describe the theory and process of decision making in administration.
12. Explain the meaning of School Administration.
13. Discuss the task and roles of the principal.
14. Explain the application of Administrative instrument such as authority, power,
responsibility and delegation.
15. Discuss the administration of student services, control and discipline in schools.
16. Define the concept of Education Planning.
17. Describe the three major approaches to planning.
18. Explain the constraints of Educational Planning.
19. Discuss the models of planning.
20. Specify the importance of each model of educational planning.
21. Discuss the organization and administration of the educational system in Nigeria.
22. Explain the organizational structure of the Ministries of Education in Nigeria.
23. Specify the various levels of educational control in Nigeria.
24. Identify the Federal and National Educational Agencies.
25. Discuss the foreign and International bodies concerned with educational development in
Nigeria.
26. Discuss the task and challenges ahead of future Educational Administrators and Planners.
WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

To complete this course you are required to read the study units, read set books and
read other
materials provided by the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN). Each unit contains self-
assessment exercises, and at points in the course you are required to submit assignments for
assessment purposes. At the end of the course, is a final examination. The course should take you
about 17 weeks in total to complete. Below you will find listed all the components of the course,
what you have to do and how you should allocate your time to each unit in order to complete the
course successfully on time.
COURSE MATERIALS
Major components of the course are:
Course Guide
Study Units
References
Assignment file
Presentation Schedule.
STUDY UNITS
The study units in this course are as follows:
Course Guide
Unit 1: The nature and purpose of Administration.
Unit 2: Principles and Practice in Organizations.
Unit 3: Historical trends in the development of Administration.
Unit 4 : Classical Organizational thought and the Scientific Management Movement.
Unit 5 : The Human Relation Movement.
Unit 6 : The Behaviouralist/Rationalist perspective in Administration.
Unit 7 : Theories of Bureaucracy.
Unit 8: Concepts and theory of decision making in Administration.
Unit 9: The School as an organization.
Unit 10: Administration and control of student services.
Unit 11: School Community Relations in Administration.
Unit 12: Introduction to the Concept of Educational Planning.
Unit 13: Approaches to Educational Planning.
Unit 14: Education Planning process.
Unit 15: Management and Planning Models for Educational System in Nigeria.
Unit 16: The organizational Structure of the Education in Nigeria.

The first two units explain the important terms and concepts in administration, specifying
the
place of educational administration and the context in which administration is been practiced that
is in an organizational setting. The two types of organization were identified and the principles
behind them explained. The next five units gives a historical trend of the development of
administration and highlights the four major developments of theories in the areas of Personnel
Management Scientific Management, Human Relations Movement and Bureaucracy.
The next four units explains the actual practice of administration in the School system, using such
concepts as decision making, control coordinating and managing of student services including the
School community relations.
This was followed with four other units, which tend to describe the concept of planning, the
approaches, the process and the models for Educational Planning. The last three units explained
the applicability of the various concepts and theories that have been studied with specific
reference to what an offer in the educational system of Nigeria. In addition the task and
challenges ahead of future Educational Administration and Planning in Nigeria was discussed.
Each study unit consist of one to two weeks work, and includes introduction objectives, reading
material, exercises, conclusion, summary, tutor-marked assignments(TMAs) and marking
scheme, references, further reading and other resources. The units direct your work on exercises
related to the required readings. In general, these exercise question you on the material ;you have
just covered or required you to apply it in some way and, thereby, help you to gauge you progress
and the reinforce your understanding of the material. Together with tutor-marked assignments,
these exercises will assist you in achieving the stated learning objectives of the individual units
and of the course.
ASSIGMENT FILE
There are eight assignments in this course. The eight course assignments will cover –
1. Definition of important concepts in Administration and classification of the types of
organization (Course Guide Units 1 and 2)
2. The development of Administration and the theoretical foundations of Scientific
Movement and the Human Relation Movement (Units 3 - 5)
3. The explanation of the Behaviouralist/Rationalist Movement (Course Guide Unit 6 ).
4. A comparative analysis of the theories of bureaucracy (Course Guide Unit 7).
5. The application of decision making metric to a given school problem (Course Guide Unit
8).
6. An understanding of the concept of School Administration and the various administrative
functions of the school head, for effective and efficient management of the school and the
community (Course Guide Unit 9, 10 & 11).
7. An explanation of the concept of Educational Planning and its processes (Course Guide
Unit 12, 13, & 14).

8. An application of the various planning approaches to educational planning in Nigeria
(Course Guide Unit 14 & 15).
PRESENTATION SCHEDULE
The presentation Schedule included in your course materials gives you the important dates for
this year for the completion of tutor-marked assignments and attending tutorials. Remember, you
are required to submit all your assignments by the due date. You should guard against falling
behind in your work.
ASSESSMENT
There are three aspects to the assessment of the course: first are self-exercises, second are the
tutor-marked assignments; and third, there is a written examination.
In tackling the assignments, you are advised to be sincere in attempting the exercises; you are
expected to apply information, knowledge and techniques gathered during the course. The
assignments must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance with the
deadlines stated in the Presentation Schedule and the Assignment file. The work you submit to
your tutor for assessment will count for 50% of your total course mark.
At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final written examination of ‘three hours’
duration. This examination will also count for 50% of your total course mark.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSISGNMENT (TMAs)
There are eight tutor-marked assignments in this course. You only need to submit five of the eight
assignments. You are encouraged, however, to submit all eight assignments in which case the
highest five of the eight marks will be counted. Each assignment counts 10% towards your total
course mark.
Assignment questions for the units in this course are contained in the Assignment File. You will
be able to complete your assignment from the information and materials contained in your
reading, references and study units. However, it is desirable in all degree level education to
demonstrate that you have read and researched more widely than the required minimum. Using
other references will give you a broader viewpoint and may provide a deeper understanding of the
subject.
When you have completed each assignment, send it together with a TMA (tutor-marked
assignment) form, to your tutor. Make sure that each assignment reaches your tutor on or before
the deadline given in the Presentation Schedule and Assignment file. If for any reason, you,
cannot complete your work on time, contact your tutor before the assignment is due to discuss the
possibility of an extension. Extensions will not be granted after the due date unless there are
exceptional circumstances.
FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING
The final examination for EDA811 will be of three hours’ duration and have a value of 50% of
the total course grade. The examination will consist of questions, which reflect the types of self-
testing, practice exercise and tutor-marked problems you have previously encountered. All areas
of the course will be assessed.

Use the time between finishing the last unit and sitting for the examination to revise the
entire
course. You might find it useful to review your self-tests, tutor-marked assignments and
comments on them before the examination. The final examination covers information from all
parts of the Course.
COURSE MARKING SCHEME
ASSESSMENT
Assignment 1-8
Final Examination
Total
Total 1 Course Marking Scheme.
COURSE OVERVIEW
MARKS
Eight assignments, best five marks of the
eight count @ 10% each = 50% of course
marks.
50% of overall course marks.
100% of course marks.
This table brings together the units, the number of weeks you should take of complete them, and
the assignment that follow them.
Unit Title of work
Course Guide
Weeks
activity
Assessment (end
of unit)
1.
2.
3.
The nature and purpose of Administration 1
Principles and Practice in Organizations 1
Historical trends in the development of
1
Administration
Assignment 1
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Classical Organizational thought and the
Scientific Management Movement
The Human Relations Movement
The Behaviouralist/Rationalist perspective
in Administration
Theories of Bureaucracy
Concept and theory of decision making
in
Administration
The School as an organization
1
1
1.
1
1
1
Assignment 2
Assignment 3
Assignment 4
Assignment 5
10. Administration and Control of Student
Services
11. School – Community Relations in
Administration
12. Introduction to the concept of Educational
Planning
1
3.
Educational Planning Process
1
4.
Approaches to Educational Planning
15. Management and Planning
Models in
Educational Planning

1
1
1
1
1
1
Assignme
nt 6
Assignme
nt 7
Assignme
nt 8

16. The organizational structure of the
Education in Nigeria
17. The management and control Education
in
Nigeria.
18. The future of Educational Administration in
perspective
Revision
Total
1
1 -
-
HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE
In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecturer. This is one of the
great
advantages of distant learning. You can read and work through specially designed study materials
at your own pace, and at a time and place that suit you best. Think of it as reading the
lecture
instead of listening to a lecturer. In the same way that a lecturer might set you some reading to do,
the study unit will tell you when to read your other materials. Just as a lecturer might give you an
in-class exercise, your study units provide exercises for you to do at appropriate points.
Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to the subject
matter of the unit and how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and the course as a
whole.
Next is a set of learning objectives. These objectives let you know what you should be able to do
by the time you have completed the unit. You should use these objectives to guide your study.
When you have finished the unit you must go back and check whether you have achieved the
objectives. If you make a habit of doing this, you will significantly improve your chances of
passing the course.
The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from other sources. This will
usually be either from a Reading Section of some other sources.
Self-test are interspersed throughout the end of units. Working through these tests will help you
to achieve the objectives of the unit and prepare you for the assignments and the examination.
You should do each self-test as you come to it in the study unit.
There will also be numerous examples given in the study units, work through these when you
come to them too.
The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If you run into any trouble,
telephone your tutor. Remember that your tutor’s job is to help you. When you need help, don’t
hesitate to call and ask your tutor to provide it.
1.
.
2.
Read this Course guide thoroughly
Organize a study schedule. Refer to the Course Overview for more details. Note
the
time you are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignments relate

to the
units. Important
information e.g.
details of your
tutorials, and the date of the first day
of the Semester will be made available. You need to gather all this information in one
place, such as your diary or a wall calendar. Whatever method you choose to use, you
should decide on and write in your own dates for working on each unit.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can to stick to it.
The major reason that students fail is that they get behind with their course
work. If
you get into difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know before it is too
late for help.
Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit.
Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a unit is given in
the “Overview” at the beginning of each unit you will always need both the study unit
you are working on and one of your references, on your desk at the same time.
Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been arranged to
provide a
sequence for you to follow. As you work through the units, you will be instructed to
read sections from your other sources. Use the unit to guide your reading.
Well before the relevant due date check your Assignment File and make sure
you
attend to the next required assignment. Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing
the assignments carefully. They have been designed to help you meet the
objectives
and the course and, therefore, will help you to pass the exam. Submit all assignments
not later than the due date.
Review the objectives for each study unit confirms that you have achieved them.
If
you feel unsure about any of the objectives, review the study material or consult your
tutor.
When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s objectives, you can then start
on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to face your study so
that you keep yourself on schedule.
When your have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking do not wait for its
return before starting on the next unit. Keep to your Schedule. When the assignment is
returned, pay particular attention to your tutor’s comments, both on the tutor-marked
assignment form and also written on the assignment. Consult your tutor as soon
as
possible if you have any questions or problems.
After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the
final
examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the beginning
of each unit) and the course objectives (listed in the Course Guide)
TUTORS AND TUTORIALS
There are 17 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You will be notified
of the

dates, times and location of these tutorials, together with the names and phone number of your
tutor, as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group.
Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your progress and
on any difficulties you might encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. You
must mail your tutu-marked assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at least two
working days are required.). They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon as
possible. Do no hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion board if you

need help. The following might be circumstances in which you would find help necessary.
Contact your tutor if:
You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings.
You have difficulty with the self-test or exercise.
You have a question or problem with an assignment with your tutor’s comment on
an
assignment or with the grading of an assignment.
You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to have face to face
contact with your tutor and to ask questions which are answered instantly. You can raise any
problem encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from course
tutorials prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating
in discussions actively.
SUMMARY
EDA 811 intends to introduce the concepts and theories of Educational Administration and
Planning to you. Upon completing this course, you will be equipped with the basic knowledge of
the important concepts and theories in Educational Administration and Planning.
You will be able to answer these kinds of questions:
What is Administration?
Who is an Administrator?
What is Education Administration?
Why is motivation and communication relevant in Administration?
How would you define organizations?
How many types of organization exist?
What are the principles of organization?
How do we explain organizational conflict?
What does the scientific management theory stand for?
How can we apply human relations theories to Administrative practice?
How can we determine the difference between theory X and Y?
What impact does the theory of bureaucracy have on the practice of administration?
Why do we make decision in schools?
What are the functions of the school principal?

How can we differentiate between Authority, Power, Responsibility and Delegation?
How do we administer student services?
How do we control discipline in school?
What impact does guidance and counseling services have on school administration?
How do we explain the relationship between the school and the community?
What is the meaning of Educational planning?
What are the planning processes that you know?
What are the planning approaches that you can explain?
What are the major planning constraints?
How can we overcome these planning constraints?
Why do we apply models in planning education?
How do we describe the organizational structure of education in Nigeria?
Who do we have foreign and international bodies concerned with educational
development?
What are the task and challenges ahead of Educational Adminsstrators and Planner in
Nigeria?
Of course the list of questions that you can answer is not limited to the above list. To gain the
most from this course you should try to apply the principles and concepts to your every day
life and practice of Administration in your organizations.
We hope you enjoy your acquaintances with the National Open University of Nigeria
(NOUN). We wish you every success in the future.

EDA 811: CONCEPTS AND THEORIES OF EDUCATIONAL
ADMINISTRATON AND PLANING
COURSE DEVELOPMENT
Course Developer
Dr. (Mrs.) Rosemond B. Ayanniyi
Course Writers
Dr. (Mrs.) Rosemond B. Ayanniyi
Course Coordinator
Ajadi Timothy 0
School of Education NOUN V/I Lagos
Programme Leader
Dr Salawu I. 0
School of Education NOUN V/I Lagos.
F71
40.1;7:;"`
So, — iai is
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF
NIGERIA

EDA 811 Concepts and Theories of Educational Administration and Planning
Unit 1
The Nature And Purpose Of Administration
Table of contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 The meaning of Administration
3.1 Who is an Administrator?
3.1.1 What is Educational Administration?
3.1.2 The relevance of Motivation and Communications in
4.0 Administration.
5.0 Conclusion.
6.0 Summary
7.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
References
1.0 Introduction
This unit is the foundation unit to this course and it would expose you to the
meaning of the major concepts in Administration. It will also assist you to
understand the use and applications of these concepts in the educational
setting.
2.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Define the concept of Administration?
• Describe who is an administrator?
+ Explain the concept of Educational Administration and Management?
NOUN 3

Concepts and Theories of Educational Administration and Planning
3.0 The Meaning of Administration
EDA 811
Administration is a social process concerned with identifying, maintaining,
motivating, controlling and unifying formally and informally organized
human and material resources within an integrate system designed
specifically to achieve predetermined objectives. Administration has to do
with getting things done with the accomplishment of defined objectives.
In prehistoric times it has been discussed that human beings come together
for one activity or the other. Such activities became useful and achieved some
level of success due to spirit of group work. For example the construction of
the Egyptian pyramid indicates that there was recognition for planning,
organizing, and controlling of group activities.
From this explanation, it should be clear to you that Administration is a social
process which can also happen at the level of the family, where the parents
and children as a group together makes things to happen.
At the village level, communal labour is often employed in other to get things
done. For instance, the building of Commmunity Schools is carried out by the
members of the community with the assistance of government in some cases.
Whatever happens, the planning, organizing and controlling of the various
aspect of the project will spell out what administration is. That is the bringing
together of people with a common purpose to achieve a specific recognized
goals.
On a broader perspective Administration could be seen as an integral part of
any organization. It is crucial for maintaining and expanding the relevance,
effectiveness and productivity of complex institutions. Such as Government
Department, Prisons, School Systems, Universities aFTrO.n,"
For example, the survival of all our organization, like the School and other
institutions is dependent largely on the quality of administrative services
available.
Administration therefore influences the results to be achieved, the direction to
be pursued, and the priorities to be recognized within the organization.
Administration, according to Enaohwo and Eferakeya (1989) can be defined
as the process by which goals are achieved through collective and
cooperative human effort in a suitable environment.
NOUN

This definition specifies four important points:
• First, Administration is a process, which involves the manipulation of
certain operations.
• Second, Administration is goal oriented.
• Thirdly, a collective and cooperative human effort is required in
administration, and of a suitable environment, where participants can
maximize performance.
i t c p t h p c i r t 1 " S
Exercise 1.1
(5 r ri
• From the various definitions of Administration mentioned four
important points to consider?
• Administration may be defined as 9
• Administration is essentially about "getting things done" Yes/No?
3.1 Who is an Administrator?
In the last 45 minutes, you have been exposed to various definitions and
meanings attached to Administration. The next important concept that you
will learn in this unit is who is an Administrator?
There can be no simple statement as to who an administrator is, because our
idea of an administrator depends to some extent on our perception of him/her
especially of the way he/she carries out the task or deals with problems facing
him/her.
For example, the Administrator is regarded by some people as a Director,
because the administrator gives orders and gets things done quickly without
question
In a school situation, the administrator may be regarded as disciplinarian, and
a manager because of the way discipline is been handled and the affairs of the
school being run.
The Administrator may also be described as the executive head of an
organization because of the ways of making decisions and implementing
policies and programmes. In additioran administrator is a coordinator, who
has to organize activities in such a way that things must work smoothly,
quickly and efficiently. Other word used to describe the administrator
includes;
NOUN 5

Concepts and Theories of Educational Administration and Planning EDA 811
'Boss"Leader", 'Director', 'Adviser', 'Problem solver',' Manager'
and so forth. All these terms mean different things to different people because
o f t he c om ple x act i vi tie s t ha t ha ve t o be ca rr ie d o ut i n di ffe re nt
organizational settings.
However, in most of these settings, the administrator has to perform certain
functions in coordinating the efforts of the people in the organization. In
achieving its primary goals) the administrator must demonstrate certain
abilities in making decision< in initiating goals, in inspiring ()theft° act, in
understanding and analyzing problems and finding solutions to them.
Indeed, anyone who carries out these and similar activities could rightly be
regarded as an administrator. The administrator uses a body of knowledge as
a basis for deriving answers or approached to specific situations. The
Administrator also seeks principles capable of guiding the application of
general ideas to specific situations.
Administrators are not charged in random behaviour, there is a definitive
behavioural commitment to goal achievement.
Lastly, and administrator can be describase, as an individual who directs the
affairs of an organization in such a way 'tto achieve its primary goals and
objectives and who can get things done quickly and efficiently. This will
involve:
• Planning: identify and decide on what to do and how to do it.
• Organizing: to arrange what is to be done in order
• Supervising: oversee the activities by rendering expertise.
:•:.• Controlling: to see that things are done based on rules and regulations.
• Evaluating: an assessment of the activities in relation to goals and
objectives.
Exercise 1.2
• Mention at least five words that can be used to describe an
Administrator?
•
•
List four things that an Administrator must be able to do?
Itemize the five behavioural commitments of an Administrator
3.1.1 What is Educational Administration?
Now that you understand the meaning of Administration and can describe
who is an Administrator, it is important to be able to relate Administration in
the context of Education or School Organizations. To be able to do that, we
6 NOUN

would define Education Administration as a means of achieving the goals of
Education through effective and efficient manipulation of available inputs.
Aderonmu & Ehametalor (1981) defined Educational Administration as
"essentially a service, activity or tool, through which the fundamental
objectives of the educational process may be more fully and efficiently
realized".
Educational Administration is therefore concerned with the utilization of
adequate resources and the harmonization of relationships and interactions in
a suitable environment, in order to foster the attainment of the goals of
teaching and learning.
In addition, Educational Administration involves prudent management of
resources and high degree of accountability on the part of organizational
members.
Finally, Educational Administration broadly means running of educational
institutions, which involves guidance, leadership, and controlling of the
efforts of individuals in the achievement of the goals of the institution
(Ayanniyi 1999).
Educational Administration also involves management of resources; human,
material, and evaluation or appraising the result of educational efforts.
In other to drive our discussions home, you will agree with me that
administration in an educational organization otherwise known as
Educational Administration is aimed at directing all activities towards the
attainment of the goals of teaching and learning. All the people working in an
educational institution will have to contribute towards the accomplishment of
these goals.
Teachers and other professional staff are involved, such as parents and lay
members of the community. Also involved are members of Schools Boards,
Local Education Authorities, Inspectors, Ministries of Education and so forth.
Exercise 1.3
• Identify two major goals of Educational Administration?
• All the people working in an educational institution will contribute towards
the accomplishment of these goals. List at least four categories of such group
of people?
NOUN

Concepts and T/,eories of Educational Administration and Planning
3.1.2. The Relevance of Motivation and Communication in
Administration
EDA 811
8
It is in the nature and purpose of Administration for people, who have the
duty to organize, plan or control a group of others in other to satisfy those
people who look for them. Such heads will want to be sure they are passing
down instructions as expected, and that the subordinates are responding
appropriately. When this happens the administration is said to be motivating
his workers as well as communicating with them. These are two important
issues for administrator: Motivation and Communication.
Motivation is a factor, which closely affects the performance of work and the
overall efficiency of an organization. Many distinguished scholars have
written about motivation: Skinner, Maslow Chris Argyris, Herbzerg, Vroom,
Campfield and Douglas Mcgregor. Our purpose is not to go into all that they
have done. We are interested in how our administrators especially those in
Schools can motivate their workers and students to achieve more.
The school will not be able to realize its goals fully until students!, teachers,
and administrators themselves are sufficiently motivated. Motivatron can thus
be defined as the inner drive, which prompts people to act in a certain way.
Motivation is concerned more with intangible things such as leadership
morale and so on.
From a management point of view, motivation is useful when it is applied to
staff to discover what prompts people to behave in a certain way. When it is
applied to schools, it means why certain learners are highly motivated, others
moderately and some less, even though the same incentives are available to
all.
An outstanding feature of motivation is that if the staff are properly
motivated, this can change an otherwise mediocre group into a highly
productive team. Judged purely from the performance of students, schools
which have teams of motivated teachers tend to be better than those schools
in which qualifications and experiences of staff may not be inferior, but the
lack motivation.
Motivation is related to leadership, for good leadership sets an example
provides guidance, encouragement, and instruction and can be one of the
Greatest motivations of all. Schools with effective Principals have motivated
staff and students.
NOUN

The famous Hawthorne experiments in America in the 19205 proved that
when staff are consulted about changes, they invariably produce more and
better work than previously.
In schools where staff meetings are democratic, and there is also student
involvement in sdhool affairs, the teaching efficiency of staff and learning
experiences of students tend to be better.
A study of motivation means a study of the causes of human behaviour,
rather than its effects. Many school disputes and problems could easily be
avoided if there were better motivation of staff and students.
Knowledge of motivation can help every administrator to understand his
subordinates and it can equally be of assistance to top management when
framing policies.
Let me summarize the issue of motivation in Administration by saying that
there are at least three major ways by which the School Administrator can
prepare the proper atmosphere that will motivate his/her staff.
The first is by providing immediate attainable goals towards which the staff
should work. The second way of facilitating motivation among staff is to
ensure that means are provided for attaining goals set for the staff Like, high
quality teaching, backed up with provision of teaching — learning material
and lastly, motivation is provided through feedback, which are immediate
and specific. The comments by an Administrator/ principal must be specific
so that teachers have clear notions of what they did well and where they need
improvement. Besides, teachers can be helped to develop self-evaluation
skills. When teachers learn the qualities desired in a performance, and obtain
experience in judging their qualities desired in a performance, and obtain
experience in judging their own work in terms of these criteria, they are
better able to provide their own feed-back.
Exercise 1.4
• In your own words describe motivation?
• List at least four things that a principal of a school can do to motivate his
teaching staff?
• Mention two basic things that motivation can do?
My dear students, now that we are sure that motivation is relevant to
Administration and Administrative practice, we shall discuss the last aspect
of this unit, which has to do with communication.
NOUN 9

