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![Introduction 3
election, congressman Steve King of Iowa suggested that the United
States build a concrete border wall topped with wire to keep out
migrants, stating, “We could also electrify this wire. . . . We do that
with livestock all the time.”5
Six years later, King gave a speech com-
paring immigrants to dogs.6
In 2010, Tennessee Republican Curry
Todd likened undocumented immigrants to “rats [who] multiply.”
The next year, Kansas state representative Virgil Peck suggested
that migrants be shot like “feral hogs” as a solution to America’s
“illegal immigration problem.”7
Echoing anti-immigrant politicians,
conservative pundits such as Lou Dobbs, Pat Buchanan, Alex Jones,
Rush Limbaugh, and Ann Coulter have built careers—and fostered
an entire industry—
based on attacking migrants, characterizing
immigration as an existential crisis and encouraging the United
States to pursue increasingly restrictive and punitive policies.8
Not only has immigration become increasingly partisan, di-
viding conservatives from liberals, but anti-
immigrant sentiment
has grown so intense that it fractures the American Right itself.
This divide—
between establishment conservatives who favor
neoliberal forms of free trade dependent on an exploitable pool
of immigrant labor and the more restrictive nativist wing—
was
on spectacular display at the 2018 Conservative Political Action
5. See Trip Gabriel, “A Timeline of Steve King’s Racist Remarks and
Divisive Action,” New York Times, January 15, 2019.
6. Comparing the selection of “good immigrants” to dog breed-
ing, King opined, “You want a good bird dog? . . . Pick the one that’s the
friskiest . . . not the one that’s over there sleeping in the corner.” See Glenn
Thrush, “Rep. King Compares Immigrants to Dogs,” Politico, May, 22, 2012;
Stephen Pitti, “Congressman King, Cantaloupe Calves and Drug Mules,”
Huffington Post Latino Voices, July 25, 2013; P. J. Brendese, “Borderline
Epidemics: Latino Immigration and Racial Biopolitics,” Politics, Groups, and
Identities 2, no. 2 (2014): 168–
87.
7. Kevin Murphy, “Kansas Lawmaker Suggests Immigrants Be Shot
Like Hogs,” Reuters, March 25, 2011.
8. See the Anti-
Defamation League Center on Extremism,
“Mainstreaming Hate: The Anti-
Immigrant Movement in the U.S.,”
November 2018.
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![cruelty as citizenship
4
Conference (CPAC), the annual gathering attended by conserva-
tive activists and elected officials from across the United States
and, increasingly, Europe.9
At the only 2018 CPAC panel dedicat-
ed to the topic of immigration, audience members “drown[ed] out
panelists’ presentation of the data about the benefits of immigra-
tion” with boos and jeers:
During a heated question and answer session during the immigra-
tion panel, a man from Four Corners, Virginia, went on an extended
diatribe about a Latino man who once crashed his car in front of his
house. “I had to go down to court to testify, and I was the only white
face in the crowd other than the lawyers being paid to translate for
these people,” he said. “You can go down to Four Corners Park and
see obvious illegal immigrants defecating in the woods, fornicating
in the woods, and on and on and on. These people are not the immi-
grants of the ’20s and ’30s. They will never be able to get good jobs
here and be good citizens. Is that in your study?” . . .
As David Bier, a policy analyst with the libertarian Cato Insti-
tute, attempted to lay out research proving that immigrants actually
have lower crime rates than native-
born Americans, contribute sig-
nificantly to the economy and are assimilating just as well or better
than past generations of immigrations, his fellow panelists derided
his statements as “nutty” and angry audience members shouted him
down. . . . Whenever Bier cited research to counter incorrect claims
from his fellow panelists and the audience that recent immigrants
are disproportionately criminal, are an economic drain on govern-
ment or take several generations to learn English, he was met with
vocal hostility.10
Insisting that today’s immigrants are demographically and racially
threatening (“I was the only white face”), disproportionately crim-
inal, “obviously” illegal, impossible to assimilate, and spectacularly
bestial (“defecating in the woods, fornicating in the woods”), it
9. As is widely known, the international movement of people has
become a political flashpoint, in both the United States and throughout
Europe. For the purposes of this book, my focus is on the U.S. and Latinx
populations, particularly Mexicans and Mexican Americans.
10. Alice Ollstein, “Data Clashes with Emotion as CPAC Immigration
Panel Goes off the Rails,” Talking Points Memo, February 23, 2018.