10
Communication is intended for conveying information, instructions, advice,
feelings, opinions, and facts correctly and accurately from one person to
another person or group of people. The above description of communication
explains precisely what an administrator does to his workers and therefore
justifies the need for good communication by an Administrator. Good
communications help to stimulate enthusiasm and raise the interest and
motivation of those to whom they are directed such as staff, students, parents
friends and so on. Communication, is not an inborn thing, every administrator
has to learn how to communicate. For example, teachers are trained in
various methods of transmitting skill and knowledge to students. These
methods include clear speaking, writing, etc.
C o m m u n i c a t i o n i s a c e n t r a l c o n c e p t i n t h e s t u d y o f e d u c a t i o n a l
administration because it offers an additional concept for examining the
school as a social organization. The goals of the school become known and
useful when they are communicated.
Thus, establishing communication is the first task of the administrator. Like
authority, communication involves two people — a sender and a receiver. An
administrator communicates not with himself alone, but with the public,
students, teachers and other employees. Secondly, there must be meaning.
Communication does not take place unless the receiver interprets exactly the
information being transmitted.
The school administrator, for instance, wants such receivers as parents,
teachers, and students to understand and accept the proposed ideas and the
information being transmitted.
As administrators we are always looking for effective communication. The
basic requirements for good communications are as follow:
• Have something to say, for example, as a school administrator, you might
wish to interpret school policies and instructions, initiate new
programmes, what is important in communication is knowing exactly
what to say.
• Clarify all your ideas on the subject before seeking to communicate to
others. For instance, if you, as a principal, is going to talk about the
school regulation as handed down to you from the ministry, you must
know those regulations thoroughly and be aware of their implications for
the development of ;your school.
+ Be prepared, prior preparations, requires full consideration of the purpose
of communication, the audience, the scope of the subject, where, when
and how best to present the will need to decide whether your message
will be presented orally, in a face-to-face meeting, or printed in a memo,
NOUN

letter or newspaper. All these diversities of alternative means of
communicating make planning essential.
+ Develop a natural style of delivering your communication.
• Use simple, straight forward language, whenever possible.
• Check and recheck whether your message talk/instruction has been
properly understood.
•:* Seek to be understood all the time and also to understand.
Communication is a two-way process. It is necessary to be a good listener
too. Thus, communication is purposive. Its primary administrative functions
are informing, instructing, or directing someone, evaluating someone or
something, and influencing another's thought or behaviour. (Musaazi 1982).
Exercise 1.5
•
•
•
Mention two things that the school administrator expects to happen when
he/she communicates?
List at least four basic requirements for good communication?
Is communication relevant to administration? Yes/No
4.0 Conclusion
In this unit, you have learned the nature and purpose of Administration. This
was done by acquainting you with the basic concept of Administration and
t he pr in ci ple s u nde r lyi n g i t s p ra cti ce . It h a s b ee n ex pl ai ne d that
administration is purely and exhibition of rational behaviours, manifested in
some behavioural activities such as Planning, Organizing, Supervising,
Controlling and Evaluation.
The person who does all the above has been described as an administrator.
The unit also made it clear that Administrator takes place in the context of an
organization of which the school belongs. This reasoning explains the
description of Educational Institutions and what is been carried out in terms
of achievement of the goals and objectives of teaching and learning as
Educational Administration.
The later part of the unit identified two vital issues that could enhance
effective and efficient administration. Such issues as motivation and
communication were discussed, emphasizing their relevance and contribution
to the process of Administration in Organizations.
NOUN

5 . 0 S u m ma r y
EDA 811
What you have learnt in this unit has exposed you to the meaning of
Administration, the concept of 'Administration', the understanding of what
Educational Administration is, and a discussion of the relevance of
Motivation rid Communication to the practice of Administration.
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
what do you understand by the concept Educational Administration
Imagine you are a principal of a Secondary School, what administrative
guidelines would you consider in running the affairs of your school.
References
A d e ro n un mu , W. O . & Eh iam eta lo r , E .T . ( 19 8 1 ) In tr o du cti o n to
Administration of Schools in Nigeria. Ibadan: Evans Brothers
(Nigeria Publishers Ltd).
A ya n n i yi R . B . ( 1 9 9 9 ) " Le a d e r s h i p r o l e s o f t h e P r i m a r y S c h o o l
Administrator" Ghana Journal of Education and Teaching. Published
by City Publishers Accra. Vol. 1, No 1, Pp. 125— 129.
Boyan, N.J. (1988) Handbook of research on Educational
Administration. New York: Longmans.
Enaohwo, J.O. & Eferakaya, 0.0. (1989) Educational Administration.
Ibadan: Paperback Publishers Limited.
Hanson, E.M. (1991) Educational Administration and
Organizational
behaviour Third Edition. Boston: Ally and Bacon.
Hoy, W.K. & Miskel, C.G (1987) Educational Administration: Theory
Research and practice Third Edition. Boston: Ally and Bacon New
York: Random House.
Musaa zi, J .C. S. (1982 ) The Theo r y an d Practice o f Educati onal
Administration London and Basingstoke: the Macmillan Press Ltd
O z i g i , A . O . ( 1 9 7 7 ) A h a n d b o o k o n S c h o o l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d
Management Lagos: Macmillan Nigeria Publishers Ltd.
12 NOUN

EDA 811 Concepts and Theories of Educational Administration and Manning
Unit 2
Principles and Practices in Organisations
Table of contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 What is Organization?
3.1.1 Types of Organization
3.1.2 Principles of Organizations
3.1.3 Organizational Conflict
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 Reference
1.0 Introduction
In Unit 1,we studied the nature and purpose of Administration. We learnt
the
meaning of Administration, and examined who an Administrator is, in an
organizational setting, like the school.
Now, in Unit 2, we will discuss Principles and Practices in Organizations. We
will learn other additional content as specified in the Objectives below.
2.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to;
C. Describe the concept of organizations
C. Identity the two types of organizations
NOUN 13
•

• Explain the principles of organization
Describe organizational conflicts.
3.1 What are Organizations?
EDA 811
We are constantly surrounded by organization. They employ us, sell to us,
provide for us, protect us and give us along with others what we want, need,
or are required to do. An organization may be small (like the mechanic's
workshop) or large (like the Federal Ministry of Education). Large
organizations are however, usually complex as they have multiple goals and
more people working in them.
One characteristic that all organizations share is that they are composed of
people. These people have in common the fact that their activities are
coordinated and that they, therefore cooperate with each other directly or
indirectly in other to achieve a goal. Cooperation in a venture that requires
the efforts of a number of people means that actions must occur and jobs be
done' in short, people must behave in certain ways so that the organization
fulfils its purposes.
In Nigeria for instance, we have organizations like the Nigerian Union of
Teachers, the Nigerian Science Teachers Association, the Nigerian
University Students Association, the National Association of Educational
Administrators and Planners (NAEAP), the Nigerian Chambers of
Commerce, the Nigerian Bar Association, Taxi drivers Association, Schools,
Colleges, Universities, Hospitals, and so on.
According to Misaazi (1982) organizations are needed to provide a structural
framework for communication, command, and coordination of activities and
people's efforts. No enterprise, large or small, can operate successfully when
duties are so vaguely defined that everybody can meddle in everything and
nobody is responsible for anything. Therefore, to operate successfully an
enterprise, a school or a government unit must have an organizational
structure which provides for the clear allocation of functions and
responsibilities to the various sections and departments of the establishment:
poor organizational structure is often a major cause of inefficiency and
indecision. But a good organization establishes clear lines of responsibility
and communication and limit the span of authority and command, so that no
one person takes responsibility for more than he can adequately supervise.
From the above explanations it is clear that to describe an organization , one
requires the consideration of a number of properties it possesses.
NOUN

Eminent researcher has found it difficult to define organizations in general.
Subsequently Musaazi (1982) observed that organizations come into being
because certain people have identified a common purpose, have been able to
communicate with each other, and have shown willingness to contribute
action. An organization establishes conditions that will enhance the
effectiveness of the organization in attaining its goals. For example, in order
to realize the educational goals of a school, we need suitable physical
facilities, qualified trained and experienced teachers, motivated learners, who
have high aspirations, effective leadership and healthy human relation within
the school and with Ministry of Education, and the community at large.
Exercise 1.1
• What are or gani zatio ns?
• Mention some basic characteristics of organization?
• List at least three to four organizations, which you know in Nigeria?
Now, my dear students, let us continue this second unit with a step further by
trying to identify the various types of organization that exit.
3.1.1 Types of Organizations
C a n yo u r e m e m b e r t h a t o r ga n i za t i o n s a r e h u m a n c r e a t i o n s ? , t h at
organizations makes possible the benefits of modern living? Are you
convinced that organizations help us to order large-scale and complex social
life?
Then, be prepared to learn about two different types of Organization that will
answer the above questions and many more. These organizations are often
referred to as:
•
•
" Fo rmal" Or gani zatio ns
"Informal" Organizations
A formal Organization is established basically for purposes of achieving
certain goals. For instance, a Church or a Mosque mainly looks after the
spiritual life of its members. An educational institution produces teachers,
lawyers, engineers, economist, etc. the life of a formal organization is longer
than that of the actors in it, because the actors come and go but the
organization remains.
Formal Organizations also have long-term objectives; they may be stated
clearly or implied. For example, Schools aim at the production of well-
balanced personalities. This may be stated in the national philosophy and the
NOUN

Eminent researcher has found it difficult to define organizations in general.
Subsequently Musaazi (1982) observed that organizations come into being
because certain people have identified a common purpose, have been able to
communicate with each other, and have shown willingness to contribute
action. An organization establishes conditions that will enhance the
effectiveness of the organization in attaining its goals. For example, in order
to realize the educational goals of a school, we need suitable physical
facilities, qualified trained and experienced teachers, motivated learners, who
have high aspirations, effective leadership and healthy human relation within
the school and with Ministry of Education, and the community at large.
Exercise 1.1
• What are organizations?
• Mention some basic characteristics of organization?
• List at least three to four organizations, which you know in Nigeria?
Now, my dear students, let us continue this second unit with a step further by
trying to identify the various types of organization that exit.
3.1.1 Types of Organizations
C a n yo u r e m e m b e r t h a t o r g a n i za t i o n s a r e h u m a n c r e a t i o n s ? , t h a t
organizations makes possible the benefits of modern living? Are you
convinced that organizations help us to order large-scale and complex social
life?
Then, be prepared to learn about two different types of Organization that will
answer the above questions and many more. These organizations are often
referred to as:
•
•
" Fo rmal" Or gani zatio ns
" Informal" Organizations
A formal Organization is established basically for purposes of achieving
certain goals. For instance, a Church or a Mosque mainly looks after the
spiritual life of its members. An educational institution produces teachers,
lawyers, engineers, economist, etc. the life of a formal organization is longer
than that of the actors in it, because the actors come and go but the
organization remains.
Formal Organizations also have long-term objectives; they may be stated
clearly or implied. For example, Schools aim at the production of well-
balanced personalities. This may be stated in the national philosophy and the
NOUN 15

Concepts and Theories of Educational Ad,ni,,istrajio,, and Planning EDA 811
school programmes butit may also not be mentioned. However, through total
experiences iria School, the aim of turning our balanced personalities may be
realized. In order to make the system work, formal organizations provide
means of reporting performance and provide control devices to take care of
normal human lapses.
In a school system, test and examinations measure performance and provide
feedback to the learner. Remedial work and extra classes may be organized to
upgrade poor performance in order to attain the goals of the school. Rewards
and punishments, and guidance and counseling are commonly used in school
situations.
Fo r m al o r gan i za ti on s h a ve wr itt en d oc ume nt s a s th ei r sta tu te s o r
constitutions. Universities have statutes, companies have charters, and
political parties have manifestos. These written documents facilitate the work
at all levels of the organization, as duties and responsibilities are laid down.
Membership of formal organizations is gained consciously, at a specific time
and usually openly.
It is often difficult to determine the boundaries of an organization, to know
definitely where one organization ends and the next one begin, or simply, to
discover who is a member of an organization and who is not. An organization
member is someone who participates in the operation of an organization and
the selection of its objectives, or both. With these criteria, we can identity
employees as members of an organization.
"Informal" Organizations are contrary to formal organizations. The informal
ones are loosely organized, ill defined, and usually grow spontaneously.
Membership of informal organizations may be gained either consciously or
unconsciously, and it is often difficult to determine the exact time when a
person becomes a member. In such organizations one's membership or
invol vement ma y j us t gro w thr ou gh time. The exact nature o f the
relationships among the members and even the goals of the organization are
unspecified. Some examples of informal organization are friendship cliques,
peer groups and pressure groups. Informal organizations can be converted to
formal ones when the relationship and activities are defined and structured.
For instance, in a school setting, one will find a group of teachers, closely
associated, having one voice for or against a person, policy or programme
and exerting sufficient influence in the school organization. Such a group has
no official recognition for its activities but the group makes its presence
sr
decisively felt. If the group cooperates with the ool management, the
6
organization will run smoothly; if it is in oppo . on, the organization is
bound to have problems in implementing its programme successfully. There
NOUN

are elements of informal organizations in formal organizations, and however
much they may be disliked by management, they cannot be disbanded.
The informal organizations often exist by reason of informal channels of
communication; that is to say there is more face-to-face communication than
communication through document. From this discussion it is important for
management to recognize the existence and importance of the informal
organizations.
If properly encouraged it can result in better teamwork, and can assist in
achieving the better cooperation and motivation of workers, thus allowing the
system to adapt and survive. We shall continue our discussions on
organizations by looking at the general characteristics.
3.1.2 Principles of Organizations
You have been informed about the two major types of organization, and I
think it is important that you know how to explain the principles or
characterization that are common to organization. In this regard, we shall
continue our discussions by listing the important principle as follow:
+ There should be a clear line of authority form the top to the bottom of the
organization, so that it is clear who is responsible to whom. For example in
the organizational chart of a school, we know that the teachers are
responsible to the Head of Department (HOD). While the Head of
Department is responsible to the Principal, and the Principal to the Ministry
of Education.
• Every worker should be immediately responsible to one senior only, not to
several executives in the concern, otherwise confusion and conflicts may
arise.
+ Authority must always be commensurate with responsibility. If a person is
given a lot of responsibilities and a little authority, he/she will not be
effective in discharging his/her responsibilities.
+ Have one executive responsible for the flow of information (i.e.
communication of policies) from the managing body so that distortion in
communication can be kept to a minimum.
+ Ensure that the span of control is appropriate; that is, do not assign to an
administrator more persons than he can supervise.
+ Have the right degree of central control but with maximum decentralization.
NOUN 17

Concepts and Theories of Educational Administration and Planning ELM P 811
•
Make the best use of specialists and the principle of specialization, because in
complex, modern organizations, no single person can be all-knowing,
however, highly placed he may be.
Ensure that the responsibility and authority of each executive is defined to
avoid isolation and interference.
<• Ensure that the organization includes built-in ways of co-ordinating the work
of the organization, so that the executive does not have to resort to
'reminders' in normal times.
• Ensure that the organization provides good lines of communication both
upwards and across levels of management.
• The number of levels of management should not be unnecessarily excessive,
because it makes the whole organization clumsy and communication is likely
to be distorted and slow down.
<• Ensure that responsibility is allocated for the whole of the work of the
concern, otherwise something might not be done.
• Simply because it was nobody's jot to do it.
Exercise 1.2.
•
•
•
•
is the school a formal or informal organization?
Mention two formal organizations that you know?
List at least three informal organizations?
Outline five to six principles in organizations?
Well done for taking part in this discussion. Now we shall move on to another
interesting aspect of this unit.
3.1.3 Organizational Conflict
Conflict is often regarded as the central problem of human society. Presently,
it has been revealed that conflict is inevitable in human interaction because of
the nature of man, and it is regarded as having positive, and constructive
functions in any organization and not just the disruptive aspects. (Ayanniyi
1990).
In Schools conflict often occur but some school managers are not fully
equipped with the management of conflict we mean efforts made by
NOUN

•
•
•
administrators to establish conditions by which conflicts can lead to mutual
exploration and new levels of consensus in problem solving.
Conflict is sometimes seen as a break down of the standard mechanism of
decision-making or the process of operation of an organization so that the
members experience difficulties in selecting an alternative action or
performing their duties. This is based on the premise that for an organization
to function well there should be needs of the organization and those of its
members. And when there is a difference between them there is conflict.
Getzels & Guba (1957) in their homothetic ideographic model, observed that
there are two components of behaviour in a social system; that which is
conceived of as arising institutional goals and fulfilling goal expectation, and
the other emanating from individual goals and fulfilling personality
disposition. Both may be congruent or incongruent.
When the individual performs his role according to the needs of organization,
we get a congruent situation, but when the incumbent of a post does not
behave according to the role expectation there is conflict, which is due to the
gap between personality needs and organizational needs.
Basically, role conflict consist of three types:
In t r a - r o l e c o n fl i c t - o c c u r s w h e n t h e p o s i t i o n a n i nc u m b e nt
h a s incompatible or competing role expectation by occupants of
complementary position. This means the behaviour of the office holder
conflicts with expectations of people in complementary positions.
Inter-role conflict - occurs when a person occupies more than one focal
role and expectation of the various roles conflict.
Role ambiguity — occur when there is wide variations among people
about the expectations for an incumbent of a particular position.
Now my dear student, it will interest you to want to know some of the
situations that could cause conflict in school
It is essential to note that most school conflicts occur when some group feel
that authority is been used to their disadvantage or is being misused; or some
groups feel they are powerless, or that a decision by a body in authority
reduces the power they currently held.
On cultural values and beliefs, different groups could have various divergent
values and philosophy about the goals of education, what shall be taught, and
how it should be taught as well as what the behaviour of students in the
school should be.
NOUN 19

In addition, there could be existing antagonism between individuals, between
ethnic groups or between other groups, which makes people to take side.
It must also be recognized that some school conflicts occur in response to
policies or changes promulgated by school administration. When an
individual or a group is in support of the new or is dissatisfied with an issue.
The above conflict situation, when addressed, will give the following
feedback, in the form of:
4. Opportunity granted them to express their grievance.
• Promises to look into the issue within a short time.
4• A sign or indication that their expression of feelings has been given a
deserving attention.
This suggest that in an organization, the administrator should be accessible,
receptive, friendly, listen to the feelings of his subordinates and be
trustworthy. Whereas if the complainants receives a negative feedback, the
conflict could be escalated. And this could be as a result of the fact that the
administrator is unfriendly, unreceptive, inaccessible and hostile to the group.
Such conflict could increase to affect the whole school.
We shall now round up our discussion of organizational conflicts by giving
you how to manage conflicts.
1. Understand that conflict is inventible in social interaction and conflicts can
have positive functions.
2. Remember that members of the school teachers, student will actively try to
participate and influence the administration's decision making.
3. Note that power, authority, and values and beliefs are areas that often cause
conflicts in schools.
4. Note that positive feedbacks to people with grievances could minimize
occurrence of conflict or reduce its intensity.
5. Remember that information and facts about conflicts need to be handled
quickly and widely disseminated.
6. Note that third parties intervention in helping to resolve school conflict is
often helpful.
Exercise 1.3
•
•
Mention the three types of role conflict that you have learnt?
Identify three basic characteristics of issues that could cause conflicts in
schools?
NOUN

• Suggest at least three things that the manager needs to know in conflict
situations?
Good
Luck!
4.0 Conclusion
The fact that human being make up a vital part of any organization is no
secret. No organization could possibly exist without some contribution of
human beings to set and implement policies, and do the work of the
enterprise. Therefore organization has to live with and meet the problems
together to achieve a common end. This has been the crux of this unit
discussion, with particular emphasis on the school as an organization.
5 . 0 S u m m a r y
In this unit we have learnt the principles and practices in organization. We
tried to elaborate on this title by discussing what organizations are; the basic
types of organiztions were identified. The principles underlying the existence
of organization were explained and the resultant conflict situations in
organizations were decribed.
6.0
7.0
Tutor-marked Assignment (TMAs)
Administrators are expected to integrate both "formal" and "informal"
organizations in order to achieve both effectiveness and efficiency. Discuss
this view with particular reference to the school situation.
References
Argyris, C. (1960) Understanding Organizational Behaviour Homewood,
III: Dorsey Press.
Ayanniyi R.B. (1990) An Analysis of conflict resolutions in the School
System: Seminar paper faculty of Education A.B.U. Zaria. School
review, XLV, pg. 423-14
Khan, R.L. and Boulding E. (1964) Power and Conflict in Organization New
York: Basic Books.
Musaazi J.C.S (1982) The Theory and Practice of Educational
Administration London and Basingstoke Macmillan Press Ltd.
NOUN

1
Unit 3
Historical Trends in the Development of Educational
Administration
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Contributions of Early Industrialist to the Development of
Administration and Organization
3.1.1 Robert Owen (1771 — 1858)
3.1.2 Charles Babbage (1792 — 1871)
3.1.3 Henry L. Gantt (1861 — 1919)
3.1.4 Harrington Emerson (1853 — 1931)
4.0 Conclusions
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References and Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
EDA 811
In Unit 2, we studied the principles and practices of organizations. For us to
properly understand this, we explained what organizations are, and identified
the various types of organizations. In addition we learnt the principles of
organization and discussed organizational conflicts.
In Unit 3, we will trace the historical trend of the development of Educational
Administration. This will assist us to understand the emergence of
subsequent administrative theories in educational administration.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, the learners should be able to:
Explain the major developments in the history of Educational Administration.
NOUN

EDA 811
3.1
Contributions of Early Industrialist to the Development of Administration
and Organization
The study of administration in general as a specific area of knowledge began
in the early parts of the 1800s with the efforts of men such as Robert Owen,
Charles Babbage and Henry L. Gantt and Harrington Emerson. These people
felt that if business and industrial enterprises were to be profitable, some
ascertain methods of job performances have to be introduced into the
organization.
We shall examine the contributions of each person to our understanding of
administration and organization.
3.1.1 Robert Own 1771 — 1958)
In the early 1800, Robert Owen a self-made businessman in the cotton-
spinning industry was stressing the importance of the human aspect in
production. He was critical of manufacturers for their preoccupation with
improving machines, specializing labour and cutting cost, yet neglecting to
understand and invest in the human element. Owen's idea is based on the
following:
NOUN
a)
b)
c)
d)
That the labour force is a system composed of many parts;
That it is the duty and interest of the Chief Executive to combine the
efforts of these parts;
That every human resource and material resource should be
effectively coordinated to produce the greatest amount of gain to the
proprietors;
That experience has shown that there is a marked difference in the
outputs between equipment and materials which are neat, clean, well-
arranged, and always in a high state of repair, and those which are
allowed to be dirty, in disorder, without the means of preventing
unnecessary friction, much out of repair.
He emphasized that if the conditions of inanimate machines can
produce such beneficial result, the more reason why it is necessary to
devote equal attention to the essential machines (the human
resources), which are far more wonderfully constructed.
Hello! Students, I guess you are itching to express you total
support to the ideas of Robert Owen. Certainly that is noted. But

let us continue, to trace the history and contribution of these early
developers of administration.
3.1.9 Charles Babbage (1 792 — 1871)
Another early pioneer in the development of management principles was
Charles Babbage. He was the forerunner of what is now commonly referred
to as the scientific management theory, which will be discussed later, in the
next unit. Some of Babbage's contribution to knowledge includes the
following:
a)
b)
c)
d)
g)
He was the first to demonstrate the first practical mechanical
calculator, which had all the basic ingredients of a modern calculator.
He developed gaming programmes for his computer — these were a
forerunner to modern business gaming techniques.
He invented his own engine, and its manufacturer got him interest in
Management.
He analyzed the process of various job performances, the kinds of
skills involved, and suggestions for improving the process of task
performance.
He was a strong proponent of the idea of division of labour through
specialization.
He advocated the mutuality of interests between workers and
employers (this is similar to what Taylor did seventy five years later)
He devised a profit sharing scheme.
Without doubt, Babbage was a man of great foresight in management. He
laid sound foundations upon which offers others built later on.
Exercise 1.1
• Mention at least three important things Charles Babbage introduced into
management.
NOUN

3.1.3 Henry L. Gantt (1861 —1919)
Gantt was a protégé of Frederick Taylor like Taylor. He promoted the ideas
of:
a Mutual cooperation between labour and management.
a Scientific selection of workers.
a Financial Incentives to stimulate productivity.
a Use of detailed work instructions
Gantt devised a bonus system, which guaranteed the worker a given rate for
meeting the day's standard and then paid a bonus for exceeding that standard.
This was a departure from Taylor's differential piecework plan.
Gantt is best known for his development of graphic aids to management
planning, coordination and control of production. The essential element of
his thinking was scheduling around time instead of around quantities, which
to the period of the World War I had been the practice. Our modern
production planning and control devices as well as the computerized
programme. Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) are founded on the
principles of planning and controlling times and cost, which Gantt pioneered.
Students, I guess you are finding this history exciting; it is all about the
development of Administration. Let us now continue with the last in the
series of early developers of Administration.
3.1.4 Harrington Emerson (1853 — 1931)
Waste and inefficiency were the problems Emerson saw as plaguing the
industrial system, and he attributed these to lack of organization. He
advocated a chief of staff, with four heads reporting to him Each head
would plan and advise in a special area. One for example, would be
responsible for everything relating to the well-being of employees; a second
for equipment; a third for mutual; and a forth, standard and accounting. Their
advice would be available to all levels in the organization. Emerson
advocated leaving supervision and authority with those directly responsible,
but they would operate on the basis of the planning and advice by the
specialists. Emerson is best known for his twelve principles of efficiency.
These principles are summarized below:
a)
NOUN
Clearly defined ideas — agreement among all involved as to the
objectives of the organization;
5

Concepts and Theories of Educational Administration and Planning LIMP 811
b)
c)
d)
e)
0
g)
h)
i)
k)
1)
Exercise 1.2
Common sense — managers taking a large view of problems and
seeking knowledge and advice wherever it can be found;
Competent Counsel — building a competent staff;
Discipline — adherence to organizational rules;
Fair deal — fairness in dealing with workers;
Reliable, immediate, accurate and permanent records — information
and accounting systems;
Dispatching — planning and routing work;
Standards and Schedules — methods and times for task;
Standardized conditions;
Standardized operations
Written standard practice, instructions; and
Efficiency reward — incentive plan
4.0
List at least five of Emerson's principle of efficiency.
Mention the four "heads" as advocated by Emerson
Now we have come to the end of this discussion. If you have been able to
follow and also attempt these exercises, then well done!
Conclusion
D e v e l o p m e n t h a s a l w a ys b e e n i n a d i d a c t i c a l t r e n d , a n d t h a t o f
Administration is no exception. Our discussion in this unit was meant to
enlighten us on the trend of development, which ushered in the practice of
Administration. These ideas were developed, in order to disproof old ones
and sometimes discard them. One thing that was prominent for all these
administrative development was the need to improve on the functions of
administrations in any organization. These developments later found
relevance in the area of education.
61 NOUN

EDA 811
5 .0 Summary
In this unit, we have examined the historical trend in the development of
Educational Administration, by outlining the various contributions of early
industrialist like, Robert Owen, Charles Babbage, Henry Gantt and
Harrington Emerson, to organizational growth.
• Summarize the major contributions of Robert Owen to Personnel
Management.
.0 Discuss the extent to which the principle of Owen's theory of Personnel
Management of School Organizations. el 9
7.0 References
George, Jr. C. S. (1972). The History of Management Thought. New
Jersey: Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall Inc.
Halpin, A. W. (1958). Administrative Theory in Education. London:
Macmillan Company.
Hoy, W. K. and Miskel, C. G. (1978). Educational Administration:
Theory, Research and Practice. New York: Random House.
NOUN 7

EDA 811
5 . 0 S u m ma r y
- Summarize the major contributions of Robert Owen to Personnel
Management.
S Discuss the extent to which the principle of Owen's theory of Personnel
Management of School Organizations. (7 0
e
7.0 References
Macmillan Company.
NOUN 7

EDA 811
5 . 0 S ummar y
s Summarize the major contributions of Robert Owen to Personnel
Management.
- Discuss the extent to which the principle of Owen's theory of Personnel
Management of School Organizations. C
f
7.0 References
Macmillan Company.
NOUN 7

unt
The Scientific Management Movement
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Frederick W. Taylor (1856 — 1915)
3.1.1 Implications of these ideas to Educational System
3.1.2 Henri Fayol (1841 — 1925)
3.1.3 Urwick and Gulick (1937)
3.1.4 Implications of POSDCORD" to educational system
4.0 Conclusions
5.0 Summary
7.0 References
1 0 Introduction
EDA 811
Our last discussion in Unit 3 was on the historical trend of the development
of educational administration. In unit 4, we shall be studying the Classical
Organizational thought / Scientific Management Movement, its emergence
and contribution to the practice of Administration in organizations. We will
learn other additional content as will be specified in the objectives below:
2.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
Explain Frederick Taylor's Scientific Management Movement.
List Taylor's essential points in the Principles of Management
Discuss Henri Fayol ideas, as it affects production in organizations.
Describe the administrative duties of an executive using the acronym
"POSDCORB"
8
1 NOUN

3.1 Scientific Management Movement Frederick W. Taylor (1856— 1915)
Frederick Winslow Taylor has been credited as the originator and principal
contributor to the Scientific Management Movement, and often referred to as
the father of the Scientific Management Movement. Taylor worked in the
Midvale Street Company is Pennsylvania, U.S.A in the following capacities,
a labourer, clear, machinist, foreman, chief draftsman and a chief engineer.
His various experiences at different levels of the organization enabled him to
note that there was a substantial amount of inefficiency prevalent in the
performance of all task at the operational level. This inefficiency is partly a
result of the fact that worked were in charge of both planning and performing
their jobs. This situation he felt, led to much waste. Taylor saw that there
was a gap existing between actual production and costs, and potential
production and cost, and was concerned with this gap if his scientific
principles were applied. The crux of his ideas was the need for proper work
methods and standards derived from scientific study of each job and its
requirements.
Taylor therefore, believed that the remedy for curing this inefficiency lay in
scientifically designed jobs.
Much of Taylor's research work was focused on the following ideas:
Improvement of working tools
Analysis and innovation of work method
Enforced standardization of work method
Enforced cooperation
These principles have been summarized by authors and in some cases;
excerpts, which reveal the characteristics of the element of management,
have been presented.
Villers (1960, p. 29) has summarized Taylor's principle of scientific
management in six steps as follows:
NOUN
1)
2)
Time-study Principle: All productive effort should be measured by
accurate time study and a standard time established for all work done
on the shop.
Piece-rate Principle: Wages should be proportional to output and their
rates ba sed o n the sta ndard s determined b y time stud y. As a
29
S.

3.1 Scientific Management Movement Frederick W. Taylor (1856— 1915)
Frederick Winslow Taylor has been credited as the originator and principal
contributor to the Scientific Management Movement, and often referred to as
the father of the Scientific Management Movement. Taylor worked in the
Midvale Street Company is Pennsylvania, U.S.A in the following capacities,
a labourer, clear, machinist, foreman, chief draftsman and a chief engineer.
His various experiences at different levels of the organization enabled him to
note that there was a substantial amount of inefficiency prevalent in the
performance of all task at the operational level. This inefficiency is partly a
result of the fact that worked were in charge of both planning and performing
their jobs. This situation he felt, led to much waste. Taylor saw that there
was a gap existing between actual production and costs, and potential
production and cost, and was concerned with this gap if his scientific
principles were applied. The crux of his ideas was the need for proper work
methods and standards derived from scientific study of each job and its
requirements.
Taylor therefore, believed that the remedy for curing this inefficiency lay in
scientifically designed jobs.
Much of Taylor's research work was focused on the following ideas:
Improvement of working tools
Analysis and innovation of work method
Enforced standardization of work method
Enforced cooperation
These principles have been summarized by authors and in some cases;
excerpts, which reveal the characteristics of the element of management,
have been presented.
Villers (1960, p. 29) has summarized Taylor's principle of scientific
management in six steps as follows:
NOUN
1)
2)
Time-study Principle: All productive effort should be measured by
accurate time study and a standard time established for all work done
on the shop.
Piece-rate Principle: Wages should be proportional to output and their
rates ba sed o n the sta ndard s determined b y time stud y. As a
29
I. ________________________________________________________________________________

3)
4)
5)
6)
corollary, worker should be given the highest grade of work, which he
is capable.
Separation-of-planning-from-performance principle: Management
should take over from the workers the responsibility for planning the
work, and making the performance physically possible. Planning
should be based on time studies and other data related to production,
which are scientifically determined and systematically classified; it
should be facilitated by standardization of tools, implements, and
method.
Scientific-methods-of-work-principle: Management should take-over
from the workers, the responsibility for their methods and train
workers accordingly.
Managerial-control principle: Managers should be trained and taught
to apply scientific principles of management and control (such a
management by exception and comparison will valid standards).
Functional-Management Principle: The strict application of military
principles should be considered and the industrial organization should
be so designed that it best serves the purpose of improving the
coordination of activities among the various specialist.
Taylor also advocated the following:
Law is the chief basis for efficient management; whatever we do
must be explained scientifically. For example: why do people
come to work? Why do they produce? Human behaviour needs
to be explained and this should aim at efficient management.
Management is therefore a scientific way of making human beings
produce more.
Good life of the worker must be brought about by monetary
rewards.
Administration should be inter-related with the personal
aspirations of the people in the industry i.e. Workers.
30
Hello students! If you have been following these discussions, what are
your comments on Taylor's ideas of management? Hold it and let me
just mention a few, while you add the others.
NOUN

3.1.1 Implications of Scientific Management Ideas to the Educational System
The implications of Taylor's ideas of management for educators are worth
considering. In trying to emphasize productivity, Taylor and his associate
tend to reduce human beings into rational machine. In a way this action
could be a barrier to innovation and the development of one's skills. The
implication of this mechanistic approach to work in schools is that the work
of the teacher will have to be reutilized. Thus the teacher cannot deviate
from his prepared lesson notes to teach or demonstrate other important issues
that would have been useful to the students. Definitely this makes the work
of the teacher boring and unexciting. Even in our ministries of education
various approaches or methods are applied in solving different issues or
problems, which would also make Taylor's mechanistic and standardized
approach to management difficult to operate.
Moreover, productivity emphasized by Taylor cannot suffice as the sole end
of education. For example, the number of passes in examinations, and the
volume of lecture ,notes received by students are not the only measures of
educational productivity. It should be noted that education involves the
human mind, and as such some of the benefits of education cannot be easily
quantified and precisely mechanized. On this basis, therefore, to say that
remuneration should be commensurate with the volume of work done could
be difficult to apply in the school setting. The actual amount of work done
by the teacher is difficult to measure.
According to Musaazi (1982) we could agree with Taylor that economic
considerations is one of the factors that motivates people to work, its
importance should not be over emphasized at the expense of the workers
psychological needs.
Workers also need kind, sympathetic, honest, impartial, considerate and
accommodating administrators. All these can sometimes be more important
than just monetary rewards. Because teaching is a task that is focused on the
learners, who are human beings with their individual differences. Both the
teachers and pupils learn from one another. They also need rest and cannot
be treated like machines. In addition the role of the teacher in the overall
development of the child cannot be overlooked. Thus the teacher cannot
pretend to be so impersonal and simply task-oriented.
To suggest that work should be standardized for teachers is also unrealistic.
Teachers are, unlike machines, individuals with their own differences. These
differences influence greatly the way they handle their teaching assignments.
Therefore, teachers cannot use one method of teaching. Similarly, the
NOUN 31

Concepts and 'Theories of Educational Administration and Planning EDA 811
Ministries of Education are rather too complex to permit standardization of
work activities in their operations.
In spite of all these limitations of Taylor's ideas of management,
nevertheless, some of his ideas could be helpful when applied to the school
system.
For example, his view, those members of the organization should know the
aims and objectives of their duties are very important. Both school
administrators and teachers must know the objectives of their schools.
If the task of the teacher or the worker in the Ministry is well defined, he
stands a better chance of performing it well. This will also facilitate
accountability.
However, Taylor's idea of rigid control could hinder initiative and lead to
much bureaucracy or group thinking especially in the headquarters of the
Ministries of Education. Taylor's view on staff selection and training is very
useful if properly applied in our educational institutions. In this way,
qualified teachers and ministry personnel will be assigned to the right types
of jobs while training could be used to improve the efficiency of the workers
(teachers, ministry officials). His own idea of the provision of appropriate
tools and materials to the workers is also very relevant to schools. Teachers,
students and even workers in the Ministries of education need to be provided
with necessary and up-to-date equipment in order to promote their work. For
example, students need textbooks, visual aids, science equipment,
laboratories and so on. We also need to have well trained teachers and school
administrators in our schools, if our educational objectives are to be achieved.
Exercise 1.1
Mention at least two things that were the focus of Taylor's ideas of
management.
List two of the views that Taylor advocated.
3.1.2 Henri Fayol (1841 — 1925)
Another important component of classical theory of administration is that
presented by Henri Fayol (1841 — 1925). Henri Fayol adopting the scientific
process of inquiry like Taylor developed some principles of management,
which invariably complemented the work of Frederick W. Taylor.
32 NOUN

He was born in 1841, a French Engineer who advocated the efficiency cult
aimed at increasing productivity of workers. Unlike Taylor, Fayol
concentrated on the top management (Managing Director) and worked
downwards to the lowest organizational member. He separated the process
of administration from the operations in the organization, such as production.
He was of the view that production is different from administration, and that
the production subsistence of the organization is brought about by the
administration.
He defined administrative behaviour that is the functional element of
administrative task as follows:
To plan — means to study the future and arrange the plan of operations.
To command — To ensure that the staff do their work.
To coordinate — means to unite and correlate all activities.
To control — means to see that everything is done in accordance to the rules
, and instructions laid down (Gullick and Urwick, 1937, p.119).
Fayol's fourteen Principles of Management. Fa yol 's principle s o f
NOUN
management prescribed certain strategies for structuring behaviours in
organizational life in order to achieve efficiency and effectiveness. Fayol
formulated fourteen principles of management as follows:
Division of Work: Division of work or specialization increases
productivity. The more skilled the labour and management the higher
productivity, because one can work at activities in which he is
most
capable. Both technical and managerial skills are required for
efficient
performance of organizational duties and this can be achieved
through
specialization.
Authority and Responsibility: Authority connotes the right to give orders.
Authority is therefore required to control the behaviours of
organizational
participants. Appropriate sanctions are required to encourage good and
d i sc o ur a ge po o r pe r fo r ma nce . A n o r ga n i za ti on al mem be r ha s
responsibility to accomplish the organizational objectives of position.
Discipline: There must be respect for and obedience to the rules and
objectives of the organization. According to Hicks and Gullet (1976)
this
means and requires "(1) Good superiors at all levels; (2) Agreements
as
clear and fair as possible; (3) Sanctions (penalties) judiciously applied".

Concepts and Theories of Educational Administration and Planning ED/ti' 811
34
Unity of Command: To m i n i m i ze c o n fu s i o n a n d c o n fl i c t s e a c h
subordinate should receive orders and be responsible to one super-
ordinate.
Unity of Direction: This implies unity of purpose. An organization is
more effective when everyone work towards the same objectives.
Subordination of Individual Interest: The interest of one employee or
group should not prevail over the interest of the organization. Corollary,
the interest of the whole supersedes the interest of the parts.
Remuneration: Pay according to performance. Pay should be fair and not
exploitative. Different modes of payment and incentives should be used.
Centralization: There should be a balance between concentration and
distribution of authority in the organization. Implicit in this principle is
delegation of authority.
Scalar Chain: There is a scalar chain or hierarchy linking various levels
and all members according to the unity of command. Considering the
difficulty of communicating directly in large organizations based on the
unity of command, Fayol suggested the "Gang plank", as a way out. In
this respect members occupying the same level in the organizational
hierarchy can contact directly without necessarily going through their
super-ordinates.
Order: Fayol suggested that there should be systematic arrangement of
functions for everyone in the organization.
Equity: Fairness, cordiality, kindness, and justice, based on predetermined
norms.
Stability of Tenure of Personnel: Time is required for an employee to get
used to new work and succeed in doing it well. Job security should be
used to reward good performance.
Esprit de Corps: "Unity is Strength". Superior performances come from
a feeling of oneness, belongingness, pride and loyalty. (Enaohwo, J. 0.
and Eferakeya, 0. A. (1989))
Students, it is now time for us to examine the views of others who sought
to refine Fayol's ideas.
NOUN

3.1.3 Urwick and Gulick (1937)
In 1937, Urwick and Gulick became more sophisticated in their analysis and
approach. They worked more on Fayol's element of administration and
provided more articulate and up-to-date principle of management.
According to Hoy and Miskel (1978:5) Gulick in answer to the question,
"What is the work of the Chief Executive?" responded "POSDCORB'.
The acronym depicted seven administrative procedures: planning, organizing,
staffing, directing coordinating, reporting and budgeting.
These functions overlap, and the performance of one cannot be neatly
separated from the other. In this sense, management can be viewed as a
composite process.
In the views of Enaohwo & Eferakeya (1989), a more complete function of a
manager, however should include, "evaluation". From this perspective the
acronym "POSDCORB" should become "POSDCORBE" where the letter
"E" represents evaluation. This is because the reporting function of the
administrator does not embrace the function of evaluation; consequently,
reporting should be viewed as an aspect of evaluation. This is why the
Gulickian acronym has been extended to "POSDCORBE". This addition it is
hoped will enable us to describe fully the scope of administrative duties.
Now students, don't you think these ideas could be applicable to our
schools today? Let us give a few illustrations with examples.
3.1.5 Implications of "POSDCORB" to the Educational System
Planning involves a definition of goals and objectives. It is a process as well
as a means of orienting the institution towards goals. So, in schools we set
out in advance a pattern of activities and actions that are suppose to bring
about the attainment intended school goals. In determine what is to be done,
we cover a number of decisions related to the clarification of schools
objectives, establishing school policies that will help to realize the goals. We
finally set out programmes and specific methods and procedures of
implantation. In most Nigerian schools the Vice Principal or the Senior
Master often plans the school timetable.
We know that organizing is the process of determining the activities to be
performed in order to achieve the objectives of an institution. It is through
organizing that the task of an institution are subdivided and then related and
arranged to create an operating unity. Organizing entails the grouping of
NOUN 5

Concept: and Theories of Educational Administration and Planning EDA 811
4.0
activities inter-related manner, assigning these responsibilities and
assembling the resources. E.g. the games master of a school could be
charged with the responsibility of organizing an Inter-house Athletics
Competition.
When it comes to directing we refer to motivating, influencing, guiding or
stimulating the actions of people towards the attainment of the desired
organizational objectives. In this sense, direction is a part of supervision.
The act of coordination is also important in our school systems. Coordination
refers to the process of bringing related activities together. The larger the
school, the greater is the need for coordination; Coordination is therefore
necessary in all areas of the school if the head teacher is to provide effective
leadership.
Reporting, that is when we keep the executive informed as to what is going
on.
Budgeting: This relates to all that goes with budgeting in the form of fiscal
planning, accounting and control.
Evaluation: The role of the school administrator also involves evaluating staff
and students. He reports on the performance of teachers, support staff and
students. To do this effectively, he needs to monitor the activities of his
subordinates and clients. Supervision is also inclusive in the duty of the
principal in evaluation.
Conclusion
The development of management thought has been and will continue to be
evolutionary in nature. The scientific management era was the forerunner of
the human relation era and both of them together provided the foundation for
the classical era. It should be noted that the fact that the new concepts were
developed did not mean that preceding ones were unsound. As conditions
change, approaches to management must necessarily change.
The scientific management movements placed new emphasis on achieving
increased output and efficiency. The mood of the scientific management
system is rational, logical, impersonal, austere, orderly, mechanical,
conforming, highly controlled and task-oriented.
NOUN

EDA 811
5 . 0 S u m m a r y
In this unit we discussed the scientific management movement, highlighting
the contributions of Fredrick Taylor, Henri Fayol, Urwick and Gulick.
We observed that Taylor worked from the individual workers upward with
emphasis on workers and the resources for work. While Henri Fayol was
concerned with the top management (Managing Director) down to the
workers. Urwick and Gulick were seen as the refinementalist who amplified
and articulated the functions of the manager as "POSDCORB" the acronym
meaning: Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting
and Budgeting.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment (TMAs)
Discuss the contributions of the Scientific Management Movement Ideas to
the Development of Education in Nigeria.
7.0 References
Enaohwo, J. O. and Eferakeya, O. A. 91989). Educational
Administration. Ibadan: Paper Book Publishers Ltd.
Fayol, H. (1944). General and Industrial Management. Ran Constance
Storrs, London, Sir Isaac pitman and Sons Pp 5-6.
Getzels, J. W. Lipham, J. M. and Campbell, R. F. (1978).
Educational Administration as a Social Process: Theory, Research,
Practice. New York, Harper and Row Publishers. Pp 41 — 44.
Gulick, L. and Urwick L. (1937) ed. Papers on the Science of
Administration. New York, Institute of Public Administration,
Columbia University Pp 13 - 15
Hicks, H. G. and Gullet, C. R. (1976). Organizations: Theory and
Behaviour. McGraw-Hill Kogakusha Limited. Pp 163 — 176.
Hoy, Wik and Miskel, C. G. (1978). Educational Administration:
Theory, Research and Practice. New York, Random House, Inc.
Pp 4 —5
Musaazi, J. C. S. (1982). The Theory and Practice of Educational
Administration. Nigeria: Macmillan Press.
NOUN 37

The Human Relations Perspective
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Mary Parker Follet (1868— 1933)
3.1.1 The Forms of Conflict - Solution
3.1.2 Elton Mayo (Social Skills)
EDA 811
3.1.2 Some Major Contributions of Human Relationist to Administration
3.1.4 Criticism of the Human Relationist Idea
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References
1.0 Introduction
In Unit 4, we studied the Scientific Management Movement, with a focus on
Frederick Taylor and Henri Fayol's ideas on increased productivity, workers
efficiency and managers administrative duties. Our study of Unit 5 is titled
"The Human Relations Perspective". This will concentrate on some
additional views of how to manage organizations with emphasis on the
human aspect of administration.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, students should be able to:
Describe Mary Parker Follett's ideas
Identify the three forms of conflict and solution
Explain the contribution of Elton Mayo's ideas.
Examine the major contributions of Human Relations to Administration.
38 NOUN

3.0 Marry Parker Feller (1868 — 1933)
Marry Parker Follett was among the first people to recognize the importance
of human factors in administration. She wrote several brilliant papers dealing
with the human side of administration. Marry Follett believed that the
fundamental problem in all organizations was in developing and maintaining
dynamic and harmonious relationships. Follet's papers set the stage for
research efforts of Elton Mayo, F. J. Roethlisbergs and William J. Dickson.
They conducted the famous Hawthorne experiment, between 1924- 1932.
Under the sponsorship of the National Research Council, the experiments
were conducted in the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company in
Circero, Illinois, near Chicago. The first purpose of the experiment was to
determine the effect of physical factors on productivity. The result of which
indicated that there was no relationship between illuminations and
productivity. The second series of experiments in April 1927 were conducted
to determine factors responsible for achieving increased productivity in
industrial systems. Utilizing a small sample size of six females who were
telephone relay assemblers, the experimentalists observed them under
controlled environment. Changes were made frequently in the working
periods and working hours. Formal and close supervision strategies were
eliminated. The researchers observed that the productivity of the subjects
increased. E ventuall y, it wa s concluded t hat the s ocial o r hu man
relationships among the operators, researchers, and supervisors were more
important in determining productivity, than changes in the working
conditions.
The researchers also concluded that the study group achieved high moral
because of the special attention that was given to them. Thus the
contributions of human relationist to our understanding of organizational
behaviour. Fundamental to this, is the knowledge that organizations have
social and emotional aspects in addition to service or economic goals.
Marry Parker Follett argued that the individual should be given enough
opportunity to develop through better human relationships. She contended
that the process of production is important to the welfare of the Society, as
the products of production. That such welfare is not only monetary but also
how workers relate to one another.
Students, it is now time for us to listen attentively to one of the special
areas of administration, which Mary Follett introduced.
Mary Parker Follett introduced the concept of conflict in administration; she
believes that administrative process was always with conflict solution of
which there were three forms. She argues that conflict is a healthy situation,
NOUN 39

Coneepis and Theories of Educational Administraiion and Planning EDA 811
and any group should be able to manage its conflict. The ability to manage
such conflict shows some extent of maturity. Conflict she said should not be
a confrontation.
3.1.1 Three Forms of Conflict — Solution
Domination: This is a situation in which victory is unilateral, that is to say
that as administrators, we should be able to come out with a unilateral
solution, to a particular problem.
Compromise: This is the situation in which.each side agrees to make
concessions and arrive at certain solutions to narrow down areas of
disagreement. According to Mary Follett, this situation is a human
relation component. People cannot come to compromise if the human
relation is not smooth.
Integration: In which neither side claims victory. In this aspect the
administrator comes out with a new idea and this comes out to be useful
to both sides i.e. the victory given to the administrator. The administrator
stands to benefit from the new idea. The human aspect comes in because
the administrator should be able to convince himself and the two bodies
involved.
Exercise 1.1
Identify two main conclusions that could be drawn from the Hawthorne
experiment.
3.1.2 Elton Mayo (Social Skills)
Mayo's views could be summed up in a statement that "much can be gained
by carrying greater personal consideration to the low level employment"
(Enaohwo and Eferakeya, 1989). He stressed the needs of the individual in
the organization. He emphasizes the importance of acquiring social skills
that will enable us to get along with one another. For example, a good sense
of humour could be seen as a social skill, a good command of the language of
communication in the organization and so on.
Lastly, he urged that administrators should be tactful, they should know the
psychology of the workers, they should be humane, and at the same time
quite firm, when decisions are to be taken. He stressed the ability to be able
to handle human beings socially.
40 NOUN