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- 7. Forerunners: Ideas First Shortbooks of thought- in- process scholarship, where intense analysis, questioning, and speculation take the lead FROM THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA PRESS Cristina Beltrán Cruelty as Citizenship: How Migrant Suffering Sustains White Democracy Hil Malatino Trans Care Sarah Juliet Lauro Kill the Overseer! The Gamification of Slave Resistance Alexis L. Boylan, Anna Mae Duane, Michael Gill, and Barbara Gurr Furious Feminisms: Alternate Routes on Mad Max: Fury Road Ian G. R. Shaw and Marv Waterstone Wageless Life: A Manifesto for a Future beyond Capitalism Claudia Milian LatinX Aaron Jaffe Spoiler Alert: A Critical Guide Don Ihde Medical Technics Jonathan Beecher Field Town Hall Meetings and the Death of Deliberation Jennifer Gabrys How to Do Things with Sensors Naa Oyo A. Kwate Burgers in Blackface: Anti- Black Restaurants Then and Now Arne De Boever Against Aesthetic Exceptionalism Steve Mentz Break Up the Anthropocene John Protevi Edges of the State Matthew J. Wolf- Meyer Theory for the World to Come: Speculative Fiction and Apocalyptic Anthropology This content downloaded from 128.119.168.32 on Thu, 27 Jan 2022 03:48:34 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
- 8. Nicholas Tampio Learning versusthe Common Core Kathryn Yusoff A Billion Black Anthropocenes or None Kenneth J. Saltman The Swindle of Innovative Educational Finance Ginger Nolan The Neocolonialism of the Global Village Joanna Zylinska The End of Man: A Feminist Counterapocalypse Robert Rosenberger Callous Objects: Designs against the Homeless William E. Connolly Aspirational Fascism: The Struggle for Multifaceted Democracy under Trumpism Chuck Rybak UW Struggle: When a State Attacks Its University Clare Birchall Shareveillance: The Dangers of Openly Sharing and Covertly Collecting Data la paperson A Third University Is Possible Kelly Oliver Carceral Humanitarianism: Logics of Refugee Detention P . David Marshall The Celebrity Persona Pandemic Davide Panagia Ten Theses for an Aesthetics of Politics David Golumbia The Politics of Bitcoin: Software as Right- Wing Extremism Sohail Daulatzai Fifty Years of The Battle of Algiers: Past as Prologue Gary Hall The Uberfication of the University Mark Jarzombek Digital Stockholm Syndrome in the Post- Ontological Age (Continued on page 127) This content downloaded from 128.119.168.32 on Thu, 27 Jan 2022 03:48:34 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
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- 10. Cruelty as Citizenship HowMigrant Suffering Sustains White Democracy Cristina Beltrán University of Minnesota Press Minneapolis London This content downloaded from 128.119.168.32 on Thu, 27 Jan 2022 03:48:34 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
- 11. Copyright 2020 byCristina Beltrán All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, elec- tronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Published by the University of Minnesota Press 111 Third Avenue South, Suite 290 Minneapolis, MN 55401- 2520 http://www.upress.umn.edu Available as a Manifold edition at manifold.umn.edu The University of Minnesota is an equal- opportunity educator and employer. This content downloaded from 128.119.168.32 on Thu, 27 Jan 2022 03:48:34 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
- 12. Contents Introduction: Immigration, Latinos,and the Politics of the White Racial Imaginary 1 1. Freedom on the Frontier: White Democracy and America’s Revolutionary Spirit 33 2. A Desire for Land but Not People: Herrenvolk Democracy and the Violent Legacies of the Mexican- American War 65 3. Authorized Violence: Migrant Suffering and Participatory (White) Democracy 91 Conclusion: Migrant Futurity, Divided Whiteness, and the Authoritarian Turn 111 Acknowledgments 125 This content downloaded from 128.119.168.32 on Thu, 27 Jan 2022 03:48:44 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
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- 14. Introduction: Immigration, Latinos, andthe Politics of the White Racial Imaginary The anger was simmering long before Donald Trump. Before his pledge to build a wall at the southern border, before his call for a “deportation force” to round up unauthorized immigrants, be- fore his proposals to deport Dreamers and defund sanctuary cities, before his “zero- tolerance” policy that put children in cages, na- tivist animosity was there.1 Trump began characterizing migrants as agents of contamination long before he dubbed the COVID- 19 pandemic “the Chinese virus”— and then “kung flu”— and exploit- 1. When referring to nativism, I am drawing on political scientist Cas Mudde’s definition as “a xenophobic form of nationalism” that sees both nonnative persons and their alleged ideas as a threat to the nation- state’s culture, security, and economic well- being. See Mudde, The Far Right in America (New York: Routledge, 2017), 89. Yet nativism is not merely preju- dice. As Mudde illustrates, nativism reflects a set of beliefs regarding how the state should be structured, with nativists often seeking “a congruence of state and nation— the political and the cultural unit.” See Uri Friedman, “What Is a Nativist?,” Atlantic, April 11, 2017. As a form of boundary- based nationalism, nativism might initially appear to run counter to America’s understanding of itself as a welcoming “nation of immigrants.” But as scholars have long noted, nativist and right- wing politics have a long history in the United States. For example, particular definitions of whiteness have long shaped America’s exclusionary immigration policies, with laws tar- geting Chinese, Catholics, and Jews as well as a variety of other racialized populations. See historian John Higham’s Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860– 1925 (1955; repr., New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2002). Today, nativism is a core feature of the radical Right, with expressions of populism and authoritarianism tending to “pass through a nativist filter.” See Friedman, “What Is a Nativist?” 1 This content downloaded from 128.119.168.32 on Thu, 27 Jan 2022 03:49:01 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
- 15. cruelty as citizenship 2 edan obscure public health law to deny refugees the ability to ap- ply for asylum.2 Indeed, such vitriolic and dehumanizing rhetoric against mi- grants was already part of our national conversation. In calling Mexicans and other immigrants diseased, rapists, and criminals, Trump merely became the loudest voice with the ugliest, most un- varnished rhetoric.3 Indeed, for anyone paying attention, America has long been witness to a seemingly endless stream of xenophobic and racially charged statements, proposals, and policies targeting migrants— particularly Latinx migrants.4 More than a decade before Trump’s 2. See Julio Ricardo Varela, “As He Bungles This Crisis, Trump Turns to a Familiar Scapegoat: Immigration,” Washington Post, March 23, 2020; “Donald Trump Calls Covid- 19 ‘Kung Flu’ at Tulsa Rally,” Guardian, June 20, 2020; BBC News, “US– Mexico Border: Thousands of Migrants Expelled under Coronavirus Powers,” April 10, 2020; Maria Verza and Ben Fox, “US Expels Thousands to Mexico after Largely Halting Asylum,” AP News, April 9, 2020; Joel Rose, “Immigration Grinds to a Halt as President Trump Shuts Borders,” NPR, March 18, 2020; Tal Axelrod, “Trump Threatens to Withhold Visas for Countries That Don’t Quickly Repatriate Citizens,” Hill, April 10, 2020; Adam Rogers, “Calling the Caravan’s Migrants ‘Diseased’ Is a Classic Xenophobic Move,” Wired, October 31, 2018. 3. For more on the history of race, immigration, and public health, see John Mckiernan-Gonzáles, Fevered Measures: Public Health and Race at the Texas– Mexico Border, 1848– 1942 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2012), and Nayan Shah, Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco’s Chinatown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001). 4. In addition to using the national- origin term Mexican in this work, I also use the terms Latino and Latinx throughout. I use Latinx as the gen- der neutral and nonbinary alternative to Latino. However, when referring to Latinx subjects in plural terms, I will also use the term Latinos, as both terms refer to the diverse group of individuals living in the United States who trace their ancestry to the Spanish- speaking regions of Latin America and the Caribbean. For more on the political and theoretical possibilities of these terms, see Cristina Beltrán, The Trouble with Unity: Latino Politics and the Creation of Identity (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010); Ed Morales, Latinx: The New Force in American Politics and Culture (New York: Verso, 2018); and Claudia Milian, LatinX (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2019). This content downloaded from 128.119.168.32 on Thu, 27 Jan 2022 03:49:01 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
- 16. Introduction 3 election, congressmanSteve King of Iowa suggested that the United States build a concrete border wall topped with wire to keep out migrants, stating, “We could also electrify this wire. . . . We do that with livestock all the time.”5 Six years later, King gave a speech com- paring immigrants to dogs.6 In 2010, Tennessee Republican Curry Todd likened undocumented immigrants to “rats [who] multiply.” The next year, Kansas state representative Virgil Peck suggested that migrants be shot like “feral hogs” as a solution to America’s “illegal immigration problem.”7 Echoing anti-immigrant politicians, conservative pundits such as Lou Dobbs, Pat Buchanan, Alex Jones, Rush Limbaugh, and Ann Coulter have built careers—and fostered an entire industry— based on attacking migrants, characterizing immigration as an existential crisis and encouraging the United States to pursue increasingly restrictive and punitive policies.8 Not only has immigration become increasingly partisan, di- viding conservatives from liberals, but anti- immigrant sentiment has grown so intense that it fractures the American Right itself. This divide— between establishment conservatives who favor neoliberal forms of free trade dependent on an exploitable pool of immigrant labor and the more restrictive nativist wing— was on spectacular display at the 2018 Conservative Political Action 5. See Trip Gabriel, “A Timeline of Steve King’s Racist Remarks and Divisive Action,” New York Times, January 15, 2019. 6. Comparing the selection of “good immigrants” to dog breed- ing, King opined, “You want a good bird dog? . . . Pick the one that’s the friskiest . . . not the one that’s over there sleeping in the corner.” See Glenn Thrush, “Rep. King Compares Immigrants to Dogs,” Politico, May, 22, 2012; Stephen Pitti, “Congressman King, Cantaloupe Calves and Drug Mules,” Huffington Post Latino Voices, July 25, 2013; P. J. Brendese, “Borderline Epidemics: Latino Immigration and Racial Biopolitics,” Politics, Groups, and Identities 2, no. 2 (2014): 168– 87. 7. Kevin Murphy, “Kansas Lawmaker Suggests Immigrants Be Shot Like Hogs,” Reuters, March 25, 2011. 8. See the Anti- Defamation League Center on Extremism, “Mainstreaming Hate: The Anti- Immigrant Movement in the U.S.,” November 2018. This content downloaded from 128.119.168.32 on Thu, 27 Jan 2022 03:49:01 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
- 17. cruelty as citizenship 4 Conference(CPAC), the annual gathering attended by conserva- tive activists and elected officials from across the United States and, increasingly, Europe.9 At the only 2018 CPAC panel dedicat- ed to the topic of immigration, audience members “drown[ed] out panelists’ presentation of the data about the benefits of immigra- tion” with boos and jeers: During a heated question and answer session during the immigra- tion panel, a man from Four Corners, Virginia, went on an extended diatribe about a Latino man who once crashed his car in front of his house. “I had to go down to court to testify, and I was the only white face in the crowd other than the lawyers being paid to translate for these people,” he said. “You can go down to Four Corners Park and see obvious illegal immigrants defecating in the woods, fornicating in the woods, and on and on and on. These people are not the immi- grants of the ’20s and ’30s. They will never be able to get good jobs here and be good citizens. Is that in your study?” . . . As David Bier, a policy analyst with the libertarian Cato Insti- tute, attempted to lay out research proving that immigrants actually have lower crime rates than native- born Americans, contribute sig- nificantly to the economy and are assimilating just as well or better than past generations of immigrations, his fellow panelists derided his statements as “nutty” and angry audience members shouted him down. . . . Whenever Bier cited research to counter incorrect claims from his fellow panelists and the audience that recent immigrants are disproportionately criminal, are an economic drain on govern- ment or take several generations to learn English, he was met with vocal hostility.10 Insisting that today’s immigrants are demographically and racially threatening (“I was the only white face”), disproportionately crim- inal, “obviously” illegal, impossible to assimilate, and spectacularly bestial (“defecating in the woods, fornicating in the woods”), it 9. As is widely known, the international movement of people has become a political flashpoint, in both the United States and throughout Europe. For the purposes of this book, my focus is on the U.S. and Latinx populations, particularly Mexicans and Mexican Americans. 10. Alice Ollstein, “Data Clashes with Emotion as CPAC Immigration Panel Goes off the Rails,” Talking Points Memo, February 23, 2018. This content downloaded from 128.119.168.32 on Thu, 27 Jan 2022 03:49:01 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
- 18. Introduction 5 became clearwhy CPAC organizers had elected to hold only one panel on the issue of immigration: additional events would have made the deep divide among conservatives even more conspic- uous. Yet even at this single event, the split was as unmistakable as it was ontological. Both attendees and even some panelists at CPAC refused to accept not only the accuracy but the very reality of the facts and data presented by the Cato Institute, a libertarian think tank funded by the Charles Koch Foundation. In refusing to grant legitimacy to information and statistics widely understood to be accurate, participants embodied not only the disagreement but the deep incommensurability between certain segments of the GOP establishment and the nativist beliefs of the party’s electoral base. Indeed, for a specific segment of politicians, pundits, activists, and voters, immigrants seem to serve as a kind of affective trigger, touching off paroxysms of rage and frustration regarding what they see as an existential threat to the United States and its economic future, sovereign integrity, and racial and cultural identity. Given this dynamic, a number of questions come to the fore: Why has immigration— particularly from Mexico and Latin America— become such a potent and emotionally