3.1.3 Some Major Contributions of Human Relations to Administration
Administrators' work with and through people in order to accomplish the
purposes of the organization, and therefore sensitivity to the human factor is
an important first step in their work. This step is required so as to motivate
teachers and others in the school system.
Administration is a shared responsibility and therefore the organizational
structure should allow a free interplay of ideas in order to minimize the
rigidity by hierarchical structures.
The economic incentive (salaries) is not the only significant motivator. Non-
economic social sanctions limit the effectiveness of economic incentives. For
example, the teacher who is appointed head of a department will be willing to
devote his time and energy to the development of the department even when
such a post may not be accompanied by financial rewards. The feeling that
the principal was confident that he could manage that department may be
sufficient incentive for the appointed teacher to do the job.
All human beings want social recognition and esteem; the attainment of the
goals of the school may be difficult; if not possible, if the principal of a
school habitually ignores the opinion and feeling so the teachers, as well as
those of the students, on matters which affect them.
3.1.4 Criticism of the Human Relationist Ideas
Critics of the human relations theory raise a lot of dissatisfaction:
They argued that the human relationist paid no attention to the external
environment affecting the life of an organization.
That they treated the organization as a family
That the humanist seems to have considered management as been soft and
made an assumption that the happiest organization was the most
productive.
They argued that management is very tough and something more than just
making the people happy is necessary.
They accuse the humanist that their approach is exploitative in the sense
that they make the worker very happy but do not allow them to participate
in decision-making. Through the manipulation of being happy the
NOUN

workers forget to realize their role in the decision-making, which is also
in the decision making which is also affecting them.
They argue that because of the soft attitude to administration, workers
become happy, and become easy to manipulate by the administrators.
Exercise 1.2
Mention at least three contributions of the human relation movement.
Outline three basic criticisms of the human relation movement.
4.0 Conclusion
In the late 1930s there was a strong reaction against the Scientific
Management Movement. These reactions wanted change, which meant
further improvement in the task of administration. The human relationist
provided us that change with an understanding that high moral was an
important factor along with economic considerations in achieving product
efficiency and effectiveness. The human factor in administration gained new
prominence. The existence and importance of informal group interactions
within the formal organizational structure gained recognition. The informal
organizations grow out of people's social needs. The human relations
movement therefore looked at the organization as a system of individual
interacting, forming informal inter-group relations, as well as formal relations
defined by the organization. It is worth noting that the human relations
movement less emphasis on the rigid interpretation of efficiency as suggested
by Frederick Taylor; but putting more attention on obtaining the cooperation
of employees and helping them to identify more closely with the organization
and its goals. All these contributions found expression in the view of the
Mary Parker Follet and Elton Mayo, otherwise referred to as the Humanist.
5 . 0 S u m m a r y
Our study of unit 5 centred on the contributions of the human relationlist to
the practice of Administration. We were able to describe the ideas of Mary
Parker Follett as it relates to the human side of administration, and her ideas
about conflict-solution in the organization.
Elton Mayo's ideas and emphasis on the social skills of individuals was also
discussed. We highlighted the major contributions of the humanists, rounded
up on our discussion with the criticisms as expressed by critics and other
theorist.
NOUN
2

How does the Human Relations Movement differ from the Scientific
Management Movement in organizational developments?
7.0
NOUN
References
Bass, B. M. (1965) . Organizational Psychology. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
Enaohwo, J. O. and Eferakeya, O. A. (1989). Educational
Administration. lbadan: Paperback Publishers Limited.
Follett, M. P. (1940). Dynamic Administration: The collected papers of Mary
Parker Follett, Henry C. Metcalf and Luther Urwick (ed). New York:
Harperad Fow
Hall, R. H. (1977). Organizations: Structure and Process (2'd ed) New
Jersy: Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Kaln, R. L. and Boulding, E. (1964). Power and Conflicts in
Organizations. New York: Basic Books.
McGregor, D. (1960). The Human Side of Enterprise. McGraw-Hill,
Kogakusha, Ltd.
Musaazi, J. C. S. (1982). The Theory and Practice of Educational
Administration. London: Macmillan Press Limited.
3

The Behaviouralist / Rationalist Perspective of Administratio n
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Behavioural / Rationalist Perspectives
3.1.1 Chester Barnard
3.1.2 Herbert Simon
3.1.3 Max Weber
3.1.4 Advantages of Bureaucracy
3.1.5 Disadvantages of Bureaucracy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References and Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
EDA 811
In Unit 5, we studied the contributions of the Human Relation Movement to
Administration. In this Unit 6, we will learn about the Behaviouralist, who
are often referred to as the Rationalist. The main ideas of these groups of
people are that administration should involve a high level of intellectualism
and rationality in thinking. We will learn other additional content as will be
specified in the objectives below:
2.0 Objectives:
At the end of this unit students should be able to:
Identify who the rationalists are
Explain the views of Herbert Simon, Chester Barnard and Max Weber
4 NOUN

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of bureaucracy
3.1 Behavioural! Rationalist Perspectives
From our previous studies, we have seen that the scientific management and
human relations ideas of administration, ignored the impact of social relations
and of formal structure respectively. It is the behavioural perspective, which
put together the earlier ideas and added propositions and ideas drawn from
Sociology, Psychology, Anthropology, Political Science and Economics.
This approach differs from other behavioural sciences only in its subject
matter, and that is the work behaviour in formal organizations. This certainly
is an interdisciplinary approach to administration. The most notable among
these rationalist were Herbert Simon, Chester Barnard and Max Weber. They
argued that an administrator must not take things by instinct. But some
intelligence has to be put in administration.
Now students, let us examine the contributions of each of this rationalist to
administration.
3.1.1 Chester Barnard
It was Chester Barnard who originated much of the behavioural approach
when he examined carefully the organizational life in his functions of the
Executive (1938). He emphasized the importance of both formal and
informal organizations and clearly demonstrated the inevitable interaction
between them.
His structural and dynamic concepts will be of importance to us as
administrators. The structural concepts are the individuals (i.e. teacher;
student; clerk, etc.) the cooperative system (i.e. the working relationships in
the form of a team), the information organization (i.e. peer groups, friendship
cliques, etc). The main dynamic concepts are free will, cooperation,
communication, authority, the decision process and a forceful working state
of balance.
Chester Barnard contends that efficiency and effectiveness can be achieved if
the formal and informal aspects of the organization are integrated. He
distinguishes between the concepts of effectiveness and efficiency. The
former refers to "the accomplishment of the cooperative purposes, which is
essentially, non-personal in character. The latter refers to "the satisfaction of
individual motives, which is personal in character".
NOUN 5

Concepts and Theories of Educational Administration and Planning FDA!" 811
Although Barnard dealt mainly with the structure of formal organizations, he
recognizes the importance of the informal aspect of organizations as
contributor effectiveness and efficiency.
He asserts that "whatever their origin, the informal contacts, interactions and
groups change not only the experience, knowledge, attitudes and emotions
are affected but also their functioning in the formal organization". (Getzels, et
at 1978).
Barnard (1938) suggests that "learning organizational ropes in inost
organizations is chiefly learning who's who, what's what, and why's Why,of
its informal society". The informal organization provides the broadest view
for studying and understanding administrative behaviour.
3y Herbert Simon
Another of the most notable behaviouralist is Herbert Simon. Simon in his
treatise, Administrative Behaviour (1947) expanded on Barnard's work and
used the concept of organizational balance as a central point for a formal
theory of work motivation. What this means is that Simon viewed the
organization as an exchange system in which rewards (inducements) are
exchanged for work - just as in a school, the teachers get salaries in exchange
for their work.
Thus, an employee or teacher remains in the organization as long as he thinks
the inducements are larger than his contributions. Therefore, by integrating
economics, psychology and sociology, the inducement — contribution scheme
illustrates the interdisciplinary nature of administration.
For example, a teacher may be induced to remain as the Vice Principal of a
School, as a result of other fringe benefits attached to the post, such as free
accommodation and free medical services, and of course the social
recognition, which goes with the post. Thus from what we have said so far,
we can see that effective administration is a process of highly rational or
intelligent decision-making that influences the behaviour of employees of the
organization.
Dear students let us ask ourselves: What is a rational or an intelligent
decision?
Let us say it is one, which leads to the selection of the best solution for the
accomplishment of anticipated goals or objectives of the organization.
Therefore, organizational rationality involves "input activities", and in the
46 NOUN

case of a school, you need input from students, teachers, the Ministry of
education, etc.
Herbert Simon disagrees with the idea that if you are able to manipulate
things you would be successful. Instead he believes that an administrator
should study and understand the political, social and psychological conditions
under which he administers.
Hebert Simon identifies two important elements in the organization, which
hinders successful rationality and decision-making.
They are:
o Complexity of administrative decisions
o Human inability to see through the future
In order to compensate for all these limitations, the administrator does the
following?
3.1.3 Max Weber
Max Weber is famous with his theory of bureaucracy. He conceives
bureaucracy as the most efficient forms of organizational design for
achieving perfect rationality and efficiency.
He described the elements of his ideal administrative framework as follows:
1.
2.
3.
Impersonal and social distance among officials through dependence
on rules and regulations. Therefore, practices such as nepotism and
favourtism associated with job performance should be eliminated.
Hierarchy of authority: The arrangement of offices should follow the
principles of hierarchy such that every position or office is under the
control and supervision of a superior one. Assignment of positions
should be based on individual qualification.
Members owe obedience to the organization's rules and regulations.
According to Scott and Mitchell (1976) rules and regulations serve the
following functions in bureaucracy.
4 They standardize operations and decisions
NOUN 47

4 They serve as receptacles of past learning
4 They protect the incumbent and ensure equality of treatment.
FDA% 811
4 Professional or Career Orientation: Employment in a bureaucratic
organization should be based on merit or technical competence that will
create career paths for organization participants.
There should be reward system to acknowledge superior performance.
Promotion should be based on achievement and seniority. Tenure should be
given to those with special skills and who are productive.
Max thought that a well-planned bureaucracy would be fairer, impartial, and
predictable. In general, more rational behaviour is expected in such
bureaucracy.
Max believed that there is formal recording of actions in a bureaucracy; files
are made available where members sign and record their performance.
Max argued that in a bureaucracy you do not own an office, so you can be
transferred, dismissed or temporary removed to other places.
He believes that a bureaucracy is characterized by relationships bet
power, authority and persuasions.
3.1.4 Advantages of Bureaucracy
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The bureaucracy is efficient when it is well planned and organized.
A bureaucracy is predictable, rules are written down, and the roles of
incumbent are clearly defined.
The bureaucracy is impersonal, that means it not bias.
B u r e a u c r a c y gu a r a n t e e s a l i fe - c a r e e r .
It gives a tenure appointment; members are employed as permanent
and pensionable officers.
3.1.5 Disadvantages of Bureaucracy
48
1. It encourages over conformity, which leads to group thinking.
NOUN

E,DAP, 811
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
It turns employees into ritualistic bureaucrats who emphasis
impersonal rules to the extent of driving their client into despair.
For example, sometimes bureaucracy makes ministry officials to read
rules and regulations to their members, without necessarily solving
their problems.
Career orientation of bureaucrats make them more interested in
protecting their career than in dealing with their clients.
Innovative ideas in bureaucracy are difficult to come by.
Bureaucracy does not take into account the presence of the numerous
informal organizations including the primary roles into which the role
incumbent belongs.
Bureaucracy encourages the monopoly of information by a superior
officer.
4.0 Conclusion
From what we have learnt in this unit, it is clear that behaviouralist otherwise
called rationalist view administration as the integration of the formal and
informal aspects of organization, and the analysis of the decision making
apparatus as a means for increasing and achieving organizational
effectiveness and efficiency, in a rational way. They argued that this
rationality could only be achieved if the administrator has a knowledge of the
economic and social backgrounds that informs the behaviour of employees in
their organizations. Lastly, they warned that such knowledge should not
abuse the mind of the administrator in carrying out his duties, and hence the
advocacy of bureaucracy in organizations.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, we have studied the views and contributions of notable
Behaviouralist and Rationalist. The main ideas of Chester Barnard and
Herbert Simon were examined. And lastly we discussed Max Weber's
bureaucratic elements, by outlining the advantages and disadvantages of
bureaucracy.
NO UN 9

4 What is Bureaucracy?
4 Discuss at least four advantages and disadvantages of bureaucracy.
7.0 References
Barnard, C. (1964). The functions of the Executives. Cambridge,
Mass, Harvard University Press (Originally published in 1938).
Enaohwo, J. 0. and Eferakoya, 0. A. (1989). Educational
Administration. Ibadan: Paperback Publishers Limited.
Getzels, J. W., Lopham, J. m. AND Campell, R. F. (1978).
EDA 811
0
Educational Administration as a Social Process: Theory, Research and
Practice. New York: Harper and Row Publishers.
Musaazi, J. C. C. (1982). The Theory and Practice of Educational
Administration. London and Basingstoke: The Macmillan Press
Limited.
Robert G. 0. (1970). Organizational Behaviour in School. New
Jersey: Englewood Cliffs Prentice Hall Inc.
Scott, W. G. and Mitchell, R. R. (1976). Organization Theory: A
Structural Behavioural Analysis (31d
Edition) Homewood, Illinois:
Richard D. Irwin Inc.
Simon, H. A. (1945). Administrative Behaviour. New York:
Macmillan.
NOUN

EDA 811
1.0
2.0
3.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.1.4
4.0
5•o
6.0
7.0
Unit 7
Theories Of Bureaucracy
Table of Contents
Introduction
Objectives
Definition of Theory
Characteristics of the Theories of Bureaucracy
The Merton Model
The Selznick Model
Gouldner's Model
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
References
1.0 Introduction
In the last unit, we discussed the behavioural perspective of organizations, as
advocated by notable behaviouralist like Chester Barnard, Herbert Simon and
Max Weber. These behaviouralist emphasis the need for rational decisions
and proper understanding of the socio-economic environments which affect
the behaviour of employees. In this unit (7) we shall be studying the various
theories of bureaucracy. These theories x-ray the application of behavioural
ideas in organization.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this study the student should be able to:
Identify the three major theories of bureaucracy.
Discuss the application of each of these theories in organization.
NOUN

3.1 Definition of Theory
EDA 811
Feigt, I-I (1951) defined theory as "a set of assumptions from which a larger
set of empirical laws can be derived by purely logical-mathematical
procedure".
While Hoy and Miskel (1978) defined theory as "a set of interrelated
concepts, assumptions and generalizations that systemically describes and
explain behaviours in educational organizations".
Theory therefore seeks to establish relationships between variables by
describing, explaining and predicting the attributes of the phenomenon. In
other words theory in educational administration is directed towards
describing and explaining observed behaviours and events through a
systematic view.
It is in this perspective that the theories of bureaucracy could be examined
and related to the school system.
3.1.1 Characteristics of the Theories of Bureaucracy
The general structure of the theoretical systems of all the three is remarkably
similar.
The three theories use the best independent variable, as some form of
organizational procedure, designed to control the activities of the members of
the organization. The dependent variable is that which is controlled while the
independent is that which cannot be controlled. These procedures are based
on the "machine" model of organizational behaviours, a concept emanating
from the scientific view of men in an industrial set up by the first
management theorist Frederick Taylor.
The procedures have their consequences as anticipated by the organization so
also the unanticipated consequences. These consequences reinforce, the
tendency to use and unanticipated consequences the leader of the
organization is able to use their control devices opportunity.
3.1.2 The Merton Model
The Merton model is concerned with dysfunctional organizations. These
organizations result in consequences unanticipated and undesired due to the
values of the members.
2 NOUN

Merton asserts that changes in the organization and in the personality of
i n d i vi d u a l m e m b e r s o f t h e o r ga n i za t i o n s t e m fr o m fa c t o r s i n t h e
organizational structure. By personality Merton means that nay fair reliable
connection between certain stimuli and characteristic responses to all the
factors operating in the organization Merton suggest that positive and
negative personalities might be developed in an organization. Hence the
demand for control. The demand for control has the top hierarchy and
undergoes eight various stages such as emphasis on reliability pattern of
behaviour. The above discussion is further explained in Figure one below:
The Merton Model
Defensibility
of individual
actions
•
Demand for Control
i.e. the top Hierarchy
•
Emphasis on
reliability pattern
of behaviour
Rigidity of behaviour
organizational defense
of status
Amount of difficulty
with clients
Fig I
Intended result
Unintended result
Felt need for
defensib.lity of
individual actions
The organization is seen to be rigid and so defend the behaviour status of its
members, in a form of group action. This is followed by the individual action
been defended by the individual and it is always in conformity with the rules
and emphasis on reliability patter of behaviour.
3.1.3 The Selznick Model
This model emphasis delegation of authority, in the sense that it is a little bit
different from Merton's model. Merton stresses rules as a response for
NO
UN
3

human control. Zelznick also shows how a control device or theory brings
about unanticipated consequences.
The model starts with the demand for control, which starts at the top
hierarchy. As a result of an increase delegation of authority, several
immediate consequences are recorded.
Consequences of delegation:
1.
2.
3.
4.
It increases the amount of training in specialized competence.
It increases experience within specialize tasked area and improves the
employee's ability to deal with problems in such task area.
Delegation results in departmentalization and brings about an increase
in the interest among the sub-units in the organization.
Delegation encourages training and training results in increase
competence and therefore increase cost in further differentiation of
sub-unit goals.
This division of interest within the organization also leads to increase conflict
among organizations and the sub-units.
Selznick's model stressed that decisions made within the organization
normally depends on consideration of internal strategies, which leads to
internalization of sub-goals by participants.
The internationalization of sub-goals is usually reinforced by the feedback
from the daily decisions it influences.
The necessity for making daily decisions creates a system of precedents.
Therefore decisions have to depend primarily on the operation criteria of the
department by the organization, and among these criteria sub-unit goals are
of considerable importance.
By operationality of goals, we mean the extent to which it is possible to
observe and test how well goals are been achieved.
NOUN

Selznick's Model
Amount of training
In specialize competences
Delegation
of authority
•
Bifurcation of
Interest
Interim ization of
sub-goals
Content of
Decision
NOUN
Internationalization or
Organizational Goals by
Participation
Intended
Results
Unintended
Results
Fig II
Operationality
of Organizational
Goals.
11=5.5=1

Selznick's Model
Delegation
of authority
•
NOUN
Amount of training
Participation
Intended
Results
Unintended
' ' * Results
1 bifurcation
of
Interest 'Jr
Internalization of
sub-goals
Conten of
Decision
Operationality
of Organizational
Goals.
Fig II
11=5=5:=I

EDA 811
Amount of training
Selznick's Model
Delegation
of authority •
NOUN
Participation
Intended
Results
Unintended
Results
Bifurcation of
Interest
Interim ization of
sub-goals
Conten of
Decision
Operation ality
of Organizational
Goals.
Fig II
f t I

Selznick's Model
Amount of training
Delegation
of authority
•
Bifurcation of
Interest
*1 Interna ization of
sub-goals
*1 Content of
Decision
NOUN
Participation
Intended
Results
Unintended
* Results
Fig II
Operationality
of Organizational
Goals.

Concepts and Theories of Educational Achninisircnion and Planning
3.1.4 Goulner's Model
EDA 811
In terms of number of variables and relations, Gouldner's Model is the
simplest. Like Merton, Gouldner is concerned with the consequences of the
bureaucratic rules for the maintenance of organization structure.
Like both Merton and Selznick, Gouldner attempt to show how a control
technique designs to maintain the equilibrium of a larger system with a
subsequent feedback on the sub-system.
In Gouldner's model, the use of general and impersonal goals regulating
work procedure is part of the response to the demand for control from the top
hierarchy.
Consequencts: To decrease the visibility of power relations within the group.
The visibility of authority differences within the work group interacts with
the extent to which the qualities of norms are held to affect the legitimacy of
the supervisory role. This in turn affects the level of interpersonal tension in
the work group.
56 NOUN

Figure III below explain further the discussion of Gouldner's model.
Gouldner's Model
Knowledge about
Minimum
Acceptable
behaviour
Demand For
Control
Use of generalized
Impersonal rules
Ministry of Education
Principal or
•
Rules and Regulations
in Schools
Each teacher
knows what is
expected of him
Difference •
Between
organizational
goals and
What the school
want to achieve
and what is really
achievable
NOU
N
Visibility of Power
relations
•
Principal, V.P.
and staff
Closeness of
supervision
Fig III
Level of
Interpersonal
tension
Outcome of
behaviour good or
Without changing
authority relation
7

4.0 Conclusion
EDA 811
The three models that have been discussed were advocated by Merton, Selznick
and Gouldner. Each of the models had something specific to emphasis about
the application of bureaucratic rules in organizations. Such emphasis was x-
rayed as the identification of organizational structure, which necessitates the
need to use control within the reliable pattern of behaviour, such was the views
of Merton.
Selznicrs model emphasis the importance of delegation in bureaucratic
organizations. This was examined with all the consequences attributed to it.
Lastly, the G011 I (1 ner' s model examined the visibility of authority and the place
of organizational structures for effective control. These views certainly
explain the applicability of bureaucracy in organizations of which the
educational institutions is inclusive.
5 . 0 S u m m a r y
In this unit we studied three important models of bureaucracy as advocated
by Merton, Selznick and Gouldner. The applicability and subsequent
consequences of the ideas expressed in each of the models were also
examined.
Discuss the Gouldner's model and how it applies to the school system.
7.0 References
Feigl, H. (1951). "Principles and Problems of Theory Construction in
Psychology" in Current Trends in Psychological Theory. Pihsburgh,
Pa: University of Pihsburgh.
Hoy, W. K. and Miskel, C. G. (1978). Educational Administration
Theory, Research and Practice. New York: Random House Inc.
Musaazi, J . C. S. (1982). The Theory and Practice of Educational
Administration. London Basingstoke: Macmillan Press.
• ___ c
58 ___ I NOUN

EDA 811 Concepts and Theories of Educational Adniinistration and Planning
NOU
Robert, G. 0. (1970). Organizational Behaviour in Schools. New
Jersey: Englwood Cliffs Prentice Hall Inc.
Simon, H. A. (1945). Administrative Behaviour. New York:
Macmillan
Williard, R. L. and Ronald, G. C. (1967). Educational Administration:
A Behavioural Analysis. New York: Macmillan
59
N

Concepts and Theories of Decision Making in Administration
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 The Concept of Decision-making in Administration
3.1.1 3.1.1 Four basic strategies of decision making
3.1.2 3.1.2 The process of decision making
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 !! Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0
References
EDA 811
1 Introduction
In unit 8, we will study an important task of the administrator, which is
Decision making. We will explain the meaning of Decision-making, the
strategies of decision-making, and the processes involved in decision-
making. The practice of decision-making in educational administration will
also be examined.
2.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit discussions, student should be able to:
1 .
2 .
3 .
4 .
D e fi n e t h e c o n c e p t o f d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g
Explain the four basic strategies of decision-making
D i s c u s s t h e p r o c e s s o f d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g
Explain, how decisions making is carried out in schools
3.1 The concept of Decision Making in Administration
There are different ways of looking at decision-making. According to
Newman and Sumber (1961) 'decision-making' is synonyms of planning.
While Dorsey (1957) views the decision-making process as an extension of a
0 NOUN

EDA811 Concepts and Theories of Educational Administration and Planning
series of interrelated communication events. Similarly Simon (1960)
conceives of decision making "as though it were synonymous with
managing".
Decision-making is a sequential process that culminates in a single decision
or a series of choices that stimulate moves or actions. The result of our
decision process is policies, rules or regulations that guide the subsequent
behaviour of members of the organization. Decision-making is a major
responsibility of all administrators. It is a process by which decisions are
made and implemented.
An understanding of the decision making process is important for all
administrators because the school like all formal organization is basically a
decision making structure. Decision-making is therefore seen as problem
solving, or a sort of mental rehearsal.
Lastly Decision-making is an attempt to solve organizational problems. The
leader need to possess a.good knowledge of the problem solving techniques
in order to make sound and effective decisions where decisions are made by
one person, then the organization is malfunctioning. If this happens, wise
decisions would not be made all the time, because human beings have their
limitations.
Decision-making is considered to have a number of important attributes:
In has a tendency to perpetuate itself; it attempts to protect itself from
disruption and destruction from within, and hence it is concerned with the
morale and satisfaction of its employees;
It seeks to survive, and it is therefore competitive with other behaviour
patterns and finally it seeks to progress and grow.
Effective administration requires intelligent decision-making. Decisions are
intelligent when they are appropriate for accomplishing specific goals.
Administrative decisions, however, are often extremely complex, and as such
rationality is limited for a number of reasons.
Student! It is now time for us to look at the basic forms of decision-
making.
NOUN

3.1.1 Four basic strategies of Decisions Making
EDA 811
In the last decade, decision-making became important in Administration, and
various studies have shown that. Below are the basic strategies that can
influence and enhance decision-making in organizations.
2
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
The Classical Model: This is an optimizing strategy. It assures that
decisions should be completely rational; it employs an optimizing
strategy by seeking the best possible alternative to maximize the
achievement of goals and objectives. According to the classical
model, the decision-making process is a series of sequential steps.
The Administrative Model: It is a satisfying strategy. The
complexity of most organizational problems and the limited capacity
of the human mind make it virtually impossible to use an optimizing
strategy on any but the simplest problems. Herbert Simon (1974) was
first to introduce the strategy of satisfying (searching for satisfactory;
alternatives rather than optimal ones). This is a situation whereby
there is a reliance on both theory and experience in decision making.
The increamental Model: A strategy of successive limited
comparisons. Occasionally some situations require an incremental
strategy. If the set of relevant alternative is indefinable and the
consequences of each alternative unpredictable. For example to what
new activities, should a school administrator allocate more resources?
Charles Lindblom (1980), Bray brook and Lindblom (1963),
Lindblom and Cohen (1979) first introduced and formalized the
incremental strategy. They characterize their decision-making method
as "the science of muddling through" and argues that it may be the
only feasible approach to systematic decision making when the issues
are complex and the uncertainty and conflict are high. The process is
best described as a method of successive limited comparisons.
It does not require objective, exhaustive analysis of alternatives and
consequences, or a prior determination of either optimum or
satisfactory outcomes. The strategy considers only alternatives that
are very similar to the existing outcomes and ignores all outcomes
that are outside the decision-makers narrow range of interest.
Mixed Scanning or adaptive decision-making: The mixed scanning
model of decision-making is proposed for complex decisions. Mixed
Scanning unites the best of both the administrative and incremental
modes. Amitai EtLiori (1967) (1986), (1989) has reintroduced a model
NOUN

of decision-making to cope with the increasing complexities and
uncertainties faced by contemporary administrators. He calls his
model "humble decision-making" but a more descriptive title is mixed
scanning or adaptive decision-making.
Mixed Scanning involves two sets of judgment first is choices about
the organization's mission and basic policy, and then incremental
decisions that moves the organization in the direction prescribed by
the policy.
Mixed Scanning unites the rationalism and comprehensiveness of the
administrative model with the flexibilities and utility involved. The
rules for mixed scanning are straightforward. They include:
Focused trial and error, tentativeness, procrastination, decision
staggering, fractionalizing, between hedging and reversible decisions.
All of these adaptive techniques can be skillfully employed by
educational administrators and they all illustrate flexibility, caution,
and a capacity to proceed with partial knowledge.
Exercise 1.1
(I) Explain the concept of decision-making
(2) Mention at least two strategies employed in decision-making
3.1.2 The Process of Decision-Making
Decision-making processes involve a series of complex interactions of
events. These interactions will be discussed in detail below in the following
stage:
Stage 1: Study carefully the existing situation. An intelligent administrator is
always studying his environment to see what is going wrong and what is
being done right. He has to study his staff. The school head needs to be
constantly aware of what is happening in the school. This requires him to
know quite a lot about student's affairs teachers activities and welfare,
parents' opinions about the school and so on.
Specifically, he needs to know such things as students' performance in their
studies, teachers performance in their teaching assignment, availability of
teaching aids, catering services in the school, school discipline and school
community relations. It is only when the administrator is acquainted with the
NOUN

4
situation himself that he can be in a position to detect problems or
difficulties, which require decisions to be made.
Stage 2: Recognise and define the problem. All decision-making begins with
the identification of the problem in the organization. Once a difficulty or an
undesirable situation in the system has been identified, we can start to think
about rectifying the situation or solving the problem. Thus an effective
administrator is always sensitive to organizational actions or behaviours that
do not measure up to the prescribed standards. This means that the
administrator must constantly be alert to issues or situation that might
become problems in order to adopt a course of action that will prevent the
problems from developing. The recognition and understanding of the
problem are therefore crucial to the process of decision-making. The way a
problem is understood has immense importance in subsequent analysis and
solution. For staff or society as a whole. Therefore the school administrator
has to approach indiscipline with a clear understanding of the problem.
Stage 3: examine the detailed make-up of the problem in the existing
situation. Here however the administrator has to classify the problem. This
means that he has to decide whether the problem is really unusual or whether
it is a new development of a typical difficulty for which an action pattern has
already been developed. More often than not the organization normally
establishes mechanism and procedure for dealing with many problems which
can easily be found in the use of existing school regulations.
Precisely the administrator needs to know the jurisdiction of the problem, that
is to say, is the problem within his ability or has it been left to the board of
governors to solve?
For instance, if a school administrator expels a student from the school, will
he be willing to accept the responsibility for the decision? If a decision is not
within the jurisdiction or capacity of the administrator to take it will be better
not to take it at all.
Stage 4: decide on the criteria for resolving the problem: when we have
finished describing, analysing and specifying the problem, then as decision
makers, we must decide on what constitutes an acceptable resolution. What
are the criteria for the acceptability of a decision? In other words, on that
variables, or factors will you base your decisions? Are these variables
acceptable to your staff members? What are the minimum objectives to be
achieved? What is good enough?
It is advisable for the decision-makers to rank the criteria with their possible
outcome along a continuum from minimally satisfying to maximally
NOUN

satisfying. As a general rule, the criteria we use to judge the decision must be
consistent with our organizational goals (i.e. school rules and regulations).
Stage 5: develop a plan of action. This stage is to identify the alternative
methods available for tackling the problem, evaluating the cost and
consequences of each alternative and selecting the one offering the most
advantageous combination of cost and consequences. What are the different
things that I can do? How much will each cost? What are likely to be the
result? Which should I choose as the best? The administrator develops his
plan of action basing it on a simplified picture of reality. That is., he chooses
the factors that he regards as most relevant and crucial, he is able to come to
general conclusions and then take action.
Stage 6: initiate the plan of action. Stage 6 is complementation: that is
establishing an organization to carry out the policy, programme or decision
chosen. Allocating resources to it, and motivating people to carry it out. The
other thing we do in the implementation stage is to establish controls to
monitor the performance of the plan, evaluate its degree of achievement and
determine the reasons for any deviation from expected consequences.
Reasons for the success or failure hay' e to be identified. If the decision has
been a failure, then corrective action must be taken.
4.0 Conclusion
Decision-making has become such a crucial test of administrative
effectiveness that the success of administrators is judged by the soundness
and appropriateness of their decisions.
In educational administration, leaders who cannot take decisions but leave
situations which demand urgent action to deteriorate to the extent of crisis are
incompetent administrators, because they lack the most essential complement
for successful performance in their office.
Decision making is a day to day activity in any organization and in the school
decisions are centered in one or several of these: personnel, finance
equipment and the length of time it will take to get things done.
5.0 Summar y
In this unit we have discussed the concept of decision-making, we examined
the basic strategies associated with decision making and lastly we explained
the various stages that are involved in the decision making process in any
organization. Emphasis was made on the applicability of decision-making in
educational administration.
NOUN

6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment (TMAs)
EDA 811
Describe with examples from school situations the stages of the decision
making process in organizations.
7.0 References
Dorsey, J.T. Jr. (1957) 'A communication model of administration',
Administration Science
Etzioni, A (1964) Modern Organizations
Englewood Cliffs New Jersey: Prentice-Hall
Musaazi,J.C.S (1982) The Theory and Practice of Educational Administration
London and Basingstoke: Macmillan
Newman, W.H. and Sumber C.E. Jr. (1961) The progress of Management
Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall
Simon, H.A (19609) The new Science of Management Decision New York:
Harper and Row
6 NOUN

EDA 811
. 1.0
2.0
UNIT 9
The Practice of School Administration
Table of Contents
bIntroduction
11 Objectives
b3.1 The concept of School Administration
3.1.1 1! Principalship: Tasks and Roles
3.1.2
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Qualities desired of a School Administrator
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor-marked Assignment
References
1.0 Introduction
In Unit 9, we will be studying the practice of School Administration. We are
going to emphasis the School system in order to be able to discuss the various
administrative tasks, which confront the school administrator. We will learn
other content as specified in the objectives below:
2.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit, students should be able to:
(1) Explain the concept of School Administration
(2) Describ e th e t ask o f the prin cip al
(3) Identify the qualities desired of a School Administrator
NOU
N
7

3.1 The Concept of School Administration
EDA 811
68
School Administration is a social process, concerned with identifying,
maintaining, stimulating, controlling and unifying, formally and informally
organized human and material energies within an interpreted system.
A School administrator fulfil such demands by developing specific plans and
executing policies within a unified system related to the administrative task.
It is through administration that the energies of people are brought together.
School administration is specifically concerned with students, teachers, and
rules, regulations and policies that govern the school system.
In school administration both the school head and staff must of necessity see
themselves as a team working for the growth and development of the child.
Thus school administration should be guided by certain basic ideas, some of
which are described below. First School Administration must strive to
create a community of learners who are physically and mentally healthy,
efficient, and responsible and whose behaviour is acceptable to society.
Secondly, the school must be administered in such a way that all members of
both teaching and non teaching staff function as a team. Each individual in
the school assisted to develop his or her own talents and to contribute
maximally to the progress of the school. Thirdly good school administration
demands that both staff and pupils have a large part to play in decisions that
determine the school rules, regulations and programmes. Administration
through staff meetings, students' representatives clubs committees and
organization should involve everybody in the running of the school. Thus
proper delegation of authority and responsibility must prevail in school
administration. Fourthly, school administration should encourage and provide
for the professional growth of teachers through planned educational seminars,
conferences and in-service education.
In addition all the administration decisions and procedures in the school must
be consistent with the underlying philosophy of the school. These decisions
should all the time aim at achieving the set objectives and goals of the school.
Finally, the school head and his staff must always keep the Ministry of
Education, school boards, the general public fully informed of the policies,
programmes, failures, and successes of the school.
My dear students, I believe it is now clear to you what school
administration is. Let us continue by looking at the specific duties of the
principal.
NOUN

3.1.1 Pincipalship: tasks and roles
The school head performs a wide variety of functions. The main task of the
school head are interpreting policy, executing curriculum programme, seeing
to students welfare, equipment, physical facilities and finances, inducting and
retraining staff, and finally maintaining effective school community relations
(musaazi 1982).
He has to keep the trust bestowed on him by his employers, as a teacher the
school head must be exemplary, he must be efficient and resourceful.
The school head (principal) has the responsibility of promoting effective
teaching in the school. It is his duty to ensure that his employer appoints
qualified and competent teachers to his school. The principal must be highly
competent and skilled in such things as modern techniques of instruction,
human relations, and delegation of responsibilities, and communication.
The principal is responsible for assigning task and duties to his staff. He/She
has to ensure through supervision that each person is performing his or her
duties satisfactorily. For instance, the principal might decide to inspect
teachers' lesson plans to see whether teachers do actually prepare lessons
before going to teach. Sometimes the principals could sit in on some of the
lessons to evaluate their teaching.
To achieve the goals of improving the curriculum programmes the principal
must have an understanding of the teacher, and teachers role, and be prepared
to work effectively with the teacher. Principals must maintain discipline
among the teaching staff; but this has to be done with fact, fairness, and
firmness. A high degree of discipline may lead to good morale among the
staff.
The principal should know that the morale of teachers is affected by both
material and human factors. The material factor include such things as
salary, sick leave, medical care, equipment, supplies and facilities.
In the area of human relations, the principal is in a key position to influence
the human factor of morale. He/Shel can, for instance select individual
teachers for certain roles, change the attitudes of staff members, change the
nature of their relationships with him/her and with other staff members. The
principal can generate interpersonal interest confidence and trust. Most often
teachers approach the principal for a number of personal reasons. For
instance, a teacher may request leave of absence for few days to go and
attend the wedding of his/her son a ceremony highly valued by his culture.
The principal has to respond to such a request with understanding.
NOU
N
9

70
It is also part of the principal's duty to orient new staff members to school
life as a whole. He/She has to provide them with information concerning the
school , so that t he y get to kno w ho w t he sch ool is or ga ni zed and
administered. Such information helps them to adjust to their new place of
work.
The principal should also seek ways to retaining teachers once employed.
He/She as the head of administration in the school must continuously seek
the welfare of staff members. He/She must promote them or recommend
them for promotion, as this is a positive way of rewarding them for their
services.
The head must show genuinely that he has concern for teachers and that he
respect their views, consequently he/she must involve them in the making of
decisions that affect the school. Even when good planning comes from the
principal alone, he/she must, as a good leader share it with others and let
them feel like important contributors to what is going on in the school.
The principal, as the head could initiate change in the school. Such changes
should be brought about smoothly and with minimum opposition or
resistance. The principal most importantly should be able to rally support for
his/her programmes plans and goals.
The principal has the responsibility of seeing to it that the establishment
procedures and structures help the school to achieve its objectives. He/She
continually monitors the way things are done, coordinate and regulate the
tasks of the entire school system.
As the school principal, he/she is responsible for the school funds, although
there will always be assistance from the school bursar or a financial clerk.
Grounds and buildings are the responsibilities of the principal. He/She makes
sure that all school property is maintained and properly repaired and utilized.
As the Chief Public Relations Officer of the school, the principal maintains
good public relations with the parents and the community as a whole. He/She
maintains a close liaison with other educational institutions 'like the Teacher
Training Colleges, Universities and employment agencies.
Finally the principal can be described as somebody responsible for planning,
organizing, coordinating, motivating the staff and student and managing
school buildings and facilities.
NOUN

For him/her to be able to carry out these tasks, there must be well-developed
routines policies and procedures, which are actually the best techniques for
efficient management.
3.12 Qualities desired of a School Administrator
We all have an image of what the modern school head or principal should be.
This image is characterized by certain important leadership qualities. The
following personal qualities are generally considered as desirable
qualifications of an effective School Administrator.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Intelligence: This involves intelligence, mature and sound judgement,
broad-mindedness and the ability to foresee and examine problems or
tasks and be able to provide appropriate solutions. The school head
should at least be higher in intelligence than his/her teachers.
Self-Confidence: The school principal deals with staff, students,
school board members, parents and the general public. It is therefore
essential that he have confidence in himself or herself, and in his/her
ideas as he interacts with these people. Making mistakes should not
make him/her lo se c on fidence; in stead he /she shoul d ha ve
determination and the will to succeed in his work.
Sociability: The school head must interact with many individuals and
groups of people. He/She must have the ability to deal with human
beings, he must have human relations skills. Principal must be
friendly, cheerful and sociable. The principal needs to be interested in
the welfare and problems of his staff and students. Certainly the
school head must have a listening ear.
(d) Consideration for other: People desire respect and consideration
from their fellow human being. Respect for human dignity requires
consideration on the part on the school head. The principal must
create a sense of respect and trust in every member of staff. Most
important he/she must be an example of courtesy, politeness and trust
towards the people with whom he works. A considerate school head
will show sympathy and concern for teachers and students.
NOUN
(e) Professionally minded: The principal must recognize the good of
the profession. As a professional person the principal should always
be prepared to safeguard his profession form those who might
degrade public education. The school principal must also accept the
responsibility throughout his/her career to master and to contribute to
the growing body of specialized knowledge concepts, and skills
which, characterize the profession. Thus he/she has the professional

(0
obligation to attend conferences, seminars, workshops and other
learning activities, which can help in contributing to his/her
professional growth and development.
The principal must possess teaching skills, he/she should be a master
teacher. Lastly he/she should be a 'scholar' in his own right.
Moral integrity: The school principal must always uphold high
ethical and moral standards. He/She should always stick to the truth.
He/She must be honest in dealing with staff, students and the public.
He/She must practice what he/she say by showing good example.
(g) Humility and modesty: The school head should avoid belittling
his/her staff and declaring himself as the most intelligent,
knowledgeable and capable person in the school.
(h) Sound Health: Good physical and mental healths are essential
requisites for maximum effectiveness.
We probably might not exhaust the qualities of a school head, but
certainly he best is expected of any school principal.
Exercise 1.1
Mention at least four qualities of a principal
4.0 Conclusion
In order to understand school administration we require to know the
performance of the different functions of school head (principal).
5 . 0 S u m m a r y
In this unit, we have clearly discussed the concept of school administration.
We specifically examined the tasks and roles of the principal in the school
system and finally we identified the desirable qualities and qualifications of a
school head or principal or school administrator.
2
(la)
(lb)
Define School Administration
Outline at least five basic task of the School Head.
NOUN

EDA 811
7.0 References
Adesina, S (1980)
Some aspects of school management
Lagos: Educational Industries Ltd.
Ayanniyi R.B (1999) 'Leadership roles of "le Primary School
Administrator'
Ghanna Journal of Education and Teaching.
Accra: City Publishers Vol. 1, No 1 Pp 125 — 129
Mbiti, D (1978) Foundations of School Administration
Nairobi: Oxford University Press
Musaazi J.C.S (1982) The Theory and Practice of Educational Administration
London: Macmillan Press
Ozigi, A.0 (1977)
Management.
A handbook on School Administration and
NOUN
London: Macmillan
3

UNIT 10
Administration and Control of Student Services
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 The concept of Student Services
3.1.1 Discipline and control of students
3.1.2 Student Wealth Services
3.1.3 Guidance and Counselling Services
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References
1.0 Introduction
EDA 811
In this unit we will be discussing Administration of student services, as a
continuation of the duties and tasks of the School Administration.
Specifically we will study, the discipline and control of students and the
provision of Guidance services to students. Other contents will be examined
as it relates to student services.
2.0 Objectives:
At the end of this Unit 10, the students should be able to:
( 1 ) D e s c r i b e , s t u d e n t s e r v i c e s
( 2 ) Explain the concept and control of discipline
( 3 ) Discuss, the administration of Guidance services
3.1 The Concept of Student Services
Students are the focal point of school administration. Therefore' wliciever the
school head does must take into account the students, their welfare, and other
activities that affect their lives and stay in school. School are set up not for
teachers, not for parents, not for educational administrators but for students.
The various decisions taken by school administrators therefore depend upon
knowing the general and specific needs of the student population.
NOUN

3.1.1 Discipline and Control of Students
The concept of discipline cannot be given a universally accepted definition
with special reference to the school system, however we often refer to
discipline when students are taught to respect the school authorities, to
observe the school laws and regulations and to maintain an established
s t an da r d o f b eh a vio ur . C on s eq ue nt l y l ac k o f d i sc ip li ne rel ate s t o
misbehaviour in any of these areas. Students' discipline means that students
are provided with an opportunity to exercise self-control to solve school
problems to learn and to promote the welfare of the school. Discipline could
also connote orderliness. A disciplined person is orderly, responsible,
diligent, sympathetic, cooperative, honest, considerate and always tries to do
what is right and good.
Very often when students go out for debates concert and games, the principal
charge them to maintain discipline or be of good behaviour.
Discipline therefore can be defined as readiness or ability to respect authority
and observe established laws of the school.
Giving the above explanations it is relevant to say that there is need for
control of students in terms of their disciplinary levels and this is where the
administrator comes in. ,In administering discipline, the school head and the
teachers should set examples of self-control and internal discipline in their
classes and throughout the school.
School rules and regulations have to be made to guide student's conduct.
Rules however should not be looked upon as negative controls. Rules can
provide a framework of responsibility.
Whenever rules are set up to govern the behaviour of students' rewards and
penalties are necessary to support the rules.
When students behave responsibly and want to promote their own self-
discipline, it is the duty of the school head and his staff to support and
encourage this kind of attitude through social recognition and approval.
Compliments on good behaviour, neat dormitory good academic performance
and so on are typical ways of expressing approval. Individuals who are
responsible and refuse to conform to the school's expectation must be subject
penalties.
Lastly, staff and students should cooperate in establishing, maintaining and
revising the school rules. Students are more likely to conform to rules that
they have participated in formulating.
NOUN
111

Exercise 1.1
List the various attributes that can contribute to a disciplined student.
3.1.2 Students Health Services
EDA 811
The physical, mental and emotional health of the students is important, for
sound health is the basis of life. The students have to be physically strong and
healthy and every effort should be made to promote their mental and
emotional well being. The administration could deal with the health problems
of his/her students by having a medical officer or a qualified dispenser who
normally attends to all minor cases of sickness, but most cases of sickness
should be referred to the health centre or hospital. To promote student good
health certain things as follows could be done by the administrator. Student
should be educated on the importance of sound health and encouraged to
form good health habits. Societies like the Red Cross could be organized in
the school to encourage students' membership and participation.
Good food is essential for the maintenance of health. If the institution
provides meals for the students, the administrative head should ensure that
the food contractor fulfils his contact- and supplies of all items he is
contracted for.
The administrator should encourage the stuaefits to participate regularly in
physical and recreational activities. AdequAte' provision should be made in
the budget for the.Schase of sports and recreational equipment.
3.1.3 Guidance and Coun*lling Services
Another important student service is the availability of opportunities to seek
advice and consult — that is of guidance. Guidance is that education function
which has a direct synthesizing influence on the life of the student. Basically,
its purpose involves assisting the individual to develop his potential and aid
him in becoming more and more self-directive. Guidance programmes are
educational services that exist for the student in the school and involve the
participation of the entire school staff, with of course, proper leadership being
provided by the school counselors or guidance teacher. The school head is the
central figure in developing or improving guidance services in the school. He
must create an atmosphere of caring for the students. He/She should provide
general support and administrative leadership to the guidance service. If
he/she is lucky to have on his staff a professionally trained career teacher,
he/she should give all the necessary assistance needed in carrying out his
work.
37 6 1 N O U N

4.0
The administrator should allocate a lighter teaching load to the careers
teacher so that more time will be devoted to counseling the students. It is also
advisable to assign an office for the job. For guidance programmes to succeed
schools must keep accurate records on all students. These records give the
careers teacher and other teachers a better understanding of each individual
student strength and weaknesses. These records can serve as a guide when
new teachers take over a class or when students start showing unusual and
worrying behaviours;
The career teacher needs a record of each student's home back ground, his
medical history, his educational history as well as his personal development,
all these would be provided by the school administrator. Summarily the
School Administrator needs to play the role expected of him/her in these
areas:
Procurement of Facilities and supplies;
Selection of Counsellors
Development of a favourable attitude towards guidance among
teachers, parents, student and the community;
Definition of functions of self, teacher, and counselor;
Distribution of guidance duties among various counselors; and
distribution of college and vocational information (Hulton, 1970)
Conclusion:
Administering student services is an aspect of school administration. The
school head is the key person in the administration of a school. He has
specific task to perform. He is a leader and an administrator and as such he
must possess certain qualities and attributes that are essential for his success
in the job. All these activities are geared towards the education of the
learners, the students. For good learning to take palace in the School, there
must be good discipline. Both staff and students must maintain a high level of
discipline. Students in school usually have problems of adjustment. They are
physical, mental and emotional problem and they need to be solved, hence
the need for guidance and counseling. All the above are services rendered to
students in any school system of which a school head must administer.
5.0 Summary
In this unit we have studied the administration of students services by the
school head. We emphasize that such services come inform of control or
discipline, the provision of health facilities, and guidance services.