galvanizing is- sue for the American Right? What is driving the upsurge in anti- Latinx nativism at this historical moment? And why are Latinos (particularly migrants but often native- born Latinos as well) such an affectively charged population for political conservatives?11 11. Throughout this work, I generally refer to migrants rather than immigrants. The term immigrant generally refers to someone who has moved from one country to another with plans to relocate permanent- ly. Technically, immigrants in the United States generally refers to legal permanent residents, those who hold visas, or those who have become U.S. citizens. By contrast, migrant is a broader term that refers to anyone who is in the process of relocating to another country as well someone who has already moved. The term is inclusive of refugees and asylum seekers as well as people who are still on the move or who have moved to a country but wish to eventually return to their home country. Migrant also makes no ref- erence to legal status. For more on the distinctions between the two terms, see Adrian Vore, “‘Immigrant’ vs. ‘Migrant’: What’s the Difference?,” San This content downloaded from 128.119.168.32 on Thu, 27 Jan 2022 03:49:01 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
- 19. Another Random ScribdDocument with Unrelated Content
- 20. Fig. 4.—Prevention ofWarping. shrinkage. They may be secured either by nailing or screwing, or by glued angle blocks. The dovetail is a most important joint; its most usual forms are illustrated in fig. 3. The mitre dovetail is used in the best work. It will be seen that the dovetail is a tenon, shaped as a wedge, and it is this distinguishing feature which gives it great strength irrespective of glue or screws. It is invaluable in framing together joiners’ fittings; its use in drawers especially provides a good example of its purpose and structure. Fig. 3.—Dovetails. Warping in Wide Boards.—It is necessary to prevent the tendency to warp, twist and split, which boards of great width, or several boards glued together edge to edge, naturally possess. On the other hand, swelling and shrinking due to changes in the humidity of the atmosphere must not be checked, or the result will be
- 21. disastrous. To effectthis end various simple devices are available. The direction of the annular rings in alternate boards may be reversed, and when the boards have been carefully jointed with tongues or dowels and glued up, a hard-wood tapering key, dovetail in section, may be let into a wide dovetail at the back (fig. 4). It must be accurately fitted and driven tightly home, but, of course, not glued. Battens of hard wood may be used for the same purpose, fixed either with hard-wood buttons or by means of brass slots and screws, the slots allowing for any slight movement that may take place. With boards of a substantial thickness light iron rods may be used, holes being bored through the thickness of the boards and rods passed through; the edges are then glued up. This method is very effective and neat in appearance, and is specially suitable when a smooth surface is desired on both sides of the work. Mouldings are used in joinery to relieve plain surfaces by the contrasts of light and shade formed by their members, and to ornament or accentuate those particular portions which the designer may wish to bring into prominence. Great skill and discrimination are required in designing and applying mouldings, but that matter falls to the qualified designer and is perhaps outside the province of the practical workman, whose work is to carry out in an accurate and finished manner the ideas of the draughtsman. The character of a moulding is greatly affected by the nature and appearance of the wood in which it is worked. A section suitable for a hard regularly grained wood, such as mahogany, would probably look insignificant if worked in a softer wood with pronounced markings. Mouldings worked on woods of the former type may consist of small and delicate members; woods of the latter class require bold treatment. The mouldings of joinery, as well as of all other moulded work used in connexion with a building, are usually worked in accordance with full-sized detail drawings prepared by the architect, and are
- 22. Fig. 5.—Mouldings. designed byhim to conform with the style and class of building. There are, however, a number of moulded forms in common use which have particular names; sections are shown of many of these in fig. 5. Most of them occur in the classic architecture of both Greeks and Romans. A striking distinction, however, existed in the mouldings of these two peoples; the curves of the Greek mouldings were either derived from conic sections or drawn in freehand, while in typical Roman work the curved components were segments of a circle. Numerous examples of the use of these forms occur in ordinary joinery work, and may be recognized on reference to the illustrations, which will be easily understood without further description. Mouldings may be either stuck or planted on. A stuck moulding is worked directly on to the framing it is used to ornament; a planted moulding is separately worked and fixed in position with nails or screws. Beads and other small mouldings should always be stuck; larger ones are usually planted on. In the case of mouldings planted on panelled work, the nails should be driven through the moulding into the style or rail of the framing, and on no account into the panel. By adopting the former method the panel is free to shrink—as it undoubtedly will do—without altering the good appearance of the work, but should the moulding be fixed to the panel it will, when the
- 23. latter shrinks, bepulled out of place, leaving an unsightly gap between it and the framing. Flooring.—When the bricklayer, mason and carpenter have prepared the carcase of a building for the joiner, one of the first operations is that of laying the floor boards. They should have been stacked under cover on the site for some considerable time, in order to be thoroughly well seasoned when the time to use them arrives. The work of laying should take place in warm dry weather. The joints of flooring laid in winter time or during wet weather are sure to open in the following summer, however tightly they may be cramped up during the process of laying. An additional expense will then be incurred by the necessity of filling in the opened joints with wood slips glued and driven into place. Boards of narrow width are better and more expensive than wide ones. They may be of various woods, the kinds generally preferred, on account of their low comparative cost and ease of working, being yellow deal and white deal. White deal or spruce is an inferior wood, but is frequently used with good results for the floors of less important apartments. A better floor is obtained with yellow deal, which, when of good quality and well seasoned, is lasting and wears well. For floors where a fine appearance is desired, or which will be subjected to heavy wear, some harder and tougher material, such as pitch pine, oak, ash, maple or teak, should be laid. These woods are capable of taking a fine polish and, finished in this way, form a beautiful as well as a durable floor. Many of the side joints illustrated in fig. 1 are applied to flooring boards, which, however, are not usually glued up. The heart side of the board should be placed downwards so that in drying the tendency will be for the edges to press more tightly to the joists instead of curling upwards. The square joint should be used only on ground floors; if it is used for the upper rooms, dust and water will