Concepts and :theories of Educational Administration and Planning
EDA 811
Describe the various roles that an administrator would play in rendering
guidance services to his students.
7.0 References:
Mesina Segun (1981) Some aspects of School Management
lbadan: Educational Industries Nigeria Limited
Enaohwo, J.O. and Eferakeya 0.A (1989) Educational Administration
Ibadan: Paperback Publishers Limited
Hutton, P.W (1970) "Education of the Guidance Team"
Counsellor Education and Supervision, Summer P.234
Musaazi J.C.S (1982) The Theory and Practice of Educational Administration
London: Macmillan
Ozigi A.O. (1977)
Management
A handbook on School Administration and
78
lbadan: Macmillan Publishers Limited.
NOUN

EDA 811
1.0
2.0
UNIT 11
School-Community Relation in Administration
Table of Contents
Introduction
Objectives
3.1 The concept of School and the Community
3.1.1 Relationships between the School and the Community
3.1.2 I Ways of promoting school community relations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References
1.0 Introduction
In Unit 11, we will be studying the school-community relations. The
relationship between the school and the community will be examined, and the
ways the school administrator can promote good school-community relations
will be discussed.
2.0 Objectives:
(1) Describe the relationship between the school and community
(2) Identify the ways through which the administrator can promote
school-community relations.
3.1 The Concept of School and the Community
The school is a planned social institution, which acts as an instrument of
society for teaching the young. In this institution, the interest of both the
adults and children within the school converge with those of parents and
citizens outside it. Thus a School system must have public relations. Since
education is an activity, which involves the cooperation of teachers, parents,
children and the community as a whole, parents in particular are naturally
NOUN 79 _ [

interested in the education of their children. They sometime want to know
who is doing the teaching, what is being taught, and how well it is being
taught. The society has varying degrees of expectation of the role the school
should play in its life. The parents and the general public expect the students
to develop certain attitudes and mental attributes necessary for the
improvement of the quality of their lives and that of the society. It is therefore
most important that the administrator should establish, develop, and maintain
satisfactory relations with the community in which the institution is situated.
The character of the community varies from one area to another. For
example, an institution may be in a small and relatively underdeveloped
village. On the other hand, it might be a large, densely populated and highly
developed urban area. In either case the administrator will be dealing with
members of the public in many matters which affect the institution hence the
need to establish a good basis for happy school-community relations.
Musaazi (1982) assert that the school can be viewed from two angles: it is a
model of the community, and it is also the community school'. From both
angles, the school has broader functions that bring it into close relations with
the surrounding community. The school definitely needs to be in close
relationship with the community because of the moral, financial and material
support, which the community gives to the school. Thus the community's
participation in school affairs makes the line between schools and community
more meaningful therefore the school and community regard each other as
partners.
Students, am sure you are interested in participating in this discussion,
let us carry on.
3.1.1 Relationship between the school and the community
Social interaction is not always a one-way process. It is not a question of how
the school can serve the community or how the community can control the
school. The interrelationship between the school and the community,
involves a careful understanding of the influence of one upon the other.
Hence, the most basic characteristic of the school and the community must be
flexibility. The school should be willing to take on and abandon functions
and services in the light of changing needs and development within the
corar..unity ' should resist becoming a static institution. Let us examine,
the school-community as the curriculum. Without departing from its
curriculum, the school can relate some of subjects to community problems
and draw upon the community for possible teaching and demonstration
materials. Agricultural curses for example can use local plants seeds, and
tools, and draw upon the fanning experiences of the community. TO make
or NOUN

this kind of approach to leaning even more appropriate, students can run
school farms where they learn by doing schools in urban centres might put
more emphasis on other productive activities with their communities..
For example visits could be arranged to factories, commercial firms, and
government institutions to observe and be taught the operations by the
experts on the job. Such experts can also be invited to the school to address
the students and staff.
Summarily, the school can also contribute to the life of the community by
human experiences for all age groups and at all levels. The school head and
his staff and students can relate the school to the community, by organizing
school concerts, sports competitions, exhibitions and so on, to which people
in the community should be invited.
Students and staff can also help in community development programmes
such as teaching adults how to read and write, educating the community on
the importance of good sanitation, and participating in a number of
community self-help projects.
School should offer their premises for adult education programmes and other
cultural festivals, such as weddings and naming ceremonies.
When school facilities such as libraries, halls, and sports fields are made
available to the community, this could help improve school community
relations. The school administrator facilitates satisfactory school community
relations only when he is tactful, patience and has an understanding attitude
to the community.
Exercise 1.1
Mention at least three things that the school and the community can benefit
from each other.
3.1.2 Ways of Promoting School Community Relations
As the head of the institution the administrator should be accessible to
parents and members of the public. The head's position is one of a public
relations officer; As a public relation officer, the head should try to be
courteous to people, treating them with tact, consideration and sympathetic
understanding. When the administrator is approached for help on any matter
he/she should try to do his best to cooperate, but be frank and straightforward
in his dealings.
NOU
N
1

While it is good to cooperate, the administrator should be fair to himself and
not try to do the impossible.
Secondly, the school administrator can promote school community relations
by making some school facilities and resources available to the community
for educational and social purpose.
For example, the Parents Teachers Association (P.T.A) might like to hold
their regular meetings in the school, the local education officers, may like to
arrange evening classes in your institution. During the vacation period
members of the Teachers Association might wish to use the school for in-
service courses. The students association might wish to hold dances or
meetings in one of the Halls. In all cases the administrator should try not to
be unnecessarily difficult. Where the head is afraid of damages or loss or
misuse of school properties, he/she can make the people liable for any
damage caused. One way of achieving this is to commit the people who want
to borrow or use and school facilities in writing. The administrator should be
guided by any official policy, which may have been established by authority.
Thirdly, educational visits could be arranged for students to places of interest
in the community. By doing so the administrator will be able to demonstrate
in practical terms the school's interest in promoting and sharing the cultural
life of the community., For example, a visit to the palace. In addition,
Nigerian art and craft is not only of great artistic value, but also can be a
practical use. Weaving, carving, painting, sculpting, leather working, pottery
making, mat making and glass making are practiced in different parts of this
country. It is desirable for administrators to make use of local experts by
inviting them to give lessons in schools. In many cases, these experts can
enrich the leaving experiences of children far more successfully than a
teacher who is a general practitioner. Courses in other areas such as animal
husbandry, science, geography, history, literature, hygiene and music can be
made more meaningful by the use of local materials and also using local
experts where they are available. Fourthly, members of the community could
be invited to visit the school or to attend or participate in some of its
activities, such as speech and open days, sporting activities, school social
programmes staff parties and so on.
All the above-mentioned strategies and ways of promoting school community
relations will provide an opportunity for communication, between the school
and the members of the community: Such strategies can also be used to
interest the public in some particular aspects of the school life and to make
appeals for public aids in cash or kind, for various projects in the school.
When these school community relation activities are carried out the
administrator helps to publicise the institution, project its public relations
NOUN

image and also help in fulfilling an important objective of education. Now we
know that school relates to the community in numerous ways and the
community does the same in response.
4.0 Conclusion:
The Nigerian school plays a leading role in most of the communities, and as
such becomes the focal point of interaction in the communities. Schools are
intended to promote social change in the locality around them. These schools
service adults as well as children and therefore make efforts to include adult
oriented programmes related to literacy, faming and other vocational skills.
The conduct of all these activities lies in the hands of the school
administrator. There is no doubt that the administrator appreciates that the
school cannot function in isolation, hence the need to promote good, and
healthy school-community relations.
5.0 Su mmary:
In unit 11 we have been able to discuss school community relations. We tried
to describe the meaning of school, and the community. We also discussed the
relationship between the school and the community, and finally we identified
and examined the various ways in which the school community relations
could be promoted.
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignments
(1) Discuss with relevant examples what schools can do to become
effective agents of community relations.
7.0 Reference:
Balogun, D.A. Okon, S.E. Musaazi J.C.S and Thokur, A.S. (1981) Principles
and Practice of Education
Lagos: Macmillam
Lewis, L.J. (1965) Society, Schools and Progress in Nigeria
Oxford: Pergamon
Musaazi, J.C.S. (1982) The Theory and practice of Educational
Administration
London: Macmillan
Ozigi A.O. (1977) A handbook on school Administration
NOUN
Lagos: Macmillan
Lvi

Concepts and Theories of Educational Adininisiration and Planning
1111111111=111111111
Introduction to the Concept of Educational Planning
Table of Contents
EDA 811
1.0
2.0
3.0
Introduction
Objectives
The Concept of Planning
3.0.1 The Meaning of Educational Planning
3.0.2 Types of Planning
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
1.0 Introduction
Conclusion
Summary
References
In Unit 12, we will be studying the concept of Educational Planning. This
will be an introductory unit to an understanding of what planning is on a
general note, and the meaning of educational planning in specific terms. We
will also study other contents as will be specified in the objectives below:
2.0 Objectives
I.
2.
3.
Explain the concept of planning
Identify and discuss various types of planning
Discu s s the meanin g o f Edueational Planni n g
3.0 The Concept of Planning
Planning is the process of setting out in advance, a pattern of action to bring
about a given overall policy by the shortest possible articulation of means.
NOUN

This implies that planning is the process of identifying the means and the
ends. Planning helps us to understand the targets and enables us to map out
strategies of attaining such targets.
According to Musaazi (1982) Planning is a rational process of preparing a set
of decisions for future actions directed at achieving goals and objectives by
optional means.
By this definition, planning is future-and goal oriented-Planning does not
exist in a vacuum, goals and objectives must be set. Planning is also
designed to achieve development and as such planning becomes a continuous
process. Planning is not only concerned with objectives but with how to
achieve them. Therefore it is concerned with implementation of those
objectives.
Similarly, Orwigho (1991) contends that 'planning is a process that involves
the selection of facts and assumptions that are related to the future with the
aim of visualizing and formulating the desired outcomes to be attained.
Planning is always concerned with the progress made, with unforeseen
obstacles that might arise, and with how to overcome these obstacles, and this
can only be achieved through constant evaluation.
Fayol (1949) considers planning as an act of foretelling and preparing for the
future. Luther Gulick and Urwick, (1939) viewed planning as working out in
liroad outline things that need to be done and methods for accomplishing the
goals of an organization.
Now students with this knowledge of general planning, let us be more
specific by discussing the meaning of Educational Planning.
3.0.1 The Meaning of Educational Planning
On the basis of our general definition of planning, i.e as a process of
identifying our goals and objectives and working out aims and means of
achieving them; we can explain that educational planning involves the
process of identifying educational needs, the direction which education
should take and how to implement the decisions taken.
Educational planning is the application of a rational and systematic analysis
to the process of educational development with the aim of making education
more effective and efficient in responding to the need and the goals of the
students and the society.
NOUN Li

112,
In effect, educational planning deals with the future of our educational
system in relation to the past and present trends. As a result, it provides the
basis for future decisions and actions on issue related to education.
Educational planning is a continuous process. Therefore, it does not end
when the plan is completed on paper and approved by the relevant authorities
such as the State Executive Council or even the Ministry of Education. It is
also concerned with the implementation of the plan, the progress made, and
problems encountered in the process.
Educational planning involves a consideration of unforeseen obstacles and
making provision for possible ways of overcoming them. This implies that
educational planning calls for a constant evaluation and modification. If
necessary of the related programmes until the anticipated goals are achieved.
For example, if you plan to operate a Nursery and Primary School, it is your
duty to get it started, and until pupils start graduating from the school, and
the school continue to sustain itself and achieve its goals, the process of
planning, implementing and evaluation will continue.
Basically, the task of the educational planner is to see to it that the economic
use of the country's educational resources are intelligently planned. Just like
any planning, educational planning is future-oriented, drawing enlightenment
from the past. To be meaningful, educational planning must take into
account the integration of formal and non-formal education and the training
facilities in the country.
Generally, educational planning focuses on the needs, aspirations and
prospects of the students and the society. Specifically educational planning
focuses the mind of educational planner or Administrator on major issues
such as those related to the type of Schools required in the society, the level
of education that needs to be given priority, courses to be offered, student
enrolment and other issues on human, material and financial resources of the
educational system.
For example the present focus of the Federal Government on Universal Basic
Education (U.B.E) and Open University is an indication of the work of
educational planners, who must probably will have made this suggestions
based on the needs of the country to educate a large percentage of children,
and also to make university education to be at the reach of all those who need
it respectively.
Although these issues are important, they are not by themselves enough. The
complete education plan must take into account another group of issues,
which are the facts of life for an administrator, i.e the pattern of pressure
NOUN

groups, the organizational structure of education, the salary structure, teacher
union rules, or any combination of a host of other complicated features which
could force reluctant rejection of a plan.
Dear Students, thank you for taking so much interest to understand
what educational planning is. Now let us identify the different types of
planning.
Exercise 1.1
Define the concept of educational planning.
3.0.2 Types of Planning
Planning can be categorized into three major types. The Reactive Planning,
the Negotiated and he Systematic Planning, efforts will be made to discuss
these types of planning and specifically spell out what each types stands for.
1 .
2 .
NOUN
R e a c t i v e P l a n n i n g
Reactive Planning occurs when the planner or the administrator wants
events to occur before preparations are made to tackle them. Crises
are therefore resolved as they occur in the institution. The planner
who adopts this type of planning relies heavily on information and
activities that deviate from the norm. Therefore, under the reactive
planning, abnormal events tend to form the basis for scheduling the
programmes of the institution. As a result of this, the administrator
tends to be confused since the trend of events is unpredictable. The
logical outcome of this type of planning is frustration among the
members of the institution, coupled with a loss of confidence on their
leader, leading to ineffectiveness and lack of a sense of direction.
Negotiated Planning
Negotiated type of planning is based on bargains to arrive at a
common position. With this type of planning, less emphasis is placed
on a rational examination of the issues to be resolved or the
programme to be implemented. Instead, final decision is heavily
influenced by the bargaining position of the various parties involve in
the planning process. Sometimes, the relative authorities of the
parties as well as the associated possibility of controlling the available
resources also influence the final plans that emerge. The result of this
type of planning is that educational programmes are introduced
without adequate consideration given to their desirability. This often
11:.=1

3.
leads to hapzard or even non-implementation of some of the related
programme, with the associated waste of valuable resources.
The Systematic Planning
Systematic Planning involves a process by which the planner
identifies the need of the institution. The problems affecting the
institution are therefore clearly stated and the alternative requirement
for problem solution identified.
On this basis, the solution that could enhance the resolution of the
problem are chosen, from the alternative measures already identified.
Systematic approach to educational planning therefore requires a
carefully determined method and means of resolving educational
issues and a proper evaluation of the result of the implemented plans.
As a result the systematic method of planning, represent a logical
problem — solving process for the identification and resolution of
important educational problems.
The Negotiated and the Systematic types of planning could be considered as
complementary to each other. This is particularly true with reference to the
educational system where negotiation appears to be inevitable as a result of
t he li mit ed re s o u rce s a t t he d i sp o sa l o f ed u cat io na l pla n ne r s a nd
administrators. This is also partly as a result of the special relationship
between education and politics in developing countries like Nigeria, with the
resultant need for group decisions on educational issues.
It is possible for educational planners to apply the negotiated and the
systematic types of planning at the same time. However, the following are
some of the main features that tend to distinguish the systematic planning
from the negotiated type of planning:
1.
2.
Goals are often not stated in written form with the negotiated
planning. Each of the parties involved in this type of planning would
prefer to leave the ultimate goals as a mystery, since it would make it
possible for him to manoeuvre and bargain favaourably in the process.
Whereas in the systematic type, the goals to be attained and the
measures of evaluating the progress recorded are pre-determine, made
explicit and public. In fact the goals are agreed upon before planning
takes place.
In the negotiated type of planning, each negotiator releases only
information or data that support this views, the details are not often
produced. As for the systematic planning there is usually a common
NOUN

EDA 811
3.
analysis group that is responsible for the collection, organization and
presentation of the data that are used by all the planners. Such data is
therefore made public and this minimizes arguments about the
information so collected.
In Negotiated Planning, comparison between alternative measures are
often made during oral arguments. While with the systematic type
comparison between alternatives are made, prediction of
consequences of each alternative is carefully done and every analysis
is presented in written and made available for study. Where possible,
systematic planning used hard date and computation in forecasting.
Below are the advantages of systematic planning approach:
( a ) O r d e r l i n e s s
( b ) I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f g o a l s
( c ) W a s t e i s b e i n g m i n i m s e d
( d ) I t i s t i m e s a v i n g
( e ) Focus on goals are quite obvious
It enhances implementation
( g) It p ro v i d es b as i s fo r ev al u at i o n
(h ) Stability and continuity can be enhanced
Exercise 1.2
1.
2 .
List the three types of planning that you know
W h a t i s R e a c t i v e P l a n n i n g ?
4.0 Conclusion
There is no doubt that educational planning occupies a prominent position in
the development of educational systems of a country. Generally planning
compels educational administrators to visualize the overall programmes of
their institutions. It enables members to have a better understanding of their
tasks or responsibilities and be better prepared for future events. Through
planning, the educational system is in a better position to respond positively
to the needs and aspirations of both the students, the society, and the nation at
large, for growth and development.
N OUN II 89

5 . 0 S u m m a r y
EDA 811
6.0
In this unit we have studied the concept of planning on a general note. We
also examined specifically the meaning of planning, and lastly we identified
the various types of planning, their features and advantages.
References
Ayanniyi R.B (1992) "Educational Planning Process in Nigeria since 1960".
Unpublished Ph.D theses, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
Banfied, Edward G (1952) "Ends and means in planning" International
Social Science Journal, Vol II, No.2
Fayol H. (1949) "Administrattive industrielle et generale", in constance
stazzrs (ed) General and Industrial Management, London: Sir Issac
Pitman and Sons
Gulick L, and Urwick L (1939) Papers on Science of Administration, New
York: Institute of Public Administration.
M u s a a z i J . C . S ( 1 9 8 2 ) T h e T h e o r y a n d P r a c t i c e o f E d u c a t i o n a l
Administration, London: Macmillan
Ovwigho M.Y (1991) The Theory and Practice of Educational Planning in
Nigeria, Kaduna: Think Publishing Co. Ltd. London: Macmillan
Fully discuss the meaning of Educational Planning.
11:00 NOUN

EDA 811
1.0 Introduction
U n i t 1 3
Approaches to Educational Planning
Table of Contents
Introduction
Objectives
1 The need for the Planning Approaches
Social Demand Approach
Manpower-requirement Approach
Cost Benefit Approach
Conclusion
Summary
References
; Tutor Marked Assignment
In Unit 12, we studied the concept of planning in general, and examined the
meaning of educational planning on a specific note. In addition we identified
the various types of planning. In this unit we will continue our discussion by
explaining the various approaches to educational planning and the advantages
and disadvantages of each of the approaches.
2.0 Objectives
1.
2.
Discuss the three approaches to educational planning
List and explain their advantages and disadvantages.
3.0 The Need for Planning Approaches
Education has become an important business in Nigeria; with the result that
lot of resources is devoted to it, by both the private individuals and
government. The implication is that there is an urgent need for effective
planning of the educational system. As educational planners we are charged
NOUN
-4cr.LA(44
occc00000b

with the responsibility of developing an educational plan to be recommended
to the policy makers for implementation.
The question that readily comes to mind then is; how should we go about
drawing up such a plan? What approaches should we follow and why? Our
discussion of the three different approaches, namely, social demand
approach, the manpower approach and the cost-benefit approach will further
justify the need for the application of these approaches for effective planning.
3.0.1 Social Demand Approach
This is the method used in predicting social demand for education by parents
and children. The emphasis is on consumption of education. With this
method education is seen as a public service and as a right of everyone and so
it should be provided. Traditionally the simplest version of this approach has
always been an attempt to forecast demographic trends in order to estimate
the school population. The social demand approach can therefore be
regarded as a traditional approach to educational planning. In applying this
method, planners consider strategies that will enable them make adequate
provision for everyone who is qualified and willing to receive education
irrespective of the manpower requirement.
It is on this basis that the social demand approach is referred to as the
aggregate demand for education. It is the sum total for the demand of
education by all individuals at a given place and time under prevailing
cultural, political and economic situations. In other to be able to forecast the
number of schools to be built, facilities required and teachers to be trained so
as to meet the projected demand for education. The planner considers
demographic trends in the society.
The social demand approach became popular among African leaders when
they started to realize the need to meet the demand for education by the
citizens, and the need to use education as means of mobilization. The
importance was also highlighted when the United Nations declared education
as a "Fundamental Right" of everyone, and request nations to provide free
education at primary levels.
Steps in applying the Social Demand Approach
2
1. We should examine the size of the age group relevant to the level of
education i.e Primary and Secondary.
NOUN

EDA 811
2.
3.
4.
Extend the levels of the age groups that are likely to attain the levels
needed for entry.
Consider how many of those qualified that should be assumed to enter
school.
Decide on the basis of assumption the future length of study.
Advantages of Social Demand Approach
It offers everyone the chance to receive education and acquire the
related benefit.
It promotes literacy in the country
It tends to enhance political participation of citizens and can lead to
national unity
It provides forum for inculcating national ideas.
It can be politically rewarding to a country on international basis
because some international organizations attach importance to high
literacy rates among member countries.
Disadvantages of Social Demand Approach
Data problem of obtaining demographic
The crucial issue of resource allocation in the country is ignored,
because resources are allocated to education to the detriment of other
sectors.
There is the problem of ignoring the pattern and type of manpower
required for development programmes.
The current graduate unemployment is a result of learning on this
approach of over producing with considering manpower needs.
This approach can water down the standard of education because it is
likely that the limited resources will be spread over the large
population of students.
NOUN 3

Exercise 1.1
EDA 811
Mention at least two advantages and disadvantages of Social Demand
Approach.
We shall continue our discussion now.
3.0.2 Manpower Requirement Approach
The Manpower requirement approach educational planning is based on the
view that any nation with plans or aspirations for economic development has
to consider the preparation of its human agents of development. The
rationale here is that it is the trained manpower of a country that must guide
both its educational and developmental decisions as a whole. This implies
that for any country to develop economically, socially and politically, it must
have the manpower to its objectives.
In Nigeria and indeed in many other African countries, the traditional high
and middle level manpower survey techniques is commonly used. Normally
inventory by occupational classification of middle and high level cared in
medium and large sized enterprises are taken. These assumptions are made
about desirable or appropriate educational qualifications for various
occupational categories. Assumptions are also made of annual requirements
to take care of wastage such as deaths, retirement, replacement of
expatriates and dismissals.
The manpower approach is a method that is associated with the development
of human resources; therefore it calls for conscious projection of the relevant
educational facilities that can make the training of such personnel realistic.
Therefore, human resources could be regarded as the energies, skills and
knowledge of the people which when developed can be used for production
of goods and services. Hence the human resources or the manpower
requirement approach to the development of any society is people oriented
with emphasis on the developments of thoughts, motives, beliefs, feeling,
aspirations and the culture of the people.
Specifically, the following steps could be followed while adopting the
manpower requirement approach.
I.
2.
Categorise the economy into sectors, such as Agricultural, Industry,
Commerce and Health.
Prepare an inventory of manpower for the current year in the various
sectors in relation to educational requirements for each of the
NOUN

EDA 811
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
occupation in the sectors. This provides a basis for the estimation of
future requirement and supply o f manpower by educational
qualification.
Determine the size of the labour force for the forecast year base on
projected. requirement by the various sectors, addition of these
estimates amount to the total labour force projection for the country.
The total estimate of employment for the forecast year will be made.
Allocate the total employment for the forecast year among the
different categories of occupational classification. The aggregate
constitutes the stock of manpower that will be required in the
economy for the forecast year by occupational categories.
Convert data on occupational categories into requirements according
to various levels and types of education within the system of
education. Through this it is possible to relate occupation to
educational supply of personnel with each main type of qualification
for the forecast year, on the basis of present stock, expected outflows
or graduates from the school system.
Estimate the anticipated supply of personnel with each main type of
qualification for the forecast year, on the basis of present stock,
expected outflows or graduates from the school system.
Calculate the changes in the annual outflow from the different levels
or types of education that could create balance in the forecast year
between what is required and what could be supplied, using the
current educational output as basis.
Estimate the enrolment in each level or type of education that are
needed to achieve the required annual outflow.
Advantages of the Manpower Approach
It allows realistic evaluation of the relationship between education
and the manpower needed by the country.
This is important because in a developing country every effort needs
to be directed towards providing manpower that can enhance
adva ncement. The pl anner' s attention is focused on the ke y
educational areas that can contribute to the progress of the society.
NOUN

With the manpower method rational application of available resources
could be made to limit wastage.
It could also help to curtail the problem of unemployment and
minimize related crimes.
Disdvantages of the Manpower Approach
Most of the variables needed to be considered are often difficult to
quantify. It is difficult to estimate in the country, the G.D.P. because
some people are involved in more than one occupation.
Lack of clear-cut relationship between education and occupation, the
result is that we have engineers teaching, and teachers in manual jobs.
Hence it is difficult for planners to project the manpower required on
the basis of education for the purpose of recommending what our
institutions should provide, or produce.
The needs and values of the people tend to be ignored by this
approach, due to the emphasis on national development.
Data is difficult to get so projection on long-term basis is not easy.
It has a tendency to underestimate or over estimate the required
manpower when planning using this approach.
3.0.3 Cost Benefit Approach
Education is now generally recognised as a form of investment in human
beings. It yields both economic and non-economic benefits. As a result it
contribute to the wealth of any nation by increasing the productive capacity
of the people.
The cost benefit analysis is the approach to planning that suggests a careful
evaluation of the various alternatives to a problem in terms of the cost and
benefits before making a decision on what steps to take. Specifically, the
planner estimate the cost of acquiring some additional levels or types of
education and the extra benefits that are likely to accrue to the individual or
the society. The cost benefitS analysis therefore requires a systematic
comparison of the magnitude of the cost and benefits of the investment on
education in order to determine its profitability. It offers the planner an
opportunity to examine the future benefits of his educational programme on
the basis of cost and a guide to rational allocation of resources. This
6
I NOUN

approach is what any rational individual would want to apply when deciding
how best to spend his money. This approach is thus a management technique
that is used to determine alternative plans or programmes that yield the
required number of benefits for the least cost or the measure that produces the
greatest benefit for any given cost. This approach is also referred to as the
rates-of return
Advantages of the Cost Benefit Analysis or Rates of Return Approach
It provides the planner information on the relationship between
education and the labour market.
It portrays the picture of the economic consequences of alternative
educational policies.
It can be used to get information about the different cost of different
education and information on the balance between supply and demand
of the various categories of educated manpower.
It provides useful information for making rational decisions.
It focuses our attention on the need for a constant evaluation of our
educational programmes with special emphasis on the cost of the
programmes.
Disdvantages of the Cost Benefit Analysis or Rates of Return Approach
Failure to deal with non-monetary return.
Difficulty of establishing a comparative value of similar monetary
sums for different people.