- 24. drop through thecrevices and damage the ceiling beneath. Dowelled joints are open to the same objection. One of the best and most economical methods is the ploughed and tongued joint. The tongue may be of hard wood or iron, preferably the latter, which is stronger and occupies very narrow grooves. The tongue should be placed as near the bottom of the board as is practicable, leaving as much wearing material as possible. Two varieties of secret joints are shown in fig. 1.—the splayed, rebated, grooved and tongued, and the rebated, grooved and tongued. Owing to the waste of material in forming these joints and the extra labour involved in laying the boards, they are costly and are only used when it is required that no heads of nails or screws should appear on the surface. The heading joints of flooring are often specified to be splayed or bevelled, but it is far better to rebate them. Wood block floors are much used, and are exceedingly solid. The blocks are laid directly on a smoothed concrete bed or floor in a damp-proof mastic having bitumen as its base; this fulfils the double purpose of preventing the wood from rotting, and securing the blocks in their places. To check any inclination to warp and rise, however, the edges of the blocks in the better class of floors are connected by dowels of wood or metal, or by a tongued joint. The blocks may be from 1 to 3 in. thick, and are usually 9 or 12 in. long by 3 in. wide. Parquet floors are made of hard woods of various kinds, laid in patterns on a deal sub-floor, and may be of any thickness from ¼ to 1¼ in. Great care should be taken in laying the sub-floor, especially for the thinner parquet. The boards should be in narrow widths of well-seasoned stuff and well nailed, for any movement in the sub- floor due to warping or shrinking may have disastrous results on the parquet which is laid upon it. Plated parquet consists of selected hard woods firmly fixed on a framed deal backing. It is made in
- 25. Fig. 6.—Built- up Skirting tonguedto floor. sections for easy transport, and these are fitted together in the apartment for which they are intended. When secured to the joists these form a perfect floor. Skirtings.—In joinery, the skirting is a board fixed around the base of internal walls to form an ornamental base for the wall (see fig. 7). It also covers the joint between the flooring and the wall, and protects the base of the wall from injury. Skirtings may be placed in two classes—those formed from a plain board with its upper edge either left square or moulded, and those formed of two or more separate members and termed a built-up skirting (fig. 6). Small angle fillets or mouldings are often used as skirtings. The skirting should be worked so as to allow it to be fixed with the heart side of the wood outwards; any tendency to warp will then only serve to press the top edge more closely to the wall. In good work a groove should be formed in the floor and the skirting tongued into it so that an open joint is avoided should shrinkage occur. The skirting should be nailed only near the top to wood grounds fixed to wood plugs in the joints of the brickwork. These grounds are about ¾ to 1 in. thick, i.e. the same thickness as the plaster, and are generally splayed or grooved on the edge to form a key for the plaster. A rough coat of plaster should always be laid on the wall behind the skirting in order to prevent the space becoming a harbourage for vermin.
- 27. Fig. 7. Dados.—A dado,like a skirting, is useful both in a decorative and a protective sense. It is filled in to ornament and protect that portion of the wall between the chair or dado rail and the skirting. It may be of horizontal boards battened at the back and with cross tongued and glued joints, presenting a perfectly smooth surface, or of matched boarding fixed vertically, or of panelled framing. The last method is of course the most ornate and admits of great variety of design. The work is fixed to rough framed wood grounds which are nailed to plugs driven into the joints of the brickwork. Fig. 7 shows an example of a panelled dado with capping moulding and skirting. A picture rail also is shown; it is a small moulding with the top edge grooved to take the metal hooks from which pictures are hung. Walls are sometimes entirely sheathed with panelling, and very fine effects are obtained in this way. The fixing is effected to rough grounds in a manner similar to that adopted in the case of dados. In England the architects of the Tudor period made great use of oak framing, panelled and richly carved, as a wall covering and decoration, and many beautiful examples may be seen in the remaining buildings of that period. Windows.—The parts of a window sash are distinguished by the same terms as are applied to similar portions of ordinary framing, being formed of rails and styles, with sash bars rebated for glazing. The upright sides are styles; the horizontal ones, which are tenoned into the styles, are rails (fig. 7). Sashes hung by one of their vertical edges are called casements (fig. 8). They are really a kind of glazed door and sometimes indeed are used as such, as for example French casements (fig. 9). They may be made to open either outwards or inwards. It is very difficult with the latter to form perfectly water-tight joints; with those
- 28. opening outwards thetrouble does not exist to so great an extent. This form of window, though almost superseded in England by the case frame with hung sashes, is in almost universal use on the Continent. Yorkshire sliding sashes move in a horizontal direction upon grooved runners with the meeting styles vertical. They are little used, and are apt to admit draughts and wet unless efficient checks are worked upon the sashes and frames. Fig. 8.—Casement window fitted with shutters. Lights in a position difficult of access are often hung on centre pivots. An example of this method is shown in fig. 8; metal pivots are fixed to the frame and the sockets in which these pivots work are screwed to the sash. Movement is effected by means of a cord
- 29. fixed so thata slight pull opens or closes the window to the desired extent, and the cord is then held by being tied to, or twisted round, a small metal button or clip, or a geared fanlight opener may be used. For the side sashes of lantern lights and for stables and factories this form of window is in general use. Fig. 9.—Details of French Casement to open inwards. In the British Isles and in America the most usual form of window is the cased frame with double hung sliding sashes. This style has many advantages. It is efficient in excluding wet and draughts, ventilation may be easily regulated and the sashes can be lowered and raised with ease without interference with any blinds, curtains or other fittings, that may be applied to the windows. In the ordinary window of this style, however, difficulty is experienced in cleaning the external glass without assuming a dangerous position on the sill, but there are many excellent inventions now on the market which obviate this difficulty by allowing—usually on the removal of a small thumb-screw—the reversal of the sash on a pivot or hinge. For a small extra cost these arrangements may be provided; they will be greatly appreciated by those who clean the windows. The cased frames are in the form of boxes to enclose the iron or lead weights which balance the sashes (fig. 7), and consist of a pulley style—which takes the wear of the sashes and is often of hard wood on this account—an inside lining, and an outside lining; these three members are continued to form the head of the frame.