NOUN
Failure of the anal ysis to always identify the best possible
programme.
Lack of attention to the problem of student's unemployment.
The intangible nature of many cost and benefit make it difficult to
apply this approach.
The age earning profile that forms the basis of our calculation is
deficient.
Over emphasis on economic benefit over other emphasis.
7

4.0 Conclusion
EDA 811
There is a widespread agreement that no particular approach to educational
planning is the best for all. In education the three major approaches as
discussed above are Social Demand Approach, Manapower Requirement
Approach, and the Cost Benefit Approach. The first one is the least
complicated approach to educational planning. It simply charges the
education system with providing schools and facilities for all children who
demand admission and who are qualified to enter. These certainly have its
advantages and disadvantages on the development of any nation. The
manpower requirement approach is the most preferred methodology. In
simple terms this approach emphasis three major specifications; specification
of the composition of manpower needs at some future date, specification of
manpower availability and a specification which reconciles the former with
the latter. The emphasis in manpower approach is forecasting, and hence the
dangers that lies ahead in predicting the future. The cost benefit analysis is
the least employed of the three approaches to educational planning. Most
decision makers are reluctant to go as far as calculating a rate of return for
planning purposes. But it should be noted that the developing countries with
limited financial resources cannot afford wastage, particularly in educational
expenditure, hence they need more of this approach. Finally, it could be said
categorically that no one single approach is applicable, any good educational
planning should integrate the three approaches i.e. provide education for
those who need it, make sure such education is relevant to the manpower
needs of the country, and be sure of the cost implication of such programmes,
so that implementation would not be affected.
5 . 0 S u m m a r y
In this unit our concern was to study the three main approaches to educational
planning. We have been able to discuss these approaches and we also listed
and explained the attendant advantages and disadvantages that each of the
approaches offer.
6.0
8
References
Adesina, Segun (1997) Planning and Educational Development in Nigeria,
Lagos: Educational Industries Limited
Akangbou, S.D (1985) The Economics of Educational Planning in Nigeria,
New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, Pvt Limited
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EDA 811 Concepts and Theories of Educational Ad,ninistration and Planning
7.0
NOUN
Blaug, M (1965) The rate of return on investment in education in Great
Britain in Balug, M (ed) Economics of Education Hammondsworth:
Penguin Books Limited,
Harbison Fredrick (1960) high level manpower for Nigeria's future in
investment in Education, Lagos Federal Ministry of Education.
M u s a a zi J . C . S ( 1 9 8 2 ) T h e T h e o r y a n d P r a c t i c e o f E d u c a t i o n a l
Administration, London: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Ovwigho M.Y. J.C.S (1991) The Theory and Practice of Educational
Planning in Nigeria Kaduna: Think Publishing Co. Limited.
Tutor —Marked Assignment
The high rate of graduate unemployment is a thing of concern to government.
As an educational planner, what steps will you take in using the manpower
requirement approach.
99

Unit 14
Educational Planning Process
Table of Contents
Introduction
; Objectives
EDA 811
1.0 Introduction
i Definition and Meaning of the Planning
r Process
Categories of Planning
Educational Planning Process in Nigeria
Conclusion
Summary
References
In unit 13, we studied the three major approaches to educational planning.
These were social demand approach, manpower requirement approach, and
the cost benefit approach. We also listed and explained the various
advantages and disadvantages of each of the approaches to educational
development. In this unit, we will be examining the Educational Planning
Process in its general form, and also specifically explain the planning process
in Nigeria.
2.0 Objectives
100
1 .
2 .
3 .
E x p l a i n t h e P l a n n i n g P r o c e s s
Identify and discuss the various categories of Planning
Examine the process of educational planning in Nigeria
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3.
0.
0.
00.
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3.0 Definitions and Meaning of the Planning Process
There has been a lot of agreement on the major steps that are to be followed
in the process of planning as propounded by various scholars. A few of such
proposal will be considered.
Robinson (1972) presented a proposal on planning that clarifies the
agreement regarding the steps of the planning process. Robinson, maintained
that 'the well established paradigm of the planning process requires the
establishment of purpose, the formation of alternatives, the prediction of
outcomes, the evaluation and selection of alternatives and implementation.
Partly in line with Robinson's proposal, Churchman (1968), observes that the
essential ingredient of a plan include the following: a goal is set, a group of
alternatives is considered, in relation to how it will or will not effectively lead
to the goal, one of the alternatives is selected, the plan is implemented, and
the decision maker checks to see :tow well the plan works. It is important to
note that the process of education is normally done with certain values in
mind. These values are related to what the partners of education, viz
students, parents, the Ministry of Education or Government and other private
agencies, require and expect to achieve through education. Therefore the
operators of the process are often expected RI account for how the resources
allocated to the system have been utilized using the output of the system as
a
yardstick.
Kaufman (1968) and Corrigan (1969), for instance, have presented an overall
educational management process model that stresses the need for a revision
on the basis of evaluation. Their management process model is composed of
the following elements:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Identify problems (based upon documented needs)
Determine solution requirements and solution alternatives
Select solution strategies (from among alternatives)
I m p l e m e n t s e l e c t e d s t r a t e g i e s
Det ermin e perfo rm an ce effecti v en ess
Revise as required at any step in the process
It is important to note that whenever educational changes are to be introduced
the processes presented above could be applied and when the requirement or
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Concepts and Theories of Educational Administration and Planning ELMP 811
expectations are not met any time during the planning process, the
appropriate revision should be made. To enhance the link between
knowledge and action, the planning process must be built directly into the
management system.
In the process of planning it is important for the following questions to be
raised:
Where are we?
Where do we want to go?
What resources do we need to connect in order to get there?
How do we intend to get there?
When will it be done?
Who will be responsible for what aspect of the plan?
What will be the likely impact of our plan on human and other
resources'?
What will be needed to measure progress?
Answers to these questions may take the form of description of needs, the
challenges that may be encountered and opportunities that exist within and
outside the system.
My dear students I know you have been following this discussion. If so
let us practice this exercise.
Exercise 1.1
Mention a least five questions that you will ask when you are in the process
of planning?
Well done! Let us continue our discussions.
3.0.1 Categories of Planning
There are three categories of Planning usually referred to as Long-Range
Planning, Medium-Range Planning and Short-Range Planning. Each of these
categories will be discussed.
102
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EDA 811
1 .
2 .
NOU
N
L o n g - R a n g e P l a n n i n g
In terms of time span, Long-Range Planning has been considered by
varions authors to represent periods in excess of ten to twenty years.
However, Candoli (1978) has observed that the main problem
associated with long-range planning is the tendency to consider the
related plans as rigid parameters beyond which the affairs of an
organization cannot be operated. This implies tht to base the
activities of Education on such long-term plans may not produce the
desired results, since our society is dynamic and the educational
programmes are expected to reflect societal changes. For this Candoli
(1978), considers long-range planning as the application ofnew
alternatives and approaches to the affairs of education within a period
of three to five years. It is important to observe that long range plans
are not entirely rigid. Provisions are often made for flexibility so that
essential changes within an organization can be accommodated from
time to time. For this reasons long-term plans are further broken into
medium-range plans and short-range plans. Therefore long-range
planning could be considered as the process of systematically
projecting the activities of the organization for at least ten years in
order to achieve intended goals. Ovwigho (1991)
With long-range planning, the management of an institution tries to
decide on what is to be done, when it should be done, how it is to be
done, and who should be responsible for the execution of the various
aspects of the plan. However, long-range planning is sometimes
considered to cater for the structure plans.
Medium-Range Planning
This is the process through which specific functional plans related to a
given number of years are made. Through this process, details of how
strategies are to be carried out to attain long-range objectives are
provided. The institution therefore prepares manuals of procedures
that should guide the various units or departments in preparing their
medium-range programmes and plans. Medium-range planning is
usually for five years. In most institutions, the functional plans are
translated into financial terms in the form of profit and loss
statements.
103 .

'Concepts and Theories of Educational Administration and Planning
3. Short-Range Planning
EDA 811
This is done on the basis of the medium-range plans. As a result, the
first year of the medium-range plan is used for the short-range yearly
operational planning. Short-range planning is intended to make the
long-range plans more realistic or operational. Short-range plans such
as annual budgets are more detailed than medium-range plans.
Exercise 1.2
1.
2.
Identi fy at lea st t wo c ategorie s o f plan nin g
T h e A n n u a l B u d g e t a n n o u n c e d b y y o u r s t a t e g o v e r n o r i s
a .................................................................
If you have been able to answer these exercises, then let us continue and well
done.
3.0 2 Educational Planning Process in Nigeria
Educational Planning in Nigeria is undertaken as a part of the overall national
planning. This implies that the planning units in the Ministries of Education
are expected to work closely with the Ministry of National Planning that is
charged with the responsibility of producing overall economic development
plans for the country. Therefore educational planning in Nigeria is done
within the framework of the national goals. As a result, the process of
educational planning in the country starts with the formulation of national
policies and goals. Such policies that are related to education are initiated by
the policy makers or the ruling political body, often in line with the ideology
of the government in power. For instance the President, or a State House of
Assembly might decide, as a matter of policy, that agricultural education
should be given priority in the country or a given state respectively.
Directives related to such policies are handed down to the Federal (or State)
Ministry of Education for necessary action. The officials in the Ministry of
Education then examine such policies and restructure them so that they can
constitute operational objectives within the context of education. Plans are
programmes that could help to attain these policies are then worked out
essentially in the planning units of the Ministries of Education. The
implications of such plans in terms of the required resources for their
implementation are also stated. The proposals drawn up in the Ministry of
Education are then sent back to the appropriate body such as the National or
the State's Executive Council for their consideration and approval. This
104 NOUN

means that the plans are finally approved by the government and an
appropriate legislation is passed on them in terms of edicts or decrees.
Once the educational plan is approved by government, the Ministry of
Education is confronted with the task of implementation. With long-term
plans for instance, the ten-year development plan progress reports are often
given periodically. Such reports are expected to reflect the extent to which
the targets of the plan have been attained.
The Ministries of Education in the States develop their educational plans as is
done in the Federal Ministry of Education. It is then expected that
educational planning in the States will reflect the overall national goals and
objectives of education. It is for this reason that the Federal Ministry of
Education sometime coordinates the educational plans of the States to arrive
at the National Educational Plans.
In summary the planning process in Nigeria involves the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Exercise 1.3
1.
2.
Issuing of directives
Preparation o f plan s b y Se nior Ci vil Ser va nts
A p p r o v a l
I m p l e m e n t a t i o n
Review of progress made
Why do the Federal Ministry of Education need to coordinate.
Wh y d o w e n e e d t o w r i t e r e p o r t s o n p l a n s ?
4.0 Conclusion
Educational Planning is an important component of educational development.
We plan our educational systems in order to achieve the aims and objectives
of education for the citizenry. In the same vein, the process of this
educational plans is equally important, because such processes spells out in
specific terms the variables to be considered and the steps or stages to embark
upon in accomplishing such objectives. Hence the need for a study of the
educational planning process, which is another practical effort of the
educational plans.
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Concepts and Theories of Educational Adminivration and Planning
5 . 0 S u m m a r y
EDA 811
6.0
7.0
In this unit we have been able to study the educational planning process in
general, the categories of plans in terms of the long-range, medium-range and
short-range, and lastly we examined the planning process in Nigeria.
References
Adesina, Segun (1981) Introduction to Educational Planning: A book of
Selected Reading Ile Ife: University of Ile Press Limited
Ayanniyi R.B. (1992, Educational Planning Process in Nigeria since 1960
Unpublished Ph.D Theses, Department of Education, Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria.
Candoli IC, Hack W.G., Ray J and Stoller D.H (1978), School of Business
Administration, Boston: allyn and Bacon, Inc.
Chesswas J.D. (1969), Methodologies of Educational Planning for
developing countries, Text I and !! UNESCO, IIEP
Churchman, W.C. (1968), The systems Approach, New York: Penguin Books
Kaufman, R.A. (1972), Educational System Planning, Englewood_Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Itall, Inc.
Musaazi J.C.S, (1982), T h e T h e o r y a n d P r a c t i c e o f E d u c a t i o n a l
Ovwhigo M.Y., (1991), The Theory and Practice of Educational Planning in
Nigeria, Kaduna: Think Publishing Co. Limited
Robinson I.M. (ed) (1972), Decision making in Urban Planning, Beverly
Hills, California: Sage Publications
Tutor-marked Assignment (TMAs)
Carefully examine the process of Educational Planning in Nigeria.
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FDA? 811 Concepts and Theories of Educational Administration and Planning
Unit 15
Constraints of Educational Planning in Nigeria
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Political Constraints of Educational Planning
3.0.1 Economic Constraints
3.0.2 Constraints of Skilled Personnel
3.0.3 Constraints of Inadequate Statistics and Demographic Data
3.0.4 Constraints of Inadequate Planning Tools
3.0.5 Constraints of Implementation
3.0.6 Suggestions on Ways of Remedying the Constraints of Educational
Planning
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 1 References
1.0 Introduction
In unit 14 we studied the Educational Planning process by explaining the
different proposal that were made on the process of planning, based on that
we also identified the three categories of planning such as long-range
planning, medium-range, and short-range planning. Lastly we examined the
planning process as practiced in Nigeria. Now we will continue our
discussions in this unit by identifying and discussing the various constraints
affecting Educational Planning in Nigeria and suggest ways of remedying
such constraints.
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2.0 Objectives
1. Identify the constraints affecting educational planning
EDA 811
2.
3.
4.
Discuss the various constraints of educational planning
Illustrate with relevant examples each of the constraints
Explains wa ys o f rem ed yi n g the con straint s.
3.0 Political Constraints of Educational Planning
The process of educational planning in Nigeria is faced with a lot of
constraints. One of such is the political constraints. Educational Planning is
based on the ideology and the policies of the government. Sometimes, such
policies are made without giving adequate consideration to their implications.
As a result, the planner is often requested to plan on the basis of policies,
which might be difficult or too expensive to implement under the prevailing
circumstances and available resources. To this effect planners often prepare
unrealistic plans or face a situation whereby his plans are rejected, by the
approving body. In addition, political rivalry among different groups in the
country sometimes influences the amount of money allocated to education.
Furthermore there has been the tendency for some leaders tin the country to
consider education as weapon that could be used to wield political influence.
For example, during the Second Republic between 1979 and 1983 the
government introduce a policy whose provision included qualitative and
quantitative education. Educational planners who operated under such a
setting normally found it difficult to develop realistic or operational plans.
Political instability in the country also disrupts the process of planning and
the implementation of educational programmes. For instance, the
constitutional crisis of 1953, the military coup d'etat of 1966, 1976, 1983 and
1985, coupled with the protracted Civil War of 1967-70, have all disrupted
the process of planning and the continuity of educational plans in Nigeria.
As a result of such political crisis, some plans that have reached advance
stages were abandoned while others were hurriedly introduced. The impact
of these unsettle political conditions was felt in three major ways. First a
chaotic political situation is a disincentive to foreign donor countries. This
can have disastrous results for a country like Nigeria, which count on funding
its educational development programmes by foreign aid of 50% of the cost.
S e co n d, s uc h p ol iti cal i n s ta bil it y c a n e ven l ea d to t er mi nat i on or
108H NOUN

postponement of existing external assistant contracts until conditions return
to normal. For example the discontinuation of USAI sponsored Teacher
Education Project in Northern Nigeria, the closure of the UNESCO
sponsored Advance Teacher Training Colleges, all explained the above
reasons. Thirdly, as political conditions become increasingly strained they
cause significant distortions in the original allocations of Development plans,
which generally affects such services as education (Segun Adesina 1981)
Exercise 1.1
Mention at least two ways in which politics affect education in Nigeria.
3.0.1 Economic Constraints
Another related problem that is encountered in the process of educational
planning in Nigeria is that of economic constraints. Adequate allocation of
resources is necessary for a successful implementation of educational
programmes. However, due to political consideration and the high rate of
inflation educational programmes in the country have tended to be unrealistic
in relation to available resources. The planner tends to underestimate the cost
of such programme and continues to overestimate the anticipated revenue
with which to execute the plans. This situation had been worsened by the
worldwide economic recession. There is also an over reliance on foreign aids
and in Nigeria, like many African countries, usually anticipated help from
foreign donors to finance some of her development projects including those
in education. The problem arises when the anticipated money does not come
which automatically means that the programmes planned cannot be carried
out.
For example a School Administrator, who has planned very beautiful
programmes for his/her school, might not be able to make it materialize if the
problem of finance comes in. Some activities like the speech and prize-
giving day, or inter-house competition could be affected by such constraints.
In higher institutions the introduction of new programmes in a university
could also be delayed or sometimes might not take off at all for reasons of
economic constraints.
3.0.2 Constraints of skilled Personnel
Lack of sufficiently well trained personnel in the planning units of the
Ministries of Education is another problem. This units require people with
the ability to carry out project development in the educational service. So as
to realize the goals set by the planners. The units in the Ministries therefore
NOUN 109

lack specialist such as educational planners, statisticians, programmers, and
analyst, who could effectively develop and ensure successful execution of
plans. This is partly as a result of the rigidity of the educational system
which is not responding adequately to the need to place people who are
trained in the area of educational planning in the appropriate position. The
wrong notion that anyone who has served in the Ministry of Education for a
long period could automatically occupy such planning units in the Ministries
having their directors of planning as people who just rose through the ranks
without any cognate experience in the skill of planning. In addition, the few
available specialists who are employed in the planning divisions of education
sometimes opt for the private sector as a result of the poor conditions of
service offered in the Ministry.
3.0.3 Constraints of Inadequate Statistical and Demographic Data
The process of educational planning in Nigeria is also hampered by the
critical problem of inadequate statistical and demographic data. For any
meaningful planning to be carried out, statistics is very crucial. However so
reliable census has been conducted in country. The census conducted during
the pre-independence era, for instance in 1931 and 1952 were confronted
with the problem of insufficient funds and lack of trained personnel for any
meaningful exercise. There was also the fear of the government using such
census for the purpose of taxation with the result that majority of the people
did not cooperate with the officials for any reliable population figure to be
attained. Thus the pre-independence census resulted in under counting of the
population. However, since the post independence period, families and
communities have the tendency of inflating their size as a result of the fear of
ethnic or political domination. This was the situation during the 1963 census
and especially that of 1973 when the population was highly inflated to about
80 million. In recognition of the unrealistic nature of that exercise, the 1973
census was not accepted for purposes of planning.
Death and Birth rates were not properly kept hence it was difficult for
planners to have the basic statistical materials for planning. For example, the
number of children in a state in Nigeria. How many of them are of school
going age. How many of the school going age are likely to be in school in a
particular year. The number and kind of job available in a particular year, in
each state and in the country as a whole. The actual growth rate of industry,
commerce and government employment. How many will be made available
each year of the planning period, all these are not easy to attain and it tend to
implicate the process of educational planning in Nigeria since they were
based on mere estimates.
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EDA 811
Exercise 1.2
1.
2.
Identify at least two reasons why the educational plan needs the
population figures.
As a School Administrator, is it relevant for you to have an accurate
figure of population of your students?
3.0.4 Constraints of Inadequate Planning Tools
Another important constraints of educational planning in Nigeria has to do
with inadequate planning tools. Such as calculating machines, computers and
other materials and facilities that are essential for effective planning. It is
equally important to note that educational planners in the country are not
adequately consulted before policies that are related to education are
formulated. Consequently, there is the tendency for them to develop
programmes on policies that are not clear to them or that may be difficult for
them to justify.
3.0.5 Constraints of Implementation
In addition most of the planners, are not given enough freedom to implement
their plans. In most cases, the process of plan implementation is carried out
by people who did not participate in planning the programmes. Consequently
it becomes extremely difficult for the planner to successfully evaluate the
progress made in the implementation of the plans in order to determine areas
that require modification. This is one of the crucial reasons why some
educational programmes in the country are not successfully or fully
implemented.
Apart from the problems discussed, educational planning in the country is
also obstructed by lack of goodwill of the people and inadequate support
given by the government to educational plans. Generally, the citizens of the
c o u n t r y c o n s i d e r e d u c a t i o n a l p r o gr a m m e s a s m a i n l y go ve r n m e n t
responsibilities. As a result they show little interest or no attention later even
after a lot of resources have been spent on them. A typical example if the
Universal Primary Education (UPE) programme that was launched in 1976.
Now students I believe you enjoyed this discussions, we now have
information on the problems (constraints) affecting educational planning
in Nigeria.
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Exercise 1.3
EDA 811
Why do the citizenry have a lukewarm attitude to educational programmes?
Well done let us continue
3.0.6 Suggestions on Ways of Remedying the Constraints of Educational
Planning
To minimize the problem that are associated with the process of educational
planning in Nigeria, the following measures must be taken:
A careful consideration should be given to the political setting under
which educational plans are made, and political stability should be
encouraged in Nigeria, for instance through adequate enlightenment
programmes. Efforts should be made by all and sundry to allow
democracy to survive in Nigeria.
r.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Educational Planners should establish a close relationship and hold
regular consultation with the policy makers. As much as possible the
educational planners in the Ministry of Education should be involved
in the formulation and implementation of policies that are related to
education.
The formation of educational policies and the related plans should as
much as possible reflect the available resources. In addition, adequate
funds should be made available for the implementation of educational
programmes.
Educational Planning should be left in the hands of trained and skilled
personnel. Moreover, more educational planners, statisticians,
demographers, and analyst should be trained and better conditions of
service offered them to attract them to remain n the Planning Division
of the Ministry of Education.
Educational Planner must be provided with necessary equipment tools
and materials that are essential for the effective operation. For
instance, computers and other gadgets should be provided in the
Ministry of Education to enhance the process of planning.
Reliable population census should be conducted regularly in the
country.
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EDA 811
7.
Exercise 1.4
The public should be adequately enlightened about educational
programmes to secure their operation (Ovwigho 1991).
List at least 4 ways by which we can remedy the problems affecting
educational planning.
4.0 Conclusion
Many of the purposes and goals of education are political, economic, social
and cultural; these factors affect the planning of education in Nigeria. We
have been able to study educational planning and its meaning, the various
approaches to educational planning in terms of social demand, manpower and
cost benefit approaches. We examined the process of planning, the
categories of plan, i.e. long-range, medium-range, and short-range. We
specified the process of planning as it obtain in Nigeria, and lastly we
outlined and discuss the various constraints which has bedevil educational
planning in Nigeria with possible suggestions of how to remedy such.
5 . 0 S u m m a r y
In this unit we have been able to identify and discuss the constraints affecting
educational planning, illustrate with relevant examples each of the constraints
and explaining ways of remedying the constraints.
6.0 References
Adesina, Segun (1981) Introduction to Educational Planning: A book of
Selected Reading, Ile Ife: University of Ife Press Limited
M u s a a zi J. C . S , (1 9 8 2 ), T h e T h e o r y a n d P r a c t i c e o f E d u c a t i o n al
Ovwhigo M.Y., (1991) The Theory and Practice of Educational Planning in
Nigeria, Kaduna: Think Publishing Co. Limited
Discuss the political constraints as it affects educational planning process
in Nigeria.
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ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE EDUCATIONAL
SYSTEM IN NIGERIA
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
EDA 811
3.0
3.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.1.4
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
The Federal Government
Federal Ministry of Education
State Ministry of Education
State Schools Management Board
Zonal Schools Board
Local Schools Board
Summary
Further Reading
Tutor Marked Assignments
References
1.0 Introduction
In Unit 15 we studied the various constraints that affect educational planning
in Nigeria. These constraints were political, economic, social, cultural,
inadequacy of personnel and tools, and the lack of good will by the citizenry.
We also made suggestions as to how to remedy the above-mentioned
constraints. In this Unit, which is going to be the last but one unit, we shall
be studying Organizational Structure of the Educational System in Nigeria.
This has become imperative so that our knowledge of Educational
Administration and Planning will be seen in its appropriate context. Under
this broad Unit title, we shall discuss other contents as will be specified in
the objectives below:
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EDA 811
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this Unit Students should be able to:
Describe the functions of the Federal Government.
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Discuss the Administrative structure of Federal Ministry of
Education.
Discuss the Administrative structure of the State Ministries of
Education.
Explain the functions of both the Zonal Schools Board and the
Local School Boards.
3.0 The Federal Government
The responsibility to provide education in Nigeria is expressed in the
Nigerian Constitution. In Chapter 11 of the Constitution of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria, 1997, the commitment and obligations of Nigeria to
education are clearly spelt out under the heading: Fundamental objectives
and directive principles of State Policy.
Section 18 of the constitution state the governments Educational Objectives
and the degree of its commitment to a policy of educational provision,
accessibility, and adequacy and its orientation towards Science, Technology
and Eradication of illiteracy as follows:
(1)
(2)
(3)
Government shall direct its policy towards ensuring that there are
equal and adequate educational opportunities at all levels;
Go vernment s hall pro mote Science and Technolo gy
Government shall eradicate illiteracy and when practicable provide .
(a) Free, compulsory and universal primary education
(b) F r e e s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n
(c) Free uni versit y educa tion; and
(d) F r e e a d u l t l i t e r ac y p r o gr a m m e
NOUN
I know your views might differ based on your political inclination.
However,
from all evidence available, we can say that in the area of providing free
compulsory and Universal Primary Education, the present democratic
government of President Olusegun Obasanjo, has introduced the Universal
Basic Education Scheme (U.B.E) this programmes is on to enable
government to achieve their objectives of free Universal Primary Education.
- J