- 30. The sashes areconnected with the weights by flax lines working over metal pulleys fixed in the pulley styles. For heavy sashes with plate glass, chains are sometimes used instead of lines. Access to the weights for the purpose of fitting new cords is obtained by removing the pocket piece. A thin back lining is provided to the sides only and is not required in the head. The sill is of oak weathered to throw off the water. A parting bead separates the sashes, and the inside bead keeps them in position. A parting slip hung from the head inside the cased frame separates the balancing weights and ensures their smooth working. The inside lining is usually grooved to take the elbow and soffit linings, and the window board is fitted into a groove formed in the sill. The example shown in fig. 7 has an extra deep bottom rail and bead; this enables the lower sash to be raised so as to permit of ventilation between the meeting rails without causing a draught at the bottom of the sash. This is a considerable improvement upon the ordinary form, and the cost of constructing the sashes in this manner is scarcely greater. Bay windows with cased frames and double hung sashes often require the exercise of considerable ingenuity in their construction in order that the mullions shall be so small as not to intercept more light than necessary; at the same time the sashes must work easily and the whole framing be stable and strong. The sills should be mitred and tongued at the angles and secured by a hand-rail bolt. Frequently it is not desired to hang all the sashes of a bay window, the side lights being fixed. To enable smaller angle mullions to be obtained, the cords of the front windows may be taken by means of pulleys over the heads of the side lights and attached to counter- balance weights working in casings at the junction of the window with the wall. This enables solid angle mullions to be employed. If all the lights are required to be hung the difficulty may be surmounted by hanging two sashes to one weight. Lead weights take up less space than iron, and are used for heavy sashes.
- 31. In framing andfixing skylights and lantern lights also great care is necessary to ensure the result being capable of resisting rough weather and standing firm in high winds. Glue should not be used in any of the joints, as it would attract moisture from the atmosphere and set up decay. Provision must be made for the escape of the water which condenses on and runs down the under side of the glass, by means of a lead-lined channelled moulding, provided with zinc or copper pipe outlets. The skylight stands on a curb raised at least 6 in. to allow of the exclusion of rain by proper flashing. The sashes of the lantern usually take the form of fixed or hung casements fitted to solid mullions and angle posts which are framed into and support a solid head. The glazed framing of the roof is made up of moulded sash bars framed to hips and ridges of stronger section, these rest on the head, projecting well beyond it in order to throw off the water. Shutters for domestic windows have practically fallen into disuse, but a reference to the different forms they may take is perhaps necessary. They may be divided into two classes—those fixed to the outside of the window and those fixed inside. They may be battened, panelled or formed with louvres, the latter form admitting air and a little light. External shutters are generally hung by means of hinges to the frame of the window: when the window is set in a reveal these hinges are necessarily of special shape, being of large projection to enable the shutters to fold back against the face of the wall. Internally fixed shutters may be hinged or may slide either vertically or horizontally. Hinged folding boxed shutters are shown in the illustration of a casement window (fig. 8), where the method of working is clearly indicated; they are usually held in position by means of a hinged iron bar secured with a special catch. Lifting shutters are usually fitted in a casing formed in the window back, and the window board is hinged to lift up, to allow the shutters to be raised by means of rings fixed in their upper edges. The shutters are
- 32. balanced by weightsenclosed with casings in the manner described for double hung sashes. The panels are of course filled in with wood and not glazed. The shutters are fixed by means of a thumb-screw through the meeting rails, the lower sash being supported on the window board which is closed down when the sashes have been lifted out. Shutters sliding horizontally are also used in some cases, but they are not so convenient as the forms described above. Shop-fronts.—The forming of shop-fronts may almost be considered a separate branch of joiner’s work. The design and construction are attended by many minor difficulties, and, the requirements greatly varying with almost every trade, careful study and close attention to detail are necessary. In the erection of shop- fronts, in order to allow the maximum width of glass with the minimum amount of obstruction, many special sections of sash bars and stanchions are used, the former often being reinforced by cast iron or steel of suitable form. For these reasons the construction of shop-fronts and fittings has been specialized by makers having a knowledge of the requirements of different trades and with facilities for making the special wood and metal fittings and casings necessary. Fig. 10 shows an example of a simple shop-front in Spanish mahogany with rolling shutters and spring roller blind; it indicates the typical construction of a front, and reference to it will inform the reader on many points which need no further description. The London Building Act. 1894 requires the following regulations to be complied with in shop-fronts:—(1) In streets of a width not greater than 30 ft. a shop-front may project 5 in. beyond the external wall of the building to which it belongs, and the cornice may project 13 in. (2) In streets of a width greater than 30 ft., the projections of the shop-front may be 10 in. and of the cornice 18 in. beyond the building line. No woodwork of any shop-front shall be fixed higher than 25 ft. above the level of the public pavement. No woodwork shall be fixed nearer than 4 in. to the centre of the party
- 33. wall. The pierof brick or stone must project at least an inch in front of the woodwork. These by-laws will be made clear on reference to fig. 10, which is of a shop-front designed to face on to a road more than 30 ft. wide. Rolling shutters for shop-fronts are made by a number of firms, and are usually the subject of a separate estimate, being fixed by the makers themselves. The shutter consists of a number of narrow strips of wood, connected with each other by steel bands hinged at every joint, or it may be formed in iron or steel. This construction allows it to be coiled upon a cylinder containing a strong spring and usually fixed on strong brackets behind the fascia. The shutter is guided into position by the edges working in metal grooves a little under an inch wide. When the width of the opening to be closed renders it necessary to divide the shutters into more than one portion, grooved movable pilasters are used, and when the shutters have to be lowered these are fixed in position with bolts, the shutter working on the grooved edges of the pilasters. Spring roller canvas blinds work on a similar principle. The wrought-iron blind arms are capable, when the blind is extended, of being pushed up by means of a sliding arrangement, and fixed with a pin at a level high enough to allow foot passengers to pass along the pavement under them.
- 36. Fig. 10.—Shop-front. Doors.—External doorsare usually hung to solid frames placed in the reveals of the brick or stone wall. The frames are rebated for the door and ornamented by mouldings either stuck or planted on. The jambs or posts are tenoned, wedged and glued to the head, and the feet secured to the sill by stub tenons or dowels of iron. Solid window frames are of similar construction and are used chiefly for casements and sashes hung on centres as already described. Internal doors are hung to jamb linings (fig. 7). They are usually about 1½ in. thick and rebated for the door. When the width of jamb allows it, panelling may be introduced as in the example shown. The linings are nailed or screwed to rough framed grounds 1 in. in thickness plugged or nailed to the wall or partition. Architraves are the borders or finishing mouldings fixed around a window or door opening, and screwed or nailed to wood grounds. They are variously moulded according to the fancy of the designer. The ordinary form of architrave is shown in the illustration of a cased window frame (fig. 8), and a variation appears in the combined architrave and over door frieze and capping fitted around the six- panelled door (fig. 7). The latter would need to be worked and framed in the shop and fixed entire. Polished hard wood architraves may be secretly fixed, i.e. without the heads of nails or screws showing on the face, by putting screws into the grounds with their heads slightly projecting, and hanging the moulding on them by means of keyhole slots formed in the back. Doors may be made in a variety of ways. The simplest form, the common ledged door, consists of vertical boards with plain or matched joints nailed to horizontal battens which correspond to the rails in framed doors. For openings over 2 ft. 3 in. wide, the doors should be furnished with braces. Ledged and braced doors are
- 37. Fig. 11.—Forms of Panelling. similar,but have, in addition to the ledges at the back, oblique braces which prevent any tendency of the door to drop. The upper end of the brace is birdsmouthed into the under side of the rail near the lock edge of the door and crosses the door in an oblique direction to be birdsmouthed into the upper edge of the rail below, near the hanging edge of the door. This is done between each pair of rails. Framed ledged and braced doors are a further development of this form of door. The framing consists of lock and hanging styles, top, middle and bottom rails, with oblique braces between the rails. These members are tenoned together and the door sheathed with boarding. The top rail and styles are the full thickness of the door, the braces and middle and bottom rails being less by the thickness of the sheathing boards, which are tongued into the top rail and styles and carried down over the other members to the bottom of the door. The three forms of door described above are used mainly for temporary purposes, and stables, farm buildings and outhouses of all descriptions. They are usually hung by wrought-iron cross garnet or strap hinges fixed with screws or through bolts and nuts. The doors in dwelling-houses and other buildings of a like character are commonly framed and panelled in one of the many ways possible. The framing consists of styles, rails and muntins or mountings, and these members are grooved to receive and hold the panels, which are inserted previously to the door being glued and wedged up. The common forms are doors in four or six rectangular panels, and although they may be made with any form and number of panels, the principles of construction remain the same. The example shown in fig. 7 is of a six-panel
- 38. Fig. 12.—Joints. door, withbolection moulded raised panels on one side, and moulded and flat panels on the other (fig. 11). A clear idea of the method of jointing the various members may be obtained from fig. 12. The tongues of raised panels should be of parallel thickness, the bevels being stopped at the moulding. The projecting ends or horns of the styles are cut off after the door has been glued and wedged, as they prevent the ends of the styles being damaged by the wedging process. Where there is a great deal of traffic in both directions swing doors, either single or double, are used. To open them it is necessary simply to push, the inconvenience of turning a handle and shutting the door after passing through being avoided, as a spring causes the door to return to its original position without noise. They are usually glazed and should be of substantial construction. The door is hinged at the top on a steel pivot; the bottom part fits into a metal shoe connected with the spring, which is placed in a box fixed below the floor. For large entrances, notably for hotels and banks, a form of door working on the turnstile principle is frequently adopted. It is formed of four leaves fixed in the shape of a cross and working on top and bottom central ball-bearing steel pivots, in a circular framing which
- 39. forms a kindof vestibule. The leaves of the door are fitted with slips of india-rubber at their edges which, fitting close to the circular framing, prevent draughts. When an elegant appearance is desired, and it is at the same time necessary to keep the cost of production as low as possible, doors of pine or other soft wood are sometimes covered with a veneer or thin layer of hard wood, such as oak, mahogany or teak, giving the appearance of a solid door of the better material. Made in the ordinary way, however, the shrinkage or warping of the soft wood is very liable to cause the veneer to buckle and peel off. Veneered doors made on an improved method obviating this difficulty have been placed on the market by a Canadian company. The core is made up of strips of pine with the grain reversed, dried at a temperature of 200° F., and glued up under pressure. Both the core and the hard wood veneer are grooved over their surfaces, and a special damp-resisting glue is applied; the two portions are then welded together under hydraulic pressure. By reason of their construction these doors possess the advantages of freedom from shrinking, warping and splitting, defects which are all too common in the ordinary veneered and solid hard wood doors. The best glue for internal woodwork is that made in Scotland. Ordinary animal glue should not be used in work exposed to the weather as it absorbs damp and thus hastens decay; in its place a compound termed beaumontique, composed of white lead, linseed oil and litharge, should be employed. Church Work.—Joinery work in connexion with the fitting up of church interiors must be regarded as a separate branch of the joiner’s art. Pitchpine is often used, but the best work is executed in English oak; and when the screens, stalls and seating are well designed and made in this material, a distinction and dignity of effect are added to the interior of the church which cannot be
- 40. obtained in anyother medium. The work is often of the richest character, and frequently enriched with elaborate carving (fig. 13). Many beautiful specimens of early work are to be seen in the English Gothic cathedrals and churches; good work of a later date will be found in many churches and public buildings erected in more recent years. Fine examples of Old English joinery exist at Hampton Court Palace, the Temple Church in London, the Chapel of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey, and Haddon Hall. Specimens of modern work are to be seen in Beverley Minster in Yorkshire, the Church of St Etheldreda in Ely Place, London, and the Wycliffe Hall Chapel at Oxford. Other examples both ancient and modern abound in the country. Carving is a trade apart from ordinary joinery, and requires a special ability and some artistic feeling for its successful execution. But even in this work machinery has found a place, and carved ornaments of all descriptions are rapidly wrought with its aid. Small carved mouldings especially are evolved in this manner, and, being incomparably cheaper than those worked by manual labour, are used freely where a rich effect is desired. Elaborately carved panels also are made by machines and a result almost equal to work done entirely by hand is obtained if, after machinery has done all in its power, the hand worker with his chisels and gouges puts the finishing touches to the work. Ironmongery.—In regard to the finishing of a building, no detail calls for greater consideration than the selection and accurate fixing of suitable ironmongery, which includes the hinges, bolts, locks, door and window fittings, and the many varieties of metal finishings required for the completion of a building. The task of the selection belongs to the employer or the architect; the fixing is performed by the joiner.
- 41. Fig. 13. Of hinges,the variety termed butts are in general use for hanging doors, and are so called from being fitted to the butt edge of the door. They should be of wrought iron, cast-iron butts being liable to snap should they sustain a shock. Lifting butts are made with a
- 42. removable pin toenable the door to be removed and replaced without unscrewing. Rising butts have oblique joints which cause the door to rise and clear a thick carpet and yet make a close joint with the floor when shut. Hinges of brass or gun-metal are used in special circumstances. Common forms of hinges used on ledged doors are the cross garnet and the strap. There are many varieties of spring hinges designed to bring the door automatically to a desired position. With such hinges a rubber stop should be fixed on the floor or other convenient place to prevent undue strain through the door being forced back. Among locks and fastenings the ordinary barrel or tower bolt needs no description. The flush barrel is a bolt let in flush with the face of a door. The espagnolette is a development of the tower bolt and extends the whole height of the door; a handle at a convenient height, when turned, shooting bolts at the top and bottom simultaneously. Their chief use is for French casements. The padlock is used to secure doors by means of a staple and eye. The stock lock is a large rim lock with hard wood casing and is used for stables, church doors, &c.; it is in the form of a dead lock opened only by a key, and is often used in conjunction with a Norfolk latch. The metal cased rim lock is a cheap form for domestic and general use. The use of a rim lock obviates the necessity of forming a mortice in the thickness of the door which is required when a mortice lock is used. Finger plates add greatly to the good appearance of a door, and protect the painted work. Sash fasteners are fixed at the meeting rails of double hung sashes to prevent the window being opened from the outside and serve also to clip the two sashes tightly together. They should be of a pattern to resist the attack of a knife inserted between the rails. Sash lifts and pulls of brass or bronze are fitted to large sashes. Ornamental casement stays and fasteners in many different metals are made in numerous designs and styles.
- 43. Fanlight openers forsingle lights, or geared for a number of sashes, may be designed to suit positions difficult of access. The following are the principal books of reference on this subject: J. Gwilt, Encyclopaedia of Architecture; Sutcliffe, Modern House Construction; Rivington, Notes on Building Construction (3 vols.); H. Adams, Building Construction; C. F. Mitchell, Building Construction; Robinson, Carpentry and Joinery; J. P. Allen, Practical Building Construction; J. Newlands, Carpenter and Joiner’s Assistant; Bury, Ecclesiastical Woodwork; T. Tredgold and Young, Joinery; Peter Nicholson, Carpenter and Joiner’s Assistant.
- 44. (J ) JOINT (throughFr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join), that which joins two parts together or the place where two parts are joined. (See Joinery; Joints.) In law, the word is used adjectivally as a term applied to obligations, estates, &c., implying that the rights in question relate to the aggregate of the parties joined. Obligations to which several are parties may be several, i.e. enforceable against each independently of the others, or joint, i.e. enforceable only against all of them taken together, or joint and several, i.e. enforceable against each or all at the option of the claimant (see Guarantee). So an interest or estate given to two or more persons for their joint lives continues only so long as all the lives are in existence. Joint-tenants are co-owners who take together at the same time, by the same title, and without any difference in the quality or extent of their respective interests; and when one of the joint-tenants dies his share, instead of going to his own heirs, lapses to his co-tenants by survivorship. This estate is therefore to be carefully distinguished from tenancy in common, when the co- tenants have each a separate interest which on death passes to the heirs and not to the surviving tenants. When several take an estate together any words or facts implying severance will prevent the tenancy from being construed as joint.
- 46. *** END OFTHE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "JEVONS, STANLEY" TO "JOINT" *** Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed. Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. START: FULL LICENSE
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