3.1
The obligation of given equal and adequate educational opportunities is also
reflected in the re-introduction of the Distant Learning Programme otherwise
called the Open-University of Nigeria of which you are now a benefactor.
Exercise I:1
State the three basic elements under the Federal Governments Educational
Objectives,
Well done let us continue
Federal Ministry of Education
A Minister appointed by the President heads the Federal Ministry of
Education. He is responsible for the formulation and execution of all national
p o l i c y m a t t e r s i n e d u c a t i o n . H e p r e s i d e s o ve r m e e t i n gs o f S t a t e
Commissioners of Education. He coordinates policy decisions initiated at
Federal and State levels. He takes final responsibility for all educational
matters in the Federation.
Directly responsible to him are two Ministers of State appointed also by the
President. To these Ministers of State, the Minister of Education assigns
specific areas of responsibilities. Also directly responsible to the Minister is
the Permanent Secretary, who is the Chief Administrator of the Ministry. He
coordinates the activities of the various divisions of the Ministry and ensures
that the education policies of the Federal Government are implemented. He
presides over the meetings of the State' Permanent Secretaries of Education
and represents the Federal Ministry of Education. He also advises the
Minister of Education on matters concerning the Ministry., The Minister's
four heads of division are directly answerable to him.
The Federal Ministry of Education is organized into four divisions, namely
( 4 ) A d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d P o l i c y D i v i s i o n
( 5 ) H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n D i v i s i o n
( 6 ) School s an d Educatio nal Ser vice s Di visi on
( 7 ) T h e i n s p e c t o r a t e d i v i s i o n
Administrative and Policy Division:
This division is headed by a Secretary for Education whose rank is equivalent
to that of a Director of Education. The division is split into the following
sections: Personnel Management, Audit, Planning and Development
Building, Finance and Accounts and Policy Matters. These sections deals
116 NOUN

NOU
with all the money matters of the Ministry. It is concerned with budgetary
proposals, the administration of funds, the control of expenditure and the
payment of grants. In the case of personnel management, all staff matters
such as appointments, promotion staff development, transfers complaints and
petitions leave tenure and retirements are dealt with by this section.
Hizher Education Division:
The higher education division which is headed by a Director of Education,
works in collaboration with the National Universities Commission and the
Joint Admission Matriculation Board (JAMB) to take charge of University
education throughout the country.
The division is also responsible for the Federal Government Technical
Institutions. It is also in charge of vocational and non-formal education.
Student's Affairs and Foreign Education. The division handles all Federal
Government Scholarships.
Schools and Educational Services Division:
This division has responsibility for primary and secondary education, teacher
education and adult education, school libraries, schools broadcasting
examination and test development, vocational guidance and school welfare,
It is also responsible for the preparation of various educational aids as felon
strips, slides, and other teaching aids, and the production of radio and a
television programmes, which is carried out at the National Education
Technology Centre in Kaduna. A Director of Education Heads the Division.
The Inspectorate Division:
The Inspectorate Division is charged with the responsibility of improving and
ensuring quality control of education throughout the Federation by carrying
out regular supervision of schools. Though its area offices located in each of
the states inspects the Federal inspectors of educational institutions in the
State. However the Federal inspectors of Education are directly responsible
to the Director of Education Inspectorate who is also the Head of the
inspectorate Division in the Federal Ministry of Education. The division also
has a national coordinating committee, the Joint Consultative Committee
(JCC) on education, which deal with all. policy issues, especially those strictly
related to professional courses, the certification of teachers, examination and
curriculum charges.
117
N

The Ministry of Education administers two important advisory bodies.
EDA 811
These are the National Council on Education (NCE) and the Joint
Consultative Committee on Education (JCCE) in terms of composition; the
NCE is made up of the Minister and the State Commissioners of Education.
The Council meets in rotation in state capitals including the Federal Capital
Territory, Abuja. Its principal function is to deliberate on contemporary
i s s u e s i n e d u c a t i o n a n d m a k e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s t o t h e M i n i s t e r .
(Government) on the basis of the national objectives of education.
The JCC is composed of professional officers of the Federal and State
Ministries of education, representatives of the Universities, faculties or
departments of Education, the Nigerian Union of Teachers (NUT) and the
National Manpower Board. The Committee considers professional matters
concerning education, such as quality of education remuneration and
discipline of teachers, movement of teachers and students. Like the NCE, it
meets in rotation at Federal and State capitals.
Exericise 1.2
Mention at least three of the division in the Ministry of Education that
is of direct relevance to you.
In terms of organizational hierarchy who is the head of the Ministry?
Well done ! Let us continues
3.1.1 State Ministry of Education
Education at the state level is organized in a manner similar to that of the
Federal Ministry of Education. At the apex of the organizational structure is
the Commissioner of Education, who is usually appointed by the Governor of
the state. Next to him, is the Director-General, who is the head of the Civil
Servants in that Ministry directly responsible to the Director-General is the
Director of Education. The organogram (Organizational chart) of State
Ministry of Education shows major organizational structures that specify
inter-relationships and spheres of responsibilities and interactions among
different positions. Under the Director of Education there are several
departments each headed by Chief Inspector of Education. The departments
are:
(I) Primary;
( 2 ) S e c o n d a r y
( 3 ) A d u l t a n d N o n - F o r m a l E d u c a t i o n ;
( 4 ) S c i e n c e a n d T e c h n o l o g y ;
118 NOUN

EDA 811
( 5 )
( 6 )
( 7 )
R e s e a r c h a n d P l a n n i n g ;
I n s p e c t o r a t e ; a n d
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d G e n e r a l .
There are variation in the organizational structure from one state to the other
but such variations are minor,
The functions of the State Ministry of Education among others include;
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Formulation of educational policies, rules and regulation;
Enactment of educational laws (or edicts) to guide the conduct of the
Ministry in matters related to administration, organization and control
of education;
Planning and development of educational programmes through
research;
Inspection and Supervision of both administrative and academic
components of schools;
Award of bursaries and scholarships to deserving students;
Funding of Educational Institutions including State Universities,
Polytechnics etc.
Coordination and harmonization of educational activities throughout
the state.
3.1.2 State Schools Management Board:
The State Schools Management Board is a corporate body established by the
law (or edict) of the State. It is the arm of the State Ministry of Education,
which has statutory functions of achieving the national objectives of
Education. The establishment of this body demonstrate the principle of
division of labour.
You will recall we mentioned division of labour as an element of bureaucracy
(Max Weber). Throughout the country there is a considerable uniformity in
the organizational structure and functions of the State Schools Boards. The
law establishing the Board determines the composition of the Board. In some
Boards there are six or more members. The Executive Chairman is the
highest member of the Board. Some Boards specify the appointment of a
NOUN 119

EDA 811
(5)
(6)
(7)
Research and Planning;
I n s p e c t o r a t e ; a n d
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d G e n e r a l .
There are variation in the organizational structure from one state to the other
but such variations are minor,
The functions of the State Ministry of Education among others include;
(1) Formulation of educational policies, rules and regulation;
(2) Enactment of educational laws (or edicts) to guide the conduct of the
Ministry in matters related to administration, organization and control
of education;
(3) Planning and development of educational programmes through
research;
(4) Inspection and Supervision of both administrative and academic
components of schools;
(5) Award of bursaries and scholarships to deserving students;
(6) Funding of Educational Institutions including State Universities,
Polytechnics etc.
(7) Coordination and harmonization of educational activities throughout
the state.
3.1.2 State Schools Management Board:
The State Schools Management Board is a corporate body established by the
law (or edict) of the State. It is the arm of the State Ministry of Education,
which has statutory functions of achieving the national objectives of
Education. The establishment of this body demonstrate the principle of
division of labour.
You will recall we mentioned division of labour as an element of bureaucracy
(Max Weber). Throughout the country there is a considerable uniformity in
the organizational structure and functions of the State Schools Boards. The
law establishing the Board determines the composition of the Board. In some
Boards there are six or more members. The Executive Chairman is the
highest member of the Board. Some Boards specify the appointment of a
NOUN

female member of the Board. All the members are appointed by the
Governor of the State. The functions of the Board include;
(I) The recruitment, appointment, posting, promotion, discipline and
transfer of both academic and non-academic staff of government
financial schools
(2) Matters related to inter state transfers and continuity of service;
(3) Da y -to - da y operatio ns o f the Board;
(4) Inspectio n and su per vision o f School s;
(5) B u s i n e s s M a n a g e m e n t o f t h e B o a r d ;
(6) P r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e B o a r d ' s B u d g e t ;
(7) Revenue collection and proper accounting of the Board's Financial
activities.
(8) I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f p o l i c y d e c i s i o n ;
(9) Coordination of the Board's activities, including those of the Zonal
Boards;
(10) P r o v i s i o n o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s e r v i c e s
(11) Remuneration of teachers.
3.1.3 Zonal Schools Board
The Zonal Schools Board comprises of Primary and Post-Primary Schools
located in two or more local government areas. The boards is composed of
five members including its Chairman. All members are appointed by the
State Governor except the supervisory councilor for Education, who is an
elected official. The functions of the Zonal Schools Board include:
(1) Supervision of Primary and Post Primary Schools under its
jurisdiction
(2) Distribution of School equipment and furniture, diaries, register, chalk
etc.
(3) Payment of salaries and allowances of academic and non-academic
staff under its area of control
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EDA 811
(4)
(5)
Investigation of an action on complaints from Schools on members of
the public
Carrying out such other duties and instruction as may from time to
time be detailed to it by the State Schools Board
3.1.4 Local Schools Board
The Constitution delegates the administration of primary schools to the Local
Government in whose area the School is situated. But in practice, the
administration control and funding of Primary Schools is a concurrent
responsibility that is shared by three tiers of government. The Local Schools
Board is headed by the Chief Inspector of Education. Minor variation exists
in the composition of the Board among the States, but usually each Board has
five members. The Board members are appointed by the State Governor.
The functions of the Local Schools Board include:
(I)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Supervision of Primary Schools within its area of authority
Payment of salaries and allowances of both academic and non-
academic staff
Distribution of school equipment, furniture, register, diaries, chalk,
dusters etc.
Investigation in handling of complaints from schools or members of
the public
D e p l o ym e n t a n d t r a n s f e r o f t e a c h e r s .
Handling of minor disciplinary problems of staff of Primary Schools
within its area of authority.
Exercise 1.3
List at least 3 distinct function of the Zonal Schools Board.
4.0 Conclusion
In discussing the business of education it is clear that there is a need to
identify the organizational structure of education in the Federal, State, and
Local Government levels. Although the functions of each of these bodies are
similar, the fact that it gives a distinct explanation of each group's function
goes a long way to justify the need for an effective administration and
efficient plans that will enhance the achievement of goals and objectives of
education. All the various bodies mentioned above work toward achievement
of the natural objectives as state in the content of this unit.
Although the Federal Government has the Constitutional power to direct
education, it cannot do it alone in a country with 37 States, 776 Local
NOUN [I ___ 1211

Governments and a population of 120 million citizens. An educational
administrator certainly needs the knowledge of the workings of these various
bodies and institutions so as to understand the education system in which
he/she functions effectively. Knowledge of these institutions will also assist
educational planners with data and information on the variables needed for
planning purposes.
5.0 Summary
In this Unit we studied the organizational structure of the educational system
in Nigeria. In order that we might understand the structures and their
functions, we examined them in this perspective. The Federal Government
and its functions, the Federal Ministry of Education, its structure and
function. The State Ministries with its structure and function, the Zonal
Schools Boards and Local Schools Board. We have been able to assist
ourselves in broadening our knowledge of the organization and structure of
this Educational Administration Planning in Nigeria.
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
Explain how education is managed by the Zonal Schools Board in your State.
7.0 References
Adetoro, J. E. (1966) A handbook of Education in Nigeria, Ibadan
Constituion of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1979) Lagos: Federal
Government Press, Chapter II, Section 18, Second Schedule Part II,
Item L, Paragraph 27-30
Fafunwa A.B. (1974) A History of Education in Nigeria, London: George
Allen and Urwin
Federal Republic of Nigeria, (1981) National Policy on Education, Lagos:
Federal Ministry of Information
Musaazi J.C.S (1982) T h e T h e o r y a n d P r a c t i c e o f E d u c a t i o n a l
122
Taiwo, C.O. (1'980) The Nigerian Education System Lagos: Thomas
Nelson Nigeria Limited.
NOUN

Unit 17
The Management and control of Education in Nigeria
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
1
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Federal Government Control of Education
3.1 Some Federal National Education Agencies
3.1.1 Foreign and International Bodies
4.0 Conclusions
5.0 Summary
7.0 References
1.0 Introduction
I n Unit 16 we studied organizational structure of the Educational system in
Nigeria : This specifically enable us to have an understanding of the
functions of both the Federal and State governments We also examined the
Federal and State Ministries of Education in terms of their structure and
functions. In this unit, which is also the last in this module, we shall be
studying the Management and control of Education in Nigeria, with other
contents as will be specified in the objectives below:
2.0 Objectives:
By the end of this unit, the students should be able to:
NOUN
(1)
(2)
Examine the control as carried out by the Federal Government.
Identify and discuss other Federal National Education Agencies

Concepts and Theories of Educational Administration and Planning MAP 811
(3) Identify and explain the contributions of foreign and international
bodies.
3.0 Federal Government Control of Education:
In the area of educational management, the Federal Government has set
itself a number of objectives. These objectives involve:
ensuring adequate and effective planning for all education services in
the country:
the provision of effective administrative and management control for
the maintenance and improvement of education system;
ensuring quality control through regular instruction and other
educational services; and
the provision of adequate financial support for all educational services
in the Federation.
In order to achieve these objectives, the Federal Ministry of Education
performs certain functions, It provides general direction for the development
of education throughout the nation. This means that the Ministry administers
the National policy on Education so as to ensure uniform standards of quality
control. It offers advisory and consultancy services to all levels of education
below universities. Much of the advice is given to the state Ministries of
education and Schools through seminars, conferences and workshops.
Through the Federal inspectorate, the Ministry organizes the supervision of
schools for the improvement of the standard of education. another important
functions of the ministry is to organise forums where educational matter are
discussed by the federal and the state educationist for the purpose of
developing national policies on education.
These forums also afford people the opportunity to exchange ideas and
maintain the national standard of education.
The Ministry also coordinate national examinations and provide a central
registry for all teaches.
In addition, the Ministry is responsible for financing education by giving
grants to State Government for the development of education in their area. it
also gives scholarships and bursaries to students and coordinates external aid
for education. the Ministry is also responsible for the establishment and
administration of Federal Government educational institution of secondary
and higher levels which are situated all over the Federation (Musaazi 1982).
124 NOUN

Decree No 20 of 1986; the role of the Federal Ministry of Education in the
control of education in the federation is further elucidated with the
promulgation of Decree No. 20, 'otherwise known and cited as the school
year (variation) Decree 1986. this decree gives additional responsibility to
the Minister of Education.
The school duration (year) Decree empowers the minister to change the
school year calendar from September to June, or July to January/November
or December, with effect from January 1987.
All these are efforts made by the Federal Government to exercise their
control on Education in the Federation.
Exercise 1.1
1.
2.
Why does the Ministry administer the national policy on Education?
Mention two roles of the Federal Ministry in the control of Education.
Well do ne! ! Let u s now co nti n ue
3.1 Some Federal and National Educational Agencies:
Apart from the Federal Ministry of Education, the Federal Government has
established other bodies which are not part of the Ministry of Education, but
which perform useful work in different relevant areas of Education. Below
are some of these bodies and their functions.
(a) National Manpower Board: This is the body responsible for the
coordination of the work of the Ministries concerned with the survey of
manpower needs and development in the country. It works co-
operatively with the Ministries of Education, Labour and Economic
Development. It makes a comprehensive survey of the various levels of
manpower needs, makes projection of future requirements, and provides
information about available manpower. It makes recommendations to the
appropriate Ministries for consideration and implementation.
(b) The West African Examination Council: Established in 1952, the West
African Examination Council is responsible for organizing and
conducting schools and public examination in some West African
Countries, such as Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Gambia and Liberia.
The Council Chief Executive is the Registrar whose headquarters are in
Accra, Sierra Leone, and Bathurst, headed by a Senior Administrative
NOUN 125

Staff. In Nigeria the Council has its offices in all State capitals. The
Federal Ministry of Education through its representatives is in constant
contact with this Council.
(c) The National Board for Evaluation and Measurement: This body has
been set up by the Federal Government, among the other functions of the
Board was the establishment of a National Examination Council (NECO)
to award the Nigerian Secondary School Certificate.
(d) The National Education Research Development Council: It organizes
Educational Research in the country. Information collected by the
council is used in improving the national curriculum programmes. The
Federal Ministry of Education is represented on this Council.
(e) National Universities Commission: The primary objectives of (NUC) are
to ensure the orderly development on University Education in Nigeria to
maintain its high standard and to ensure its adequate funding. Among the
many functions of the NUC are the following:
(i) To advice the head of the Federal Government through the
Minister on the creation of new Universities and other degree
granting Institutions in Nigeria.
26
(ii) To prepare, after consultation with all the State Governments, the
National Manpower Board and such other bodies as it considers
appropriate periodic master plans for the balanced and
coordinated development of Universities in Nigeria, such plans
shall include:
(1) The general programmes to be pursued by the Universities
in order to ensure that they are fully adequate to national
needs and objectives.
(2) The recommendation for t he establi shme nt o f new
Universities as and when considered necessary to inquire
into and advice the Federal Government on the financial
needs both recurrent and capital of University Education in
Nigeria among other functions.
(f) National Teachers Institute: The Institute organizes programmes for in-
service training of practicing teachers. In addition the certification of
Grade II Teachers is also been carried out by the (N.T.I).
NOUN

(g) The National Book Development Council: Its functions include
promoting the development production and distribution of books for all
levels and the encouragement of indigenous authors.
Other bodies and agencies for education are the Joint Admission and
Matriculation Board (JAMB) responsible for organizing national
examinations for adminission into the Universities.
The National Board for Technical Education has the responsibility of
controlling standard in the area of Vocational and Technical Education in
the country.
The last but not the least is the Universal Basic Education (U.B.E). An
Agency established to assist the Federal Government to accomplish its
provisions of basic education to all citizenry.
Exercise 1.2
Mention at least three Federal Agencies of Education that you know.
3.1.1 Foreign and International Bodies
Many foreign Countries have been actively involved in the promotion of
Education in Nigeria, and have offered a wide variety of technical assistance,
including awarding scholarship and bursaries, given grants and loans for
specified educational projects and programmes and providing equipment for
our educational institutions. The main donor countries are Britain and her
agencies such as the British Council, the Inter-University Council and
Overseas Development Ministry, the United State of America and
organizations such as the African-American Institute, the Ford Foundation,
and the Rockefeller Carnegies Corporation. Other donor countries include
Russia, Canada, Germany and France. The United Nations Organization
(UNO) through its agencies (UNICEF, UNESCO, UNDP) has also given
various forms of technical aids to Nigeria for her educational development.
4.0
NOUN
Conclusion
Education is one very important instrument, which the Federal Government
of Nigeria has decided to use to achieve national development. It is therefore
a subject of crucial importance; consequently the main responsibility for the
development of Education in Nigeria rests with the Federal Government. It
is the government that has the means, resources and power to make and carry
out national policies on education to meet the goals and aspiration of the
people. However, the control of education in Nigeria is shared among the
121

Concepts and Theories of Echwational Administration and Planning EDA 811
Federal, State and Local Government. The system of education in the
country is relatively decentralized. The administrative structures in the
ministries of education differ from State to State, but there are more basic
similarities than differences. The political system makes each State
responsible for the organization and administration of Education.
5 . 0 S u m m a r y
In this Unit we studied the management and control of Education in Nigeria.
We examined the control as carried out by the Federal Government with the
application of the National Objectives of Education. Again, we identified
other Federal and National Education agencies much as Manpower Board,
WAEC, NBTE, NUC, Nil, JAMB, and so on. We also discussed the
contribution to education, and lastly we identify other foreign and
international bodies relevant to the development of Education in Nigeria.
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
Carefully examine the management and control functions of the Federal
Government on Education in Nigeria.
7.0 References
Adesina Segun (1981, Introduction to Educational Planning, Ile-Ife:
University of Ife Press.
Constitution of the Federal Republic aof Nigeria (1979), Lagos: Federal
Government Press
Enaohwo J.O. and Eferakoya O.A. (1989) Educational Administration,
lbadan: Paperback Publishers
Federal Republic of Nigeria Official Gazette Decree No. 20 (School
Variation) of 1986
Musaazi J.C.S. (1982) The theor y a nd p ractice o f Educational
Ozigi A.O. ('1977) A handbook on School Administration, lbadan:
Macmillan Press
Taiwo C. 0. (1980) The Nigerian Education System. Past, Present and
Future — Lagois: Thomas Nelson Nigeria Limited.
128 NOUN